HOW TO UNDERSTAND THE WORKINGS OF RADIO CONTROL

By: Roger Carignan

This article resulted from a workshop hosted by a member of our R/C model club, the 495th R/C Squadron. I was asked to make a presentation in simple terms on the workings of our radio systems. The modelers attending this workshop comprised some newcomers to the hobby as well as some seasoned members that were interested in learning how these unique electronic marvels work. I have limited the article scope by not covering historical development of R/C, recent state-of the art advancements, or extensive component level details. THE TRANSMITTER A transmitter is a generator of an alternating voltage. Transmission of this signal through space occurs when connected to a matching antenna. A quarterwavelength antenna at R/C frequencies is about 3.4 feet long; at 60 Hz power line frequency, nearly 800 miles. One Hz is one cycle per second. This signal, by itself, cannot send information except to indicate there is a radiation source and it is coming from some point (a beacon). This unchanging signal at radio frequencies is the RF carrier. In order to transmit information, some characteristic of the transmitted signal must change; this is modulation. Modulation can be in the form of on-off switching (keying) of the signal or changing its frequency; see figure 1.
FIGURE 1 Whether the modulation scheme is TWO TYPES OF MODULATION FOR R/C either amplitude (AM) or frequency (FM), the method of transmitting control information is the same; i.e. modulating pulses that determine control information causes either an amplitude or a frequency change in the RF carrier. AM and FM are ON-OFF KEYING (AM) the types of modulation commonly used in model radio control. Terms that we read in descriptions of radio control such as PPM (pulse position modulation) and PCM (pulse code modulation) are not really methods of FREQUENCY SHIFT (FM) modulation but methods of transmitting the control signals; PPM and PCM transmitters use amplitude or frequency modulation.
VOLTAGE TIME VOLTAGE TIME

What is correctly stated in these terms is the P for pulse. All control information is sent in the form of either discrete on-off of the RF amplitude in the case of AM or a step shift of frequency in the case of FM. The first multi-channel digital R/C systems, and most of todays, utilize a series of pulses to define the controlling signals for each servo channel. Figure 2 depicts a typical train of pulses from a five-channel transmitter; the total FIGURE 2 number of pulses in the train is one TYPICAL PPM TRANSMITTER PULSE TRAIN REPEAT more than the number of control SYNC. PA PERIOD channels. The train of pulses is followed by a longer period; this is to identify which pulse is the start of the first TIME channel and is called the 4 5 3 1 2 synchronization pause or sync-pause CHANNELS for short. In PPM systems, each pulse has CH 1 a length in time of about a quarter millisecond (mS). Spacing between CH 2 the start of each pulse can vary CH 3 between one and two mS and defines the pulse width sent to each servo CH 4 channel. Movement of the transmitters controls change the CH 5 position in time of the transmitted pulses and result in change of the SERVO SIGNAL PULSES respective servo control pulses. Since the pulse positions change to effect servo control, this is commonly called PPM or pulse position modulation. The particular settings depicted in figure 2 show channels 1,2, and 4 at neutral, channel 3 at maximum and channel 5 at minimum pulse widths. This may be a snapshot in time where the positions of aileron, elevator and rudder are at neutral, the throttle is at maximum and the landing gear or flaps are at minimum. The particular control function that each channel controls is determined by the transmitter manufacturer and varies among several brands of radios. Each pulse train repeats at about 50 times per second. Figure 3a is a simplified block diagram of a typical R/C transmitter. Most of todays transmitters use potentiometers, a resistor with a moveable tap point, attached to each channels control. These vary the voltage applied to the encoders input for each channel. The encoder converts these voltages into time delays that change the position of each pulse in the train commensurate with the controlled channel. The encoders signal output drives the modulator (AM or FM) and the modulated signal with encoding is amplified and applied to the antenna for transmission.
AMPLITUDE OR FREQUENCY

From the simplest to the most FIGURE 3A ANTENNA R/C TRANSMITTER BLOCK DIAGRAM sophisticated, so-called computer, + transmitters, the block diagram of figure 3a still applies; the difference is CH 1 CH 2 RF in the encoders complexity. In ENCODER CH 3 AMPLIFIER CH 4 computer radios, processing of the CH 5 control inputs allow many combinations of servo travel adjustment and neutral position FIGURE 3B ANTENNA R/C TRANSMITTER WITH TRAINER BOX settings as well as various mixing + INSTRUCTOR options between the controls. Many of TRANSMITTER TRAINER CH 1 these radios also have setup memories SWITCH RF CH 2 ENCODER for saving several model AMPLIFIER CH 3 CH 4 configurations. CH 5 PCM transmitters have INTERCONNECTING + encoders that convert the control CABLE inputs to a binary number that is sent CH 1 STUDENT CH 2 to the modulator as a series of pulses. CONTROL ENCODER CH 3 BOX This binary number has all the CH 4 CH 5 information needed to define each of the servo channels properties. The receiver decodes this information and sends the appropriate servo pulse width to each servo. Figure 3b shows how a Buddy Box trainer function operates. The trainer control box has its encoder output connected through a cable and to a switch in the master transmitter. When the instructor holds the trainer switch on, the students encoder output connects to the master transmitters modulator thus controlling the model. Upon release of the trainer switch, the instructor regains control.
o o o

THE RECEIVER Signals from the transmitter excite the receivers input through the receivers antenna. Receivers have means of providing frequency selectivity in order to reject signals that are in adjacent bands. This selectivity is typically in the form of resonant circuits tuned to the received frequency. To achieve high receiver gain without oscillation due to feedback from the later amplifier stages, a superheterodyne receiver technique is used. This type receiver uses a local oscillator to generate a signal that mixes with the incoming signal to produce sum and difference frequencies between the incoming and local oscillator frequencies. Figure 4a shows a block diagram of a single conversion receiver. For our R/C receivers, resonant crystals control the local oscillator frequency. A tuned circuit that follows the mixer selects the lower frequency output of the mixer; this is called the intermediate frequency (IF) and is typically 455 kHz (0.455 MHz).

Another important advantage of FIGURE 4a the surperheterodyne receiver is SINGLE CONVERSION RECEIVER improved selectivity. Since the bandwidth of a tuned circuit relates to its center frequency, use of a lower intermediate frequency provides an inherent narrow-banding proportional to the ratio of the IF to the received frequency. FIGURE 4b One disadvantage of such a low IF DOUBLE CONVERSION RECEIVER is that the receiver may detect what is called the image frequency that is located exactly the intermediate frequency on the other side of the local oscillator frequency. For example, if the local oscillator is 71.545 MHz and the IF is 0.455 MHz, frequencies of 72.000 and 71.090 will be detected unless a selective circuit suppresses the unwanted signal. Single conversion receivers must have very selective receive frequency circuits to reduce the image frequency response. Dual conversion receivers correct the problem of response to image frequencies. Figure 4b shows a block diagram of a dual conversion receiver. In these receivers, two local oscillators and two mixers are used. The first mixer uses a local oscillator frequency to provide an IF of typically 10.7 MHz. Since the image frequency of this mixer is 10.7 MHz away from the local oscillator, the input selective circuits are much more effective in reducing image frequency response. A second local oscillator and mixer follow the first mixer; this typically provides a 455 kHz IF with its inherent narrow banding characteristics. Following the last IF stage, a detector (either AM or FM) converts the modulation to a signal that replicates the transmitters encoder output to the modulator previously described. A decoder circuit in the receiver follows the detector. This is typically an integrated circuit microcontroller specifically designed to convert the detected receiver signal into the individual signal pulses for each servo channel.
72.00 MHZ 0.455 MHZ IF

RF AMP.

MIXER

AMP.

DETECTOR

DECODER

TO SERVOS

LOCAL OSC.

71.545 MHZ

72.00 MHZ

10.7 MHZ FIRST IF AMP.

0.455 MHZ SECOND IF AMP.

RF AMP.

FIRST MIXER

SECOND MIXER

FIRST LOCAL OSC.

SECOND LOCAL OSC.

61.30 MHZ

11.155 MHZ

DETECTOR

DECODER

TO SERVOS

THE SERVOS Servos are the muscle of our systems and perform a function similar to how a human pilot moves the control surfaces in a full-sized aircraft. Each servo control channel of the system provides dedicated control of specific aircraft axes of movement or other function such as throttle (speed) control. Mechanics of servos are not complex and comprise a DC electric motor, gear reduction, and either a rotary arm or linear output.

As such, operating the servo motor would cause the output to travel to its mechanical stop. The motor would continue to draw current until disconnected. Reversing the motors polarity would cause output arm motion in the opposite direction to its other mechanical stop. Each servo receives an input signal pulse width that can vary from one to two milliseconds; a pulse width of 1.5 milliseconds is the servos neutral position. These values will change to some degree by the transmitters settings of servo travel end points and neutral trim. Proportional control of the servos output requires the following: 1) A signal indicating the objective output arm position 2) Some indication of the actual output arm position 3) A method of determining the error between 1 and 2 and applying a voltage to the motor of the proper polarity to reduce the error. Figure 5 shows a simplified block diagram of a typical servo. The receivers signal FIGURE 5 input to the servo is a pulse SERVO BLOCK DIAGRAM that typically varies between one and two milliseconds. This OUTPUT ARM satisfies the first requirement GEARS in 1) above. The servos output arm connects to a potentiometer + that supplies a voltage to a MOTOR FEEDBACK DRIVER voltage controlled pulse POTENTIOMETER generator; as the output arm changes position, the generators is output pulse VOLTAGE width also changes. This pulse CONTROLLED COMPARATOR PULSE width is an indication of the RECEIVER GENERATOR SIGNAL servo arms position; this satisfies the requirement in 2) above. The comparator circuit compares pulses from the receiver and the voltage controlled pulse generator and provides either a positive or a negative output depending on whether the signal pulse width is larger or smaller than the position generators output pulse. Application of this error voltage to the motor driver circuit causes the motor to turn in a direction that will minimize the error. When both pulse widths are the same, the motor receives no voltage and the output arm position has reached the position indicated by the receiver servo signals pulse width. The comparator circuit also implements a deadband function that prevents servo jitter and hunting. This is a range over which differences between the input and reference signals will not cause motor operation. When the signal differences exceed this deadband range, drive to the motor occurs. More sophisticated servo circuits, using a modern microcontroller, eliminate the voltage controlled pulse generator and replace it with an analog to 5
MOTOR

digital function. Measurement of the input signals pulse width, compared with the potentiometer voltage value determines the motor control signal polarity. These digital servos also have an advantage in providing a true step input to the motor; it is either fully on or off. With older design analog servos described above, the comparator output is a short pulse. This pulse repeats approximately every 20 milliseconds and is especially short at small differences between the two pulses. This represents a small duty cycle (the percentage of ontime); the comparator output therefore employs a pulse stretcher that increases the duty cycle to the motor. However, at small deviations between signal and reference pulses, the pulse stretcher cannot maintain the required drive voltage and the motor receives pulses of voltage that can be heard as buzzing when the servo is driving a load. The result is that at small deviations from the objective, the servo cannot maintain its holding force and the servo arm will deflect from its objective position until sufficient current to the motor occurs. Servos with digital comparators provide full current to the motor whenever the input signal is outside the deadband range thereby providing more accurate positioning under mechanical load. CONCLUSION Todays R/C radios have reached a degree of sophistication and reliability undreamed of in the beginning days of radio control modeling. They have become the modelers Plug-and-Play component. Hopefully, for many, this article has provided some insight into how R/C systems work. Roger Carignan 39 Glen Road Wilmington, MA 01887 [email protected]