THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING











ECE 2208b
Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement

LABORATORY MANUAL












2010-2011

THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING




ECE 2208b
Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement

LABORATORY MANUAL


written by
Hanif M. Ladak
Lyudmil Marinov



edited by
Ilia G. Polushin








2010-2011
1 of 3
THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

ECE 2208b Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement
Course Outline for Winter 2011

Objective:
The objective of the course is provide the student with essential principles of basic circuit analysis, digital
logic circuits, transducers and electronic instruments for measurement of physical quantities. By the end of
this course, the student is expected to design and analyze electric circuits, design simple logic circuits and
be acquainted with various types of electrical and electronic instruments used for measurement of physical
quantities.

Contact Hours: 3 lecture hours/week, four 3-hours/semester, 0.5 course

Antirequisites: ECE 2205a/b

Prerequisites: AM 1411a/b, AM 1413, Physics 1026, ES 1036a/b or CS 1026a/b or the former CS 036a/b

Corequisites: AM 2415 or AM 2411

Restrictions: Limited to students in the Chemical Engineering program.

Unless you have either the requisites for this course or written special permission from your Dean to
enrol in it, you will be removed from this course and it will be deleted from your record. This decision
may not be appealed. You will receive no adjustment to your fees in the event that you are dropped from
a course for failing to have the necessary prerequisites.

Topics:
1. Introduction to electric circuits. Electric circuits basics. Charge, current and voltage. Power and energy.
Kirchhoff's laws. Resistances. Voltage and current sources. Direct current (DC) vs. alternating current
(AC).
2. Electric and electronic circuits. Basic resistive circuits analysis: circuit simplification, node-voltage and
mesh current analysis, superposition principle, Thvenin's and Norton's theorems. Inductance and
capacitance. Transient and steady-state response. AC circuits basics. Diodes: basic concepts, model, and
characteristics. Operational Amplifiers: inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, construction of adders,
differentiators and integrators.
3. Digital logic circuits. Basic logic gates. Binary algebra operations. Boolean algebra. Truth tables.
Simple logic circuit designs. Combinational and sequential logic circuits.
4. Transducers and measuring instruments. Sensors and transducers. Concepts of error and accuracy.
Transducers types and applications.

General Learning Objectives:
Knowledge Base Individual Work Ethics and Equity
Problem Analysis Team Work Economics and Project
Management

Investigation Communication Life-Long Learning
Design Professionalism
Engineering Tools Impact on Society

Course Materials:
1. Allan R. Hambley, Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, 5
th
Edition, 2011, ISBN: 0132130068.
2. ECE 2208b: Laboratory manual (The manual can be purchased in the UWO Bookstore).
2 of 3

Reference Materials:
1. J.R. Cogdell, Foundations of Electric Circuits, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.
2. R.B. Northrop, Introduction to instrumentation and measurements, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton,
Florida, 2
nd
Edition, 2005.

Units: SI, U.S. and Imperial Units
CEAB: ES 100%

Laboratory:
All FOUR laboratories must be completed. The student is required to obtain at least 50% in this
component. The schedule of the laboratory sessions will be announced in class and posted on the course
website (WebCT).

Computing:
Students are advised to learn to use calculators which perform matrix algebra and simple calculus, and
handle complex numbers. Basic programming skills will be advantageous.

Assignments:
Five equally-weighted assignments will be given during this course. Solutions will be collected and graded.

Evaluation:
To obtain a passing grade in the course a mark of 50% or more must be achieved on both the laboratory
component and the final examination. A final examination mark or lab average <50%, or any laboratory
absences will result in a final course grade of 48% or less. The following table reflects the weights of each
of the course components in relation to the final mark:

Component Weight Maximum Penalties*
Assignments 10% 5%
Midterm test 20% 5%
Laboratory 20% 20%
Final examination 50% 5%

* Use of English:
In accordance with the policy of the University, the grade assigned to all written and oral work presented
in English shall take into account syntax, diction, grammar and spelling. In the professional life of an
engineer, the manner in which oral and written communications are presented is extremely important.
An engineering student must develop these skills as an integral part of the undergraduate program. To
encourage the student to do so, the grade assigned to all written and oral work will take into account all
aspects of presentation including conciseness, organization, neatness, use of headings and the preparation
and use of tables and figures.

All work will be marked first for content after which a penalty not to exceed the maximum shown may be
applied for lack of proficiency in English and/or presentation.

Faculty of Engineering Policy on Repeating All Components of the Course:
Students who are required to repeat an Engineering course must repeat all components of the course. No
special permissions will be granted enabling a student to retain laboratory, assignment or test marks from
previous years. Previously completed assignments and laboratories cannot be resubmitted for grading by
the student in subsequent years.

Missed Midterm Policy:
If a student misses the midterm test, the test will not be rescheduled. The student must follow the
instructions for student who have missed tests (attached) and provide appropriate documentation to their
3 of 3
Department within 24 hours of the missed test. The Department will decide whether to allow the
reweighting of the test; reweighting means the marks normally allotted for the test will be added to the
final exam. If no reasonable justification for missing the test can be found, then the student will receive a
mark of zero on the test.

Attendance:
Attendance in all lab sessions is mandatory. Any student who, in the opinion of the instructor is absent too
frequently from class, will be reported to the Dean (after due warning has been given). On the
recommendation of the Department concerned, and with the permission of the Dean, the student will be
debarred from taking the regular examination in the course.

Calculators:
Only non-programmable calculators are permitted in the midterm test and the final examination.
Calculators memories must be cleared before the midterm test and the final examination.

Plagiarism:
Students must write their essays and assignments in their own words. Whenever students take an idea, or a
passage from another author, they must acknowledge their debt both by using quotation marks where
appropriate and by proper referencing such as footnotes or citations. University policy states that cheating,
including plagiarism, is a scholastic offence. The commission of a scholastic offence is attended by
academic penalties that might include expulsion from the program. If you are caught cheating, there will be
no second warning. (See Scholastic Offence Policy in the Western Academic Calendar).

Course Website:
A course website at http://webct.uwo.ca/ will be maintained. Assignments, drills, laboratory exercises, lab
timetable, submission deadlines, announcements, etc. would be posted on the website for electronic
viewing. It is the students responsibility to read the website and be aware of any information that is posted
about the course. If the student fails to act on information that has been posted on the website and does so
without a documented explanation (i.e. medical reasons), then there are NO grounds for an appeal.

Accessibility:
Please contact the course instructor if you require material in an alternate format or if any other
arrangements can make this course more accessible to you. You may also wish to contact Services for
Students with Disabilities (SSD) at 661-2111 x 82147 for any specific question regarding an
accommodation.

Course Instructor:
Dr. Joseph Awad
Office: Imaging Research Laboratories, Robarts Research Institute
Phone: 519-663-5777 ext. 24278
Email: [email protected]

Submission Lockers: To be announced.

LABORATORY 1
BREADBOARDS & DC MEASUREMENTS
OBJECTIVES
1. To learn the internal connections of a typical breadboard.
2. To construct a breadboard layout from a schematic diagram.
3. To connect and use an ohmmeter without causing damage to the instrument.
4. To correctly connect a voltmeter to a circuit.
5. To correctly connect an ammeter in a circuit.
6. To interpret ohmmeter, voltmeter and ammeter ranges.
Starting in Lab 3, you will be expected to know how to use the multimeters and oscilloscope
(Lab 2) as well as how to construct circuits on the breadboard. Your performance in the lab will
be marked. Please make sure that at the end of Labs 1 and 2 you understand how to use the
instruments and the breadboard. Simply following instructions without understanding
how to make measurements independently is not sufficient.
INFORMATION
!"#$: Actual lab procedure follows this information section.
1. Circuit construction breadboard
A circuit construction breadboard allows the user to conveniently build an experimental circuit
(as opposed to a permanent one, meant Ior repeated use) without having to solder components.
Figure 1.1 shows a photograph oI the PROTO-BOARD breadboard used in this laboratory.
%&'()$*+,+ PB-503 PROTO-BOARD
1-1
Figure 1.2(a) shows a portion oI the breadboard outlined in Figure 1.1. The main part of the
board consists of sets of holes. The holes are actually sockets that have spring clips inside in
order to make electrical contact with any component lead that may be inserted into the hole.
Each set of holes is connected internally. Figure 1.2(b) schematically illustrates by means of
lines which sets of holes are connected together internally. The two sets of horizontal sockets at
the top of the board (designated by +5V, +V, -V and GND signs) are commonly called Power
Bars, and are internally connected to the built-in power supplies. Notice that the socket
interconnections for the Components Fields run only horizontally. Vertical connections exist
only in Vertical Bars below the power bars. The vertical bars are used to supply power to your
circuits however they are not internally connected to the built-in power supplies. Therefore
you could use the vertical bars to supply power to your circuit both from the internal and the
external power sources.
(a) Section of breadboard outlined in Figure 1.1. (b) Internal breadboard connections.
!"#$%&'()* Schematic illustration of a generic circuit construction breadboard.
Figure 1.3(a) is a schematic diagram of a DC circuit consisting of two resistors, R
1
and
R
2
, in series with each other. Figure 1.3(b) shows how the circuit would be laid out on a
breadboard. Note that the two resistors share a common node in the schematic diagram, and this
is realized by connecting one lead of R
1
and one lead of R
2
to the same set of holes on the
breadboard, i.e., a set of connected holes on the breadboard represents a single node in the
circuit.
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Breadboard layout
Figure 1.3 Example of connecting a circuit with two resistors in series.
1-2

R1
_
+
R2
- V
+ V
V
E
R
T
I
C
A
L


B
A
R
S
POWER BARS
COMPONENTS FIELDS
GND
+5V
V
E
R
T
I
C
A
L


B
A
R
S
!"
#
!$
%$"#
Figure 1.4(a) shows two resistors in parallel with each other, and Figure 1.4(b) shows the
breadboard layout. Components such as resistors and capacitors can be connected to a
breadboard by inserting their leads directly into holes. Wires can be used to form connections
between components on the breadboard. Simply strip approximately 1 cm of insulation off of
each end of the wire and insert the bare end directly into a hole.
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Breadboard layout
Figure 1.4 Example of connecting a circuit with two resistors in parallel.
Figure 1.5 (a) shows an example of a circuit, consisting of serial and parallel-connected
resistors, which will be used during this lab for resistance, voltage and current measurements.
The breadboard layout of this circuit is shown in Figure 1.5 (b).
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Breadboard layout
Figure 1.5 Circuit that you will connect in this lab.
!"#$%"&'()"*$+%$the board used in our laboratory:
The PB-503 PROTO-BOARD is a complete design workstation, including instrumentation,
breadboarding, and a rugged DC regulated triple power supply.
The instrumentation Ieatures:
- eight individual selectable logic switches (oIIering settings oI 5volts / V and ground);
- eight individual red (high) and green (low) buIIered logic LED indicators;
- 100KHz Iunction generator with continuously variable sine, square, and triangle
waveIorms plus TTL pulse;
- triple output power supply (one Iixed at 5VDC and two variable Irom +1.3 to
+15VDC). All three supplies are short-circuit protected, automatically current limiting
the output to a saIe level.
1-3
!"
#
!$
%
!"
#$%$&'$#
!'
!&

!$
&
!'
#
!"
#
!' !&
%&'#
- two digital pulse generators;
- audio experimentation 8 ! speaker;
- SPDT switches;
- Potentiometers;
- debounced pushbutton switches.
The breadboarding area has a total oI 2520 uncommitted tie points, enough space Ior circuits
containing 24 IC's oI 14 pins or equivalent.
Some rules for wiring a circuit on a breadboard
Although you may not understand all of the features of the Proto-Board and some of the rules
for circuit wiring at present, please read them now and refer to them for future labs.
An example for correct component connection is shown in Figure 1.6 (a).
The following typical connection mistakes are shown in Figure 1.6 (b):
! Integrated Circuit (IC) A is inappropriately connected to the power supply bus;
! IC B is improperly placed over the component field and its pins are short-connected by
the breadboard;
! Component C is short-connected by the power bus;
! Component D is short-connected by the internal breadboard connection;
! Component D and wire E are connected together to the same breadboard socket.
Figure 1.6 (a) Correctlv connected components (b) Tvpical connection mistakes
2. Power SuppIy Unit
The Iront panel oI the adjustable dual voltage Power Supply Unit is shown in Figure 1.7
Figure 1.7 Front panel of power supplv unit.
1-4
- V
+5V
B
C
D
GND
+ V
A
E
GND
A
D
C
+5V
- V
B
+ V
This Power Supply Unit provides dual adjustable voltages Irom 0V to 15V. It has built-
in short current and overload protection circuits, that automatically drop the output voltage when
the current supplied to the load exceeds 250 mA.
Turn the Power Supply ON. Adjust the voltage oI the Power Supply to 12V. This will set
both positive and negative power sources respectively to 12V and 12V. Turn the Power
Supply OFF beIore connecting to the circuits. Connect the !"#$terminal oI the Power Supply to
the %& oI your circuit. Connect the '"($terminal oI the Power Supply to the ground oI your
circuit, marked with the symbol . )*$+*,$-*++.-, the /01$terminal oI the Power Supply to
your circuit.
3. Resistance measurements
Ohmmeters are used to measure the resistance of a component or a group of components.
However, some precautions must be observed before connecting the component or group across
the meters probes. Ohmmeters differ significantly from voltmeters or ammeters in that they use
their own power supply to accomplish a resistance measurement. Both voltmeters and ammeters
use power from the circuit under test, thus the circuit must remain energized. A circuit must be
de-energized before a resistance measurement can be made. Simply opening the circuit where it
is desired to measure resistance can do this. Care must be taken that the circuit is not closed by
the ohmmeter itself. Detailed procedures for using all meters described in this and the following
two sections are given in the Procedures section; however, some precautions are noted below.
Both analog and digital multimeters are available in the lab. Multimeters permit voltage,
current, resistance, and possibly other measurements to be made using the same instrument.
Analog meters display measured values by means oI a needle, whereas digital meters provide a
numeric display. The 23$ !4.-565*+$ 789:) digital meter is shown in Figure 1.8(a), and the
#5;<6*+ analog multimeter is shown in Figure 1.8(b). Digital ohmmeters are the easiest to read
since the user typically must only determine iI the digital reading is in units oI Ohms or kOhms;
however, analog displays are oIten used in industry since they allow easier visualization oI the
variation oI a value with time. Analog displays can also be colour coded to indicate when
extreme values are reached.
=5>?4.$:@8$ABC BK Precision 2831D !"#"$%&'()&$"(*$*+ ADC' ,"(-./0 ' %0%&/#'
()&$"(*$*+
Suppose we wish to measure the value of R1 in Figure 1.5, we need to observe the following:
1. Before starting measurements, be sure that DC power supply is disconnected from the
measured circuit as shown in Figure 1.9(a).
2. At least one end of the measured component or Group should be disconnected from the
rest of the circuit as shown in Figure 1.9(b).
1-5
3. For a more accurate measurement, carefully select a range which provides the greatest
number of digits in the display.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.9 Steps in connecting an ohmmeter. (a) Disconnect power supply. (b) Disconnect one
end of component to be measured. (c) Connect meter across terminals of component.
4. DC voItage measurements
A voltage exists as a potential diIIerence across two points oI an energized circuit. To
correctly measure a voltage, a voltmeter must be connected across the two points oI interest. The
positive or red test lead is connected to whichever point is closest in potential to the positive side
oI the energy source. The negative or black!test lead connects to the other point.
A single subscripted voltage, such as !
"
, reIers to the potential Irom point "#$ to a
ground or circuit common reIerence point. To measure this voltage, the positive test lead is
connected to point "#$ while the negative is connected to ground or circuit common (Figure
1.10). When using an analog meter, an upscale deIlection is recorded as a positive voltage,
although a plus sign is not required. II deIlection is downwards, the meter leads must be
reversed, and the resulting measurement must be recorded as a negative voltage. Some
voltmeters will automatically correct Ior reversed polarity and provide a separate indicator oI
correct polarity.
Double subscripted voltages, such as !
#$
, reIer to the potential Irom point "%$ to point
"&$. The positive lead must be connected to point "%$, the negative to point "&$. Again, an
upscale reading is a positive voltage, while a reversed deIlection must be recorded as a negative
voltage. Correct polarity must always be expressed in a single or double subscripted voltage,
whereas the notation '!
%'
does not imply any polarity and simply means 'the voltage across
the resistor R3.
()*+,-!./.0 Reference voltages
Precautions.
1. When measuring voltages, start on a high voltage range and successivelv reduce the range to
obtain the maximum number of digits in the displav (digital) or as large a deflection (analog)
as possible without causing the needle to exceed maximum deflection.
1-6
!
"#
"$ "%
"#
!
"% "$ "# !
"% "$
!
a
V Vbc "$ "%
b
c
!
"#
R3
Va
5. DC current measurements
The flow of current in a circuit is much like the flow of water through a pipe. For this
reason, the current must be made to pass through the meter to make a measurement. Referring to
Figure 1.11, the easiest way to remember how to do this is as follows. The measured circuit in
Figure 1.11(a) must be physically broken before a current measurement can be accomplished, as
shown in Figure 1.11(b). When a circuit is broken at a location, it leaves a hole with two wire
ends available. The ammeter must be connected to each of these wire ends, thus completing the
circuit again. The positive lead of the ammeter, marked as A, should be connected to the wire
end nearest to the positive side of the energy source. The negative lead of the ammeter, marked
as COM should be connected to the wire end nearest to the negative side of the power source,
shown in Figure 1.11(c). The current I that originally flowed through the point of interest must
now flow through the ammeter, which is now located at the point of interest.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.11 Steps in using an ammeter. (a) Current I to be measured. (b) Break circuit.
(c) Insert ammeter.
Precautions:
1. Be sure to break the circuit and insert the ammeter in the resulting hole. Start on a high
range and successively reduce ranges until the maximum number of digits are displayed
(digital) or a reasonably high deflection (analog) is obtained.
2. Be extremely careful to connect the ammeter in series with the line in which a
measurement is required; never connect an ammeter in parallel with a component.
3. Some meters require that one or more test leads be plugged into different sockets from
those used for voltage measurement; consequently, care must be taken when switching
back and forth between current and voltage measurements.
EQUIPMENT
1. Circuit construction breadboard PROTOBOARD PB503
2. Digital Multimeter (BK PRECISION 2831D)
3. DC Power Supply Unit
4. Resistors: 220 !; 1 "!; 4.7 "!;
Precaution:
1. Resistors are supposed to be placed in bins labeled with their values, however, it is advisable
that vou check the value of the resistor vourself before using it. The colour codes on the resistor
indicate value of the resistance. Appendix A explains how to read the value.
!"#
!"
#
!$
A
!"
A
# !$
COM
!
!
!"
#
!$
PRE-LAB PREPARATION
!"#$%&'$()#(&)&*+,-$./0*$'#$1,.(%#*#2$'#3,)#$1,.+-4$*,$*"#$%&'5$6",7$+*$*,$8,/)$!9$&*$*"#$
'#4+--+-4 $ ,3 $ *"# $ %&' $ &-2 $get his/her signature in the Signature section of the Lab
Measurements Sheet. There is a penalty for incomplete preparation (see General
Information).
1. Read Appendix A and the introduction to the manual.
2. Study the circuit shown in Figure 1.5(a) and the equivalent breadboard layout Ior this circuit
shown in Figure 1.5(b). Make sure you understand the wiring diagram in Figure 1.5(b).
3. !"# $%&'() #Calculate by hand the equivalent resistance oI Group-2 (R2R3) shown in
Figure 1.12 in section 1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet. Record the calculated value in the
column labeled 'Theoretical R Values in Table 1.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet. Show
your calculations.
4. !*"# $%&'() #Calculate by hand in section 2 the voltages listed in Table 1.2 of the Lab
Measurements Sheet (i.e., the voltages V
a
, V
b
, V
c
, V
ab
, V
bc
and V
R1
in Figure 1.14), and
record the final answers in the column labeled Theoretical Values in Table 1.2 oI the Lab
Measurements Sheet. Show your calculations.
5. !+#$%&'()#Calculate by hand in section 3 the currents shown in Figure 1.15 and listed in
Table 1.3 (i.e., the currents I
1
I
3
) of the Lab Measurements Sheet and record the final
answers in the column labeled Theoretical Values in Table 1.3. Show your calculations.
PROCEDURE
1. Construct the circuit oI Figure 1.12 on your breadboard. Try to layout the actual circuit
as close as possible to the same placement as appears on the schematic diagram.
2. :"#-$*"#$%&8,/*$"&0$'##-$1,.(%#*#2;$"&<#$8,/)$!9$1"#1=$8,/)$')#&2',&)2$3,)$#)),)0$
&-2 4#*$"+0>"#)$0+4-&*/)#$+-$*"#$6+4-&*/)#$0#1*+,-$,3$*"# ?&'$@#&0/)#.#-*0$6"##*5$A,/$
7+%%$'#$(#-&%+B#2$.&)=0$+3$8,/)$0"##*$+0$-,*$+-+*+&%#25
,-./01#*2*" Resistor circuit diagram ,-./01#*2*3 Resistance measurements
1-8
R1
220
COM
Ohm2
R2
1k
OHM
Ohm1
COM
V
R3
4.7k
OHM
b
R2
1k
V = 12 V
R1
220
c
R3
4.7k
GROUP-2
a
3. Resistance measurements
3.1 Measure the resistance oI resistor R1 and Group-2 (R2R3) as shown in Figure 1.12 using
the digital meter and the Iollowing procedure:
! Remove power Irom the circuit.
! Press the ! Iunction switch oI the Digital Meter
! Connect the red test lead to the V-! jack and black test lead to the COM jack. The
red lead is () polarity.
! Connect the test leads to the points oI measurement indicated in Figure 1.13, and
record the measured values and ohmmeter ranges used in Table 1.1 oI the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
! II the expected resistance is unknown, start with the lowest range. II an over-range is
indicated, continue selecting higher ranges until the over-range indication ceases. At
this range greatest resolution is achieved.
4. DC voltage measurements
4.1 Measure V
a
, V
b
, V
c
, V
ab
, V
bc
and !"# listed in Table 1.2, using the digital meter as shown in
Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14 !$%&'()*+)',-.)+)/&,
Use the Iollowing procedure:
! Connect the circuit oI Figure 1.12 and turn the power supply ON.
! Adjust the power supply voltage to 12V.
! Press the V Iunction switch oI the digital multimeter.
! Select DC measurement by putting the AC/DC button in the 'out position.
! Press the voltage range switch Ior the range closest to an over-range Ior the measured
signal.
! Connect the red test lead to the V-! jack and the black test lead to the COM jack.
! Connect the leads across the circuit points to be measured, and record the measured
values oI V
a
, V
b
, V
c
, V
ab
, V
bc
and !"# in Table 1.2 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
1-9
COM
V
R3
4.7k
V
!
R1
220
R2
1k
V1
V-2
"
COM
V-1
#
5. DC current measurements
5.1 Figure 1.15 illustrates how ammeters should be connected to measure the currents I
1
I
3
required to complete Table 1.3 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
CAUTION: !"#$%&##'()$*'+,&#'*'(),-$).'$*')'#$*&,)$/'$%"(('%)'0$1($,'#1',$21).$).'$3"+04 $
56$1(%"##'%)37$%"(('%)'0$81($9+#+33'3$21).$).'$3"+0:-$).'$*')'#$9#','(),$+$;'#7$3"2$#',1,)+(%'$
8+3*",)$+$,."#)$%1#%&1):-$).+)$*+7$/3"2$).'$6&,'$"#$0+*+<'$).'$*')'#$"#$'=&19*'()$&(0'#$)',)4 $
>.'$ ?@A$ #+(<'$ .+,$ ("$ 6&,'$ 9#")'%)1"($ +(0$ *+7$ ,';'#'37$ 0+*+<'$ ).'$ *')'#$ "#$ '=&19*'() $
&(0'#$)',)$"#$%+&,'$9'#,"(+3$1(B&#74
!"#$%&##'()$*'+,&#'*'(),$<#'+)'#$).+($?A-$.1<.$%&##'()$)',)$3'+0,$,."&30$/'$&,'04 $
C1<.$%&##'()$*'+,&#'*'(),$21).$,)+(0+#0$)',)$3'+0,$%"&30$%+&,'$).'$3'+0,$)"$.'+)$&94$>.1,$
%"&30$#',&3)$1($1(B&#7$)"$"9'#+)"#4
For current measurements with the digital meter, use the Iollowing procedure:
! Press the A Iunction switch.
! Select DC measurement by putting the AC/DC switch in the 'out position.
! II an approximate current range is known, press the switch Ior the range desired.
! For current measurements oI 2A or less (as it is in our case), connect the red test lead to
the 2A jack and the black test lead to the COM jack.
! Remove power Irom the circuit (turn the Power Supply oII) and open the normal circuit
path where the measurements to be taken.
! Connect the meter 1($ ,'#1', with the circuit element through which current is to be
measured.
! Apply power to the circuit, and record the measured values in Table 1.3 oI the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
Figure 1.15 !"##$%&'($)*"#$($%&*
1-10
!
"
COM
V1
A
A
A1
#
A2
R1
220
COM
R3
4.7k
"
"
A
$
R2
1k
COM
A3
!" #$%%&'()*+),)-&.-*&%)/')0/*.)/1'
In the previous sections, you received detailed instructions on setting up your circuit on the
breadboard. The objective in this section is to allow you to independently set up a circuit and
make measurements. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1.16, and show it to your TA beIore
turning on the power supply. All resistors have a value oI 1 k!.
2&(*.$)3"3!" Circuit to demonstrate skills with using breadboard
Measure the voltage drop across resistor R4 and the current through it. Record your
measurements in Table 1.4.
4" 567859:;
7.1. The behaviour oI circuit elements can be represented by a plot oI current versus voltage.
This plot is usually called an I-V characteristic. In the section oI the measurement sheets
labeled 'optional, draw a circuit diagram to demonstrate how you would measure the I-V
characteristic oI a resistor using a variable DC power supply and a multimeter. Show
instrument connections on your diagram. Ask your TA to check your diagram.
7.2. Build the circuit and measure the I-V characteristic oI a 1 k! resistor. Vary the voltage
Irom 0V to 2.0V in steps oI 0.5 V. Fill in Table 1.5 with I and V values. Sketch your
results. What is the slope oI the line, and how is it related to the value oI the resistor?
1-11

!"#$!
%# %$
%&
%'
LAB MEASUREMENTS SHEET - LAB 1
Name _________________________
Student No_____________________
Workbench No_____
AO1E: Questions are related to observations, and must be answered as a part of the
procedure of this experiment.
Sections marked are pre-lab preparation and must be completed BEFORE coming to the
lab.
1. * Calculations Ior the equivalent resistance oI Group-2 (R2!!R3):
!"#$%&'('"Resistance Measurements
)*+,*-%-./
01*2,
3!4%*1%.56"$&
7&8"$2%9&:!;
<4++%.%1&
1"-=%
>%"921%? & 7&
8"$2%9&:!;
R1
Group-2 (R2, R3)
2. * Voltage calculations (use separate pages iI needed):
1-12
Table 1.2 DC Joltage measurements.
3. * Current calculations (use separate pages iI needed):
Table 1.3 DC Current measurements.
Current
Designations
!" !# !$
Current
measured (mA)
`Theoretical
values (mA)
4. Setting up a circuit on your own
Table 1.4 DC voltage and current measurements.
Voltage measured across R4 (V)
Current through R4 (mA)
5. OPTIONAL
The space below is Ior the optional part oI the lab.
Voltage
Designations
%& %' %( %&' %'( %)"
Voltage
measured (V)
`Theoretical
values (V)
1-13
Table 1.5 OPTIONAL DC voltage and current measurements.
V V] 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
I mA]
I |mA|
V|V|
When vou have finished collecting the data and answering the questions below, have a TA check
and sign vour Lab Measurements Sheet and vour answers. You will lose marks if anv signatures
are missing.
!"#$%&'($
1. 3 MARKS] What is the value oI a resistor that has color bands green, black,
and orange Iollowed by a tolerance band?
2. 7 MARKS] In Figure 1.18 draw a breadboard layout (i.e., a diagram similar
to what is shown in Figures 1.3(b), 1.4(b) and 1.5(b)) that shows how to connect the circuit,
shown in Figure 1.17.
Figure 1.17. Circuit to demonstrate
skills with using breadboard Figure 1.18 Breadboard lavout
1-14
V
R9
R2
R3 R5 R1
R7 R6
R4
R8
SIGNATURES TA name:________________________
To be completed by TA during the lab session.
Check boxes TA Signature Student`s Task
Pre-lab completed.
Circuit oI Figure 1.12 connected correctly
Circuit oI Figure 1.16 connected correctly
Data collected and observations made
Final questions completed
MARKS
To be completed by TA aIter the lab session.
Granted Marks Max. Marks Student`s Task
20 Pre-lab preparation
0 Circuit oI Figure 1.12 connected correctly.
0 Circuit oI Figure 1.16 connected correctly.
70 Data collected and observations made
10 Final questions completed
100 Total
1-15
LABORATORY 2
HOW TO USE AN OSCILLOSCOPE AND FUNCTION GENERATOR
OBJECTIVES
1. To interpret specifications for function generators.
2. To learn the operational controls of function generators.
3. To explain the concepts relating to grounding of oscilloscopes.
4. To produce a waveIorm on an oscilloscope graticule.
5. To analyze the eIIects oI manipulating various typical oscilloscope controls.
6. To manipulate a waveIorm so as to optimize its appearance.
7. To evaluate a variety oI basic oscilloscope waveIorms.
8. To operate vertically-related oscilloscope controls.
9. To operate typical horizontally-related oscilloscope controls.
Starting in Lab 3, you will be expected to know how to use the multimeters and oscilloscope as
well as how to construct circuits on the breadboard. Your performance in the lab will be marked.
Please make sure that at the end of Labs 1 and 2 you understand how to use the
instruments and the breadboard. Simply following instructions without understanding
how to make measurements independently is not sufficient.
INFORMATION
!"#$: Actual lab procedure follows this information section.
1. Function generator
The Wavetek model FG3B Sweep/Function Generator is a precise low distortion
instrument, capable oI generating sine waves, triangular waves, square waves and ramp signals
in the 0.2Hz to 2.0 MHz Irequency range. The Iront panel oI the FG3B is shown in Figure 2.1.
The main Ieatures are shown in Figure 2.2 and explained in Table 2.1.
%&'()$*+,- Front panel of Wavetek FG3B function generator.
A typical waveIorm generator is a non-ideal ac voltage source, and is represented
symbolically as shown in Figure 2.3. The red lead oI the generator`s terminal connector is an
active output and the black lead is connected to the common ground.
2-1
Figure 2.2 Main features of the Wavetek FG3B function generator.
No. Name Feature description
1 GATE Indicator Ilashes when power is on, showing when Irequency
counter is making a measurement.
3. COUNTER DISPLAY 5 digit LED display shows Irequency value.
4. KHz Indicator lights to show Counter Display reading in kHz
units.
5. MHz Indicator lights to show Counter Display reading in MHz
units.
6. PWR This switch controls AC power to the instrument.
7. FREQUENCY RANGE
Selector
Pushing one button at a time selects the desired Irequency
Irom the generator in decades.
8. DUTY (push)
INV (pull)
Varies duty cycle oI signal Irom 50 (1:1) in CAL position
to 10 (10:1). Pull knob to invert duty cycle.
11. FUNCTION
SELECTOR
Selects square, triangle or sine wave output at connector 22.
12. AMPLITUDE (push)/
-20dB ATTN (pull)
Adjusts output amplitude on Output connector 22. Pull Ior
-20 dB (10 oI original input) attenuation.
13. FREQUENCY (push) /
SWEEP (pull)
Sets desired Irequency oI signal between 0.2 and 2 times the
Frequency Range value selected. Pull Ior sweep mode.
20. TTL/CMOS Square wave output Ior driving digital logic.
22. OUTPUT 50 ! square, triangle or sine wave output.
Table 2.1 Some features of the Wavetek FG3B function generator.
2-2
Figure 2.3 Output connections of the function generator. FG = Function generator.
2. Tektronix TDS 210 DigitaI Storage DuaI-Trace OsciIIoscope
This experiment will be concerned with the use oI the various controls and switches
Iound on typical oscilloscopes. The TDS200 Series oscilloscopes provide accurate real-time
acquisition oI signals that supports Ieatures such as automatic measurement, peak detect, storage
oI two reIerence waveIorms and Iive instrument setups and autoset. The TDS200's reliable,
backlit liquid crystal display permits the instrument to be only 12cm Irom Iront to back, while
its light weight (1.5 kg) and rugged construction allow Ior portability. The Iront panel oI TDS
210 is shown in Figure 2.4.
!"#$%&'()* Front panel of TDS 210.
Features And Benefits:
! 60 MHz or 100 MHz with 1 GS/s Sample Rate on all Channels
! 2 Channel Models
! Dual Timebase
! Automatic Measurements
! Multi-language User InterIace
! Autoset
! WaveIorm and Setup Memories
! Extended Capabilities Are Provided with Optional Modules, SoItware and Probing
The Iront panel oI the TDS 201 is divided into several easy to use Iunctional areas. The user
interIace is similar to that oI an analog oscilloscope, but with improvements that reduce learning
time and increase eIIiciency. Knobs and buttons are grouped by Iunction and provide direct
access to controls, and each vertical channel has its own dedicated scale and position knobs.
Readouts or menus are displayed on-screen at all times, allowing users to more quickly and
accurately determine instrument settings. The display responds quickly to control adjustments
and has a Iast update rate.
2-3

!"#$%
FG
&'(
DispIay area
In addition to displaying waveIorms, the LCD display is Iilled with many details about the
waveIorm, such as measurements oI amplitude, Irequency and period oI the displayed signals
and the instrument control settings. DiIIerent modes oI operation and measurement oI signal
parameters are controlled by 5 'SoIt Keys, assigned to diIIerent Iunctions depending on the
chosen menu or operational mode.
Figure 2.5 Front panel of the Tektronix TDS 210.
Scope controIs
Scope controls are grouped together as to Iunction.
The !"#$%&'( ) *+,$#+(- relate totally to the vertical movement oI the scope trace. This
oscilloscope has two vertical sections so that it can display two waveIorms simultaneously.
CH1 and CURSOR
1 Position
Vertically adjust the channel 1
display or position cursor 1.
CH2 and CURSOR
2 Position
Vertically adjust the channel 2
display or position cursor 2.
MATH MENU Displays waveIorm math
operations menu
CH 1 and CH 2
MENU
Displays the channel input
menu selections and toggles
the channel display on and oII
VOLTS/DIV( CH 1
and CH 2)
Selects calibrated scale Iactors
Figure 2.6 Jertical controls. Table 2.2 Jertical control descriptions.
You can use the vertical controls to display waveIorms, adjust vertical scale and position
and set input parameters. The vertical MENU contains the Iollowing items Ior CH1 and CH2,
which could be set individually Ior each channel. AIter entering the CH1 / CH2 MENU mode,
the Iollowing options assigned to separate SoIt Keys are available:
2-4
Menu Settings Comments
!"#$%&'( )!
*!
+,)
Passes both DC and AC components oI the input signal
Blocks the DC component oI the input signal
Disconnects the input signal
-./%&0&1 23/456/7899 Limits the bandwidth to reduce the display noise
:"%1;7)&< !"=>;?7@&'? Selects the resolution oI the Volts/Div knob
A>"B? CD
C3D
C33D
C333D
Set this to match your probe attenuation Iactor to make the vertical scale
readout correct
Table 2.3 Jertical menu settings
The 5">&6"'1=%/!"'1>"%;/relate to the horizontal movement oI the scope trace.
POSITION Horizontally adjust the position
oI all channels
HORIZONTAL
MENU
Displays horizontal menu
SEC/DIV Selects the horizontal time/div
(scale Iactor) Ior the main
timebase and the Window Zone
Table 2.4 Descriptions of hori:ontal controls
Figure 2.7 Hori:ontal controls
The/E>&((?>/!"'1>"%; are used Ior the synchronization or triggering oI the waveIorm.
LEVEL and
HOLDOFF
- As a trigger level control it sets the amplitude level the signal must
cross to cause an acquisition.
- As a holdoII control it sets the amount oI time beIore another trigger
event can be accepted.
TRIGGER MENU Displays the trigger menu.
SET LEVEL TO 50 The trigger level is set to 50 oI the signal level.
FORCE TRIGGER Starts acquisition regardless oI an adequate trigger signal.
TRIGGER VIEW Displays the trigger waveIorm in place oI the channel waveIorm while the
TRIGGER VIEW button is held down.
Table 2.5 Descriptions of trigger controls
!"#$%%&#$'%
Two types oI triggering are available: Edge and Jideo. Since the Edge triggering is most
important Ior our course applications, we will study it in detail. Use Edge triggering to trigger
on the edge oI the input signal at the trigger threshold.
The different types of trigger settings are shown in Table 2.6.
2-5
Menu Settings Comments
Edge With the Edge highlighted the rising or falling edge of the input
signal is used for the trigger
Slope Rising
Falling
Select to trigger on either the rising or falling edge of the signal
Source CH1
CH2
EXT
EXT/5
AC Line
Select the input source as the trigger signal some of the input
channels, external source, external source with signal divided
by 5 or 60Hz AC power line.
Mode Auto
Normal
Single
Use Normal mode to trigger only on a valid trigger.
Use Auto mode to let the acquisition free-run in the absence of a
valid trigger.
Use Single mode to capture a single acquisition of an event.
Couplin
g
AC
DC
Noise Reject
HF Reject
LF Reject
Select the components of the trigger signal applied to the trigger
circuitry
Table 2.6 Different types of trigger settings.
The!"#$%&#'!()%%#$*!provide Ieatures to be used Ior both channels, as listed in Table 2.7.
Figure 2.8 Control buttons
SAVE/RECALL Displays the save/recall menu Ior setups and waveIorms.
MEASURE Displays the automated Measurements menu.
ACQUIRE Displays the acquisition menu.
DISPLAY Displays the display type menu.
CURSOR Displays the Cursor menu. Vertical position controls adjust
cursor position while displaying the cursor menu. Cursors
remain displayed aIter leaving the cursor menu but are not
adjustable.
UTILITY Displays the Utility menus.
AUTOSET Automatically sets the instrument controls to produce a usable
display oI the input signal.
HARDCOPY Starts print operations.
RUN / STOP Starts and stops waveIorm acquisition.
Table 2.7 Control button functions
2-6
Waveform parameters measurement
Push the MEASURE button to access the automated measurement capabilities. There are five
measurements available and the ability to display up to four at a time. The upper Soft Key
allows you to choose between the Source of the signal and the Type of measurement to be
performed. With Source highlighted, you define the channel you want the measurement to be
performed on each of the other four Soft Keys positions. By pressing of each key you could
choose either CH1 or CH2 signal to be measured.
With the Measure menu displayed and Type highlighted, you define the menu structure by
selecting the type of measurement to display in each of the available four menu locations.
Making measurements
You can display up to four automated measurements at a time for a single waveform, or divided
between the two waveforms. The waveform channel must be ON (displayed) to make a
measurement. Automated measurements cannot be taken on reference or math waveforms or
while using XY or Scan mode. The different types of measurements are shown in Table 2.8.
Menu Settings Comments
Type With the Type highlighted choose the type of measurement to
display next to the on-screen-menu button ( Soft Key).
Cyc RMS Provides a true RMS measurement of one completed cycle of the
waveform
Mean Provides the arithmetic MEAN voltage over the entire record
Period Provides the time for one cycle
Pk-Pk Provides the absolute difference between the maximum and
minimum peaks of the entire waveform
Freq Provides the frequency of the waveform
None
!"#$%&'() Different types of measurements
EQUIPMENT
1. Function generator Wavetek FG3B
2. Dual trace oscilloscope Tektronix TD 210, with x 1 and x 10 probes.
3. Circuit construction breadboard PROTOBOARD PB503
4. Digital Multimeter (BK PRECISION 2831D)
5. Resistors: 1k!
6. Capacitors: 22nF
PRE-LAB PREPARATION
1. Study the function generator shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, along with the explanations of
the various controls described in Table 2.1.
2. Study the TDS 210 oscilloscope shown in Figures 2.4 to 2.8, along with the explanations of
the various controls described in Tables 2.2 to 2.8 and Appendix E.
2-7
Figure 2.9 Test circuit connections.
PROCEDURE
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.9 on your breadboard and connect the function
generator and both oscilloscopes inputs. Be sure to connect ground leads of both devices
(black lead of the function generator and the alligator clips of the oscilloscope probe) to the
same common point to provide common ground connection to your circuit. This circuit
will be used in steps 2 to 20, so do not dismantle it.
!"#$%&"#%'()*+&%"(,%-##$%.*/0'#&#12%"(3#%)*+4%56%."#.7%)*+4%-4#(1-*(41%8*4%#44*4,%($1%
9#&%":,;"#4%,:9$(&+4#%:$%&"#%<:9$(&+4#%,#.&:*$%*8%&"#%=(-%>#(,+4#/#$&,%<"##&?%@*+%A:''%-#%
0#$(':B#1%/(47,%:8%)*+4%,"##&%:,%$*&%:$:&:('#1?
2. Set the digital voltmeter to AC mode.
3. Set the frequency of the generator to 1 kHz sine wave, and reduce the RMS amplitude to 300
mV as measured on the voltmeter. To lower the signal amplitude, pull out the AMPLITUDE
knob (Figure 2.2. No. 12) and turn it.
4. Turn on your scope and you may continue with the procedure, which has been designed to
allow students to become Iamiliar with the eIIect that various controls have upon the
displayed waveIorms. The procedure is separated into vertical related controls, horizontal
related controls, trigger controls and measurements.
5. Try switching from a sine waveform to square and triangle waveforms, and observe the
effects upon the voltmeter reading. Record the voltmeter measurements into Table 2.9 in the
Lab Measurements Sheet. Sketch the waveforms on CH1 and CH2 into the graphs in
question 9 of the Lab Measurements Sheet.
6. Turn the oscilloscope to Measurement mode using the menu controls, described in Table
2.8, and display simultaneously the Cvc RMS and Peak-to-Peak value oI the signal, as well
as its Period and Frequencv. Record the Cvc RMS, Peak-to-Peak, Period and Frequencv
measurements Ior the diIIerent waveIorms displayed on channel 1 in Table 2.9.
7. Switch back to a sinusoidal output and use the voltmeter to measure both the minimum and
maximum output voltages of the generator, using both Amplitude knob positions. Record the
results in Table 2.10 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
VerticaI ReIated ControIs
8. Use your ac voltmeter to set the Iunction generator to 3.0 V, and adjust the Irequency to
400Hz.
2-8

!"#$%&$&'
22nF
()* 1k ()+
'&,
-.,
!
()*
R
"/(0##"/("1&
()+
!
C
23.($0".
"
4#5(6
-&.&'5$"'
#
9. Set the Iollowing scope controls to the indicated positions and connect a 'times one probe
Irom the CH 1 scope input to the generator.
JERTICAL MODE. Select channel 1 MENU
Find on displav which button is assigned to Coupling mode and set.
COUPLING. select DC
JOLTS/DIJ. 2 J/DIJ
SEC/DIJ. 1 ms/DIJ
TRIGGER MENU.
Find on displav which button is assigned to Source and set.
SOURCE. Select CH 1
10. About Iour cycles oI a sine wave should now be observable on the screen. The display
should be using about 10 divisions horizontally and between 4 and 5 divisions vertically.
11. Adjust the vertical POSITION control to observe the eIIect oI this control on the displayed
waveIorm. Answer question 1 on the Lab Measurements Sheet at this time.
12. Adjust the vertical VOLTS/DIV control to observe the eIIect oI this control on the displayed
waveIorm. Answer questions 2 and 3 on the Lab Measurements Sheet at this time. Use the
space in section 4 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet to record any observations you wish to
make.
13. Switch probe key attenuator Irom 'x1 to 'x10 position. Adjust the vertical VOLTS/DIV to
observe the eIIect oI this control on the displayed waveIorm. Answer questions 5 and 6 on
the Lab Measurements Sheet at this time.
HorizontaI ReIated ControIs
14. Adjust the horizontal POSITION control to observe the eIIect oI this control on the
displayed waveIorm. Use section 7 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet to record any
observations you wish to make.
15. Adjust the horizontal SEC/DIV switch to observe the eIIect oI this control on the displayed
waveIorm. Answer question 8 on the Lab Measurements Sheet at this time.
Trigger reIated controIs
16. Adjust trigger level above the input signal level and then turn it back to the level oI about
50 oI the input. Answer question 11 oI Lab Measurement Sheets.
17. From Trigger menu, described in Table 2.6 change the Slope mode Irom Rising to Falling.
Answer question 12 oI Lab Measurement Sheets.
18. For the above experiments trigger source was set to CH1. Now press the TRIGGER MENU
button and set the SOURCE control to the CH2. Try to stabilize display picture using
'Trigger Level control.
19. Set the SOURCE control to the EXT mode and Iinally to the AC LINE mode and observe
the eIIect oI this control on the displayed waveIorm. Try to stabilize display picture using
'Trigger Level control. Answer question 13 on the Lab Measurements Sheet.
20. Try using any other scope controls, which have not speciIically been tested by this time. Use
the space on the back oI the Lab Measurements Sheet to record any observations you wish to
make.
2-9
!"#$!%&'
21. Using the loudspeaker on your breadboard, demonstrate how you can make signals
produced by the Iunction generator audible. Set up the necessary connections on your
breadboard, and show your connections to your TA beIore turning on the generator.
22. BeIore turning on the generator, set the amplitude oI the signal to the lowest possible
size. Turn on the generator. Select a sinusoidal signal with a Irequency oI 1 kHz. Turn up the
amplitude until the signal is just audible. Please do not turn the amplitude up too high as this
will disturb your classmates. Using the oscilloscope measure and record the peak-to-peak
amplitude oI the waveIorm that is just audible. Experiment with changing the Irequency and
observe the eIIects on the sound. Record your observations in the section oI the lab
measurements sheet labeled 'optional.
23. Change to a square and then a triangular waveIorm and describe the sound.
2-10
LAB MEASUREMENTS SHEET - LAB 2
Name _________________________
Student No_____________________
Workbench No_____
NOTE: Questions are related to observations, and must be answered as a part of the
procedure of this experiment.
1. Does the vertical POSITION control alter the shape or size of the displayed waveform in
any way?
2. If a higher VOLTS/DIV position is selected, does the observed waveform become larger
vertically, or smaller?
3. Does the VOLTS/DIV switch position affect the displayed waveform horizontally?
4. Record any observations, related to Vertical Controls, you wish to make.
5. Describe the effect of the vertical magnification switch on the appearance of the display,
and on the VOLTS/DIV selected position.
6. Does the VOLT/DIV control affect the shape of the waveform or its position?
7. Record any observations, related to Horizontal Controls, you wish to make.
2-11
8. If the SEC/DIV switch is changed from 1 ms/DIV to 500 s/DIV, will you see more or
fewer cycles of the display? Is the sweep speed now faster or slower?
9. Sketch the sine, square and triangle waveforms observed on CH1 and CH2.
a) Sine wave input signal b) Square wave input signal
c) Triangle wave input signal1
10. Generator Output Voltage
Table 2.10 Range of Generator Output Voltage
Minimum !"#$%&%
Knob in
Knob out
11. Describe what you see when triggering level is lower and when it is higher than the
signal amplitude.

'()'
!"#$%&'()*AC voltmeter and Oscilloscope readings
*+,-%
.*/
*+01"2%
.*/
*32,"-4$%
.*/
*5$36%3%2
7+8,$$5+859%:
!"#
$%&$%
$'()*+
,('-.'/01
12. Describe what happens when triggering Slope mode has been changed from Rising to
Falling.
13. Describe what you would expect to see if a signal were connected to CH 2, and the
TRIGGER SOURCE were set to CH 1, EXT and AC LINE position
14. Do any of the scope controls actually change the ac signal, which is connected at the
input terminals?
15. OPTIONAL
QUESTIONS
1. !"#$%&'()#What is the Iunction oI the Horizontal Position Control?
2*# !"#$%&'() #The peak voltage oI the sinusoidal waveIorm is the voltage at maximum
value. What is the peak voltage oI the waveIorm displayed below in Figure 2.10?
+,-./0#"*12*
CH1 0.5V M 50s
2-13
Peak
VoItage
3 4
5
6
3. 2 MARKS]. What is the period oI the waveIorm displayed in Figure 2.10?
4. 5 MARKS]. What is the purpose oI triggering?
5. 2 MARKS] The trigger level on an oscilloscope is set to 1 V and the trigger slope is set
to Ialling. II the waveIorm shown in Figure 2.10 is used Ior triggering, which is the most
likely point on the waveIorm at which data acquisition will start?
(a) Point (a)
(b) Point (b)
(c) Point (c)
(d) Point (d)
SIGNATURES TA name:________________________
To be completed by TA during the lab session.
Check Boxes TA Signature Student`s Task
Pre-lab completed.
Circuit oI Figure 2.9 connected correctly
Data collected and observations made
Final questions completed
MARKS
To be completed by TA aIter the lab session.
Granted Marks Max. Marks Student`s Task
0 Pre-lab preparation
0 Circuit oI Figure 2.9 connected correctly.
87 Data collected and observations made
13 Final questions completed
100 Total
2-14
LABORATORY 3
BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS
OBJECTIVES
1. To study the ac characteristics oI the non-inverting op-amp conIiguration.
2. To study the ac characteristics oI the inverting op-amp conIiguration.
3. To study the ac characteristics oI the integrator op-amp conIiguration.
4. To simulate the integrator, non-inverting and inverting op-amp circuits using Micro-Cap
soItware.
For this lab, and subsequent labs, you will be marked on performance. Your TA will check
each of your circuits as requested in the lab procedure and assign a grade on your ability
to set up circuits. Also, you will be assessed on your ability to use the equipment. If you
have forgotten how to use the multimeters, oscilloscope, breadboard, power supplies or
function generator, please refer to Labs 1 and 2.
INFORMATION
Note: Actual lab procedure follows this information section.
The integrated circuit operational ampliIier (op-amp) is an extremely versatile electronic
device, which is encountered in a wide variety oI applications ranging Irom consumer
electronics (stereos, VCR`s) to complex commercial applications and industrial controls. This
versatility stems Irom the very high voltage gain (100,000 and higher Ior the 741) together with
high input resistance (typically 1 M!) and low output resistance (typically 50!). These
characteristics allow use oI large amounts oI Ieedback Irom output to input with the result that
the desired output signal is dependent only on the external components.
Op-amps are direct coupled devices such that the input signal may be either AC or DC,
or a combination oI the two. The industrial standard op-amp, the 741, requires two power
supplies, one positive and one negative. For most applications the magnitude oI these two
voltages is the same. All op-amps have two inputs connected in a diIIerential mode, so that
output voltage is Vo A(V
+
- V
-
) where V
+
is the voltage at the non-inverting input and V
-
is
the voltage at the inverting input. A is the open loop gain oI the op-amp.
The circuit symbol Ior an op-amp is shown in Figure 3.1. The pin connections Ior the 8 pin DIP
package A741 op-amp are given in Figure 3.2.
Chip Diagrams:
Figure 3.1 Svmbol for a basic op-amp Figure 3.2 The A741 op-amp package.
3-1
Vcc+
uA 741
6
OUT
N-
8
-
7
+
2
Vcc- N+
3 4
5
1
_
OUT
+
N-
N+
Vcc+
Vcc-
Ideally, an op-amp will have inIinite open loop voltage gain A, inIinite input resistance Rin and
zero output resistance Ro. The input currents in the two diIIerential inputs and the voltage
diIIerence between the two inputs will be vanishingly small. In practice these quantities are
Iinite and in most applications can be ignored.
1. Basic non-inverting ampIifier
The basic non-inverting op-amp conIiguration is shown in Figure 3.3. You can achieve a
particular value oI the closed-loop gain Av oI the non-inverting ampliIier by choosing the R1 and
R2 values. The theoretical ideal characteristics are determined largely by the external biasing
resistors, and are given by Equations (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3).
Rin ! " Equation (3.1)
Ro 0 " Equation (3.2)
1
2
1
R
R
Jin
Jout
Av + = =
Equation (3.3)
!"#$%&'()( Basic non-inverting amplifier
2. Basic inverting ampIifier
The basic inverting op-amp conIiguration is shown in Figure 3.4. You can achieve a particular
value oI the closed-loop gain Av oI the inverting ampliIier by choosing the R1 and R2 values.
!"#$%&'()* Basic inverting amplifier
The theoretical ideal characteristics are determined largely by the external biasing resistors, and
are given by Equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6).
Rin R
1
Equation (3.4)
Ro 0 " Equation (3.5)
3-2
_
Vout
+
Vcc+
Vcc- Vin
R2
R1
Vin
R2
R1
_
Vout
+
Vcc+
Vcc-
1
2
R
R
Jin
Jout
Av ! = =
Equation (3.6)
3. Basic integrator circuit
A circuit in which output voltage is directly proportional to the integral oI the input is known as
an integrator or the integration ampliIier. Such a circuit is obtained by using operational
ampliIier in the inverting conIiguration with a capacitor C
1
in parallel with the Ieedback resistor
R
f
. The standard integrator using an ideal op-amp is given in Figure 3.5.
A square wave, when integrated, will become triangular. A triangular wave, when integrated,
will become a parabolic waveIorm, which is close to a sine wave.
A practical op-amp at low Irequencies has small DC oII-set voltages and currents, which can
sometimes create havoc with the output oI an integrator circuit. The integrator may saturate and
the output voltage becomes pegged at either the positive or negative saturation level. ThereIore
in a practical integrator, to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor R
f
is connected across
the Ieedback capacitor C
1
. Thus R
f
limits the low Irequency gain and hence minimizes the
variations in the output voltage. The addition oI the resistor also corrects the stability and low
Irequency roll-oII problems.
!"#$%&'()* An integrator circuit
EQUIPMENT
1. Digital multimeter (BK PRECISION 2831D)
2. PROTO-BOARD PB-503 (breadboard)
3. Digital Oscilloscope Tektronix TDS 210
4. Function Generator Wavetek FG3B
5. Dual Voltage Power Supply
6. Resistors: 10 k", 270 k", 2.2k"
7. Capacitors 470pF, 2x100nF, 1uF
8. uA741 op-amp
PRE-LABORATORY PREPARATION
!"#$%&'$()#(&)&*+,-$./0*$'#$1,.(%#*#2$'#3,)#$1,.+-4$*,$*"#$%&'5$6",7$+*$*,$8,/)$!9$&*$*"# $
'#4+--+-4 $ ,3 $ *"# $ %&' $ &-2 $get his/her signature in the Signature section of the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
During your pre-lab you must prepare several Micro-Cap simulations and plot the input and
output waveIorms Ior diIIerent op-amp applications. Please refer to the following remarks for
Micro-Cap circuit set up and simulation:
3-3
Vout
_
+
Vin
Vcc-
Vcc+ R1
C1
Rf
A sine wave signal source (used for simulating the circuits in Figures 3.7 and 3.8) can be
found under the Component menu by selecting Analog Primitives then Waveform
Sources then Sine Source. In the dialog window that pops up, set the Value to any
alphanumeric name you wish to give the source. Set the required frequency to F=1k(Hz)
and the AC Amplitude to A= 0.2(V) in the model description area of the signal source. Note
that A=0.2V corresponds to a magnitude of Vp-p=0.4V.
For a square wave signal source (for simulating Figure 3.10), use the Pulse Source. The
Pulse Source can be found under the Component menu by selecting Analog Primitives
then Waveform Sources then Pulse Source. In the dialog window for the Pulse Source, set
the Value of the source to SQUARE. Set the required amplitude and frequency of the
square wave signal by changing the amplitude, duration and repetition period of the pulse
sequence in the model description area of the square wave signal source. For a 10 kHz
square signal, set the pulse parameters as follows: P1=0, P2=0, P3=50U, P4=50U and
P5=100U.
Set the signal amplitude in fields VZERO to -0.2(V) and VONE to 0.2(V). Note that this
corresponds to a magnitude of Vp-p = 0.4V.
To obtain input and output waveforms for certain circuits, you must run
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS. To get the best results for your plots set the
Transient Analysis Limits as follows for Questions 1 and 3 of pre-lab:
! Time parameters: Time Range = 5m;
Maximum Time Step = 0.00001;
! Plot parameters
Page P X-
Expression
Y-Expression X-Range Y-Range
Input signal 1 T
V(1)*
5m,0,0.5m 1,-1,0.2
Output
signal
2 T
V(2)*
5m,0,0.5m 12,-12,2
Note: *V(1) and V(2) are the AC input and output voltages at corresponding nodes of the
simulation circuit set up. In your particular case they could have different numeration.
For Question 5 of the pre-lab, use:
! Time parameters: Time Range = 0.5m;
Maximum Time Step = 0.000001;
! Plot parameters (for question 5 of pre-lab):
Page P X-Expression Y-Expression X-Range Y-Range
Input signal 1 T
V(1)*
0.5m,0,0.05m Auto
Output
signal
2 T
V(2)*
0.5m,0,0.05m Auto
The Iollowing Micro-Cap simulations and plots oI the input and output waveIorms Ior diIIerent
op amp applications must be prepared Ior your pre-lab:
1. !"# $%&'() Simulate the non-inverting ampliIier shown in Figure 3.7. Plot both the
output and input waveIorms Ior a sine waveform input signal with Jin
p-p
0.4V at 1kHz.
2. !* # $%&'() From your plots calculate the voltage gain Av oI the non-inverting
ampliIier circuit. Also calculate the theoretical voltage gain Av using Equation (3.3).
Enter the values in Table 3.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
3-4
3. !"#$%&'() Simulate the inverting ampliIier shown in Figure 3.8. Plot both the output
and input waveIorms Ior a sine waveform input signal with Jin
p-p
0.4V at 1kHz.
4. !*#$%&'() From your plots calculate the voltage gain Av oI the inverting ampliIier
circuit. Also calculate the theoretical voltage gain Av using Equation (3.6). Enter the
values in Table 3.2 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
5. !"# $%&'() Simulate the real integrator circuit shown in Figure 3.10. Plot both the
output and input waveIorms Ior a square waveform input signal with Jin
p-p
0.4V at
10kHz.
Note: For each simulation, print the Micro-Cap circuit set-up with node numbers. This will help
your TA to correct any mistakes in your simulations. Bring all required plots to your lab session
and submit them to your TA. You will use these plots to draw practical results of your experiments
during the lab session.
PROCEDURE
The pin connections Ior the 8 pin DIP package uA741 op-amp are given in Figure 3.2.
Throughout this experiment use the external dual DC Power Supply Unit shown in Figure 3.4.
Use the dual trace oscilloscope to observe the shape and to measure the amplitude oI the input
and output waveIorms.
To use the Power Supply Unit:
Turn the Power Supply ON. Adjust the voltage oI the Power Supply to 12V. This
will set both positive and negative power sources respectively to 12V and 12V.
Turn the Power Supply OFF beIore connecting to the circuits.
Connect the +,( #terminal oI the Power Supply to the -../ oI your circuit.
Connect the 012 #terminal oI the Power Supply to the -..3 oI your circuit.
Connect the 4,$#terminal oI the Power Supply to the ground oI your circuit
56789:#*;< Front panel of power supplv unit
1. Non-inverting ampIifier measurements
1.1. Build the circuit oI Figure 3.7 using an 8-pin uA741 op-amp with R
1
10k!, R
2
270 k!.
To achieve better circuit stability, connect 100nF capacitors between pins #4 and #7 oI the
uA741 and the Ground, as shown in Figure 3.7.
!"#$%&"#%'()*+&%"(,%-##$%.*/0'#&#12%"(3#%)*+4%56%."#.7%)*+4%-4#(1-*(41%8*4%#44*4,%($1%
9#&%":,;"#4%,:9$(&+4#%:$%&"#%<:9$(&+4#%,#.&:*$%*8%&"#%=(-%>#(,+4#/#$&,%<"##&?%@*+%A:''%-#%
0#$(':B#1%/(47,%:8%)*+4%,"##&%:,%$*&%:$:&:('#1?
1.2. Apply a 1kHz sinusoidal voltage signal Irom the Signal Generator to the input and use the
dual trace oscilloscope to observe both input and output waveIorms. Adjust the magnitude oI the
input signal until clipping occurs on either the positive or negative peak oI the output voltage.
Determine the maximum possible ac voltage swing, i.e. maximum peak to peak voltage that can
3-5
ADJUST
POS COM NEG !"# $"
$%%
be obtained at the output oI the circuit without clipping. Compare this to the DC power supply
voltages. Put this inIormation in section 1.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
1.3. For Jin
p-p
0.4V at F1kHz measure the amplitude oI the output signal Jout and calculate
voltage gain oI this circuit. Record data and compare the values with pre-lab calculations in
Table 3.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
1.4. Draw the input and output waveIorms on top oI your simulations plots. In section 1.3 oI the
Lab Measurements Sheet compare how close your practical results are to the simulations.
!"#$%&'()* Measurement circuit for non-inverting amplifier
1.5. Turn the oscilloscope into 'XY Mode+ and observe the curve on its display. Vary the input
signal amplitude and explain what happens when you change the magnitude oI the input signal
beIore and aIter the output signal becomes saturated. Draw the XY waveIorm in Figure 3.12 in
section 1.4 and answer question in section 1.5 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
* To turn the oscilloscope into 'XY Mode, Iirst press the 'DISPLAY button and then by
pressing the soIt button 'FORMAT, assigned to display, choose 'XY mode. You can
conIirm that you are in the correct mode iI an 'XY Mode notice is displayed in the
bottom right corner oI the oscilloscope`s display.
2. Inverting ampIifier measurements
2.1. Build the circuit oI Figure 3.8 using an 8-pin uA741 op-amp with R
1
10k!, R
2
270 k!.
To achieve better circuit stability, connect 100nF capacitors between the pins #4 and #7 oI the
uA741 and the Ground, as shown in Figure 3.8.
!"#$%&"#%'()*+&%"(,%-##$%.*/0'#&#12%"(3#%)*+4%56%."#.7%)*+4%-4#(1-*(41%8*4%#44*4,%($1%
9#&%":,;"#4%,:9$(&+4#%:$%&"#%<:9$(&+4#%,#.&:*$%*8%&"# =(-%>#(,+4#/#$&,%<"##&?%@*+%A:''%-#%
0#$(':B#1%/(47,%:8%)*+4%,"##&%:,%$*&%:$:&:('#1?
2.2. Apply a 1kHz sinusoidal voltage signal Irom the Signal Generator to the input and use the
dual trace oscilloscope to observe the shape and to measure the amplitude oI the input and output
waveIorms.
2.3. For Jin
p-p
0.4V at F1kHz measure the amplitude oI the output signal Jout and calculate
voltage gain oI this circuit. Record data and compare the values with pre-lab calculations in
Table 3.2 in section 2.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
3-6
_
CH 1
C2 100n
R1
+
CH-2
Vin
2 Vout
R3
2.2k
SGNAL
+12V
C1
100n
10k
3
270k
-12V
GENERATOR
4
1kHz
CH 2
CH-1
7
R2
6
uA741
!"#$%&'()* Measurement circuit Ior inverting ampliIier
2.4. Draw the input and output waveIorms on top oI your simulations plots. In section 2.2 oI the
Lab Measurements Sheet compare how close your practical results are to the simulations.
2.5. Input resistance measurements.
Using a Digital Multimeter, measure the AC input current oI the inverting ampliIier, as shown in
Figure 3.9. Read the input voltage RMS* value on your oscilloscope. Record the measured
values and calculations in Table 3.3 at section 2.3 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet. Compare the
result to the theoretical expectation in section 2.4 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
!"#$%&'()+ Input resistance measurements.
,-./&: Switch the oscilloscope voltage measurement mode Ior the Channel 1 Irom 'peak-to-
peak mode (p-p) to 'Cyc-RMS mode by pressing the assigned display button to the CH1.
3. Integrator measurements
3.1. Connect the circuit oI Iigure 3.10 using an 8-pin uA741 op-amp, R
1
10k! and C470pF.
To achieve better circuit stability, connect 100nF capacitors between the pins #4 and #7 oI the
uA741 and the Ground, as shown in Figure 3.10.
!"#$%&"#%'()*+&%"(,%-##$%.*/0'#&#12%"(3#%)*+4%56%."#.7%)*+4%-4#(1-*(41%8*4%#44*4,%($1%
9#&%":,;"#4%,:9$(&+4#%:$%&"#%<:9$(&+4#%,#.&:*$%*8%&"#!=(-%>#(,+4#/#$&,%<"##&?%@*+%A:''%-#%
0#$(':B#1%/(47,%:8%)*+4%,"##&%:,%$*&%:$:&:('#1?
3.2. Apply a "#$
%&%
0.4V, ' 10kHz square waveIorm voltage signal Irom the Signal Generator
to the input and use the dual trace oscilloscope to observe both input and output waveIorms.
3.3. Draw the input and output waveIorms on top oI your simulations plots. Compare how close
your practical results are to the simulations. Determine iI the output waveIorm is what you
would expect Irom an ideal integrator. How close is the waveIorm to the ideal integrator circuit?
Record your observations in section 3.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
3-7
C2 100n
CH 1
CH-1
mA
C1
100n
270k
2
R1
-12V
1kHz
GENERATOR
4
Vin
+
uA741
CH-2
R2
6
Vout
_
CH 2
7
10k
R3
2.2k
+12V
3
SGNAL
C2 100n
3
1kHz
CH-2
uA741
Vout
SGNAL
R2
R1
+12V
CH 2
C1
100n
_
+
-12V
GENERATOR
270k
7
2
10k
4
CH-1
CH 1
6
Vin
R3
2.2k
!"#$%&'()*+ Integrator measurements circuit
3.4. Apply a f 10 kHz triangle waveIorm voltage signal Irom the Signal Generator to the input
and use the dual trace oscilloscope to observe both input and output waveIorms.
3.5. For a triangular input signal with Jin
p-p
0.4V, draw the input and output waveIorms in
Figure 3.13 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet. Determine iI the output waveIorm is what you
would expect Irom an ideal integrator. How close is the waveIorm to the ideal integrator circuit?
Record your observations in section 3.3 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
4. OPTIONAL
Operational ampliIiers can also be used to build active Iilters and signal generators circuits. The
astable multivibrator is basically an op-amp with positive Ieedback. A typical astable
multivibrator, illustrated in Figure 3.11, is able to generate square waveIorm signals with
adjustable Irequency.
!"#$%&'()** Tvpical astable multivibrator circuit
4.1. Connect the circuit on the breadboard and show it to your TA.
4.2. Observe and draw waveIorms at pin 2 (input) and pin 6 (output) oI the op-amp in Figure
3.14 oI the Lab Measurement Sheets.
4.3. Explain how this circuit operates. What is the range oI output signal change when you
change the potentiometer position and its resistance?
3-8
uA741
C2 100n
4 3
Vout
C1
1uF
+
R3
10k
10k
Rpot
+12V
2
C3 100n
10k
_
6
-12V
7
R1
CH 2 CH 1
R2 270k
GENERATOR
SGNAL
10kHz
7
uA741
CH-2
6
4
R3
2.2k
Vin
2
+
Vout
C1 470 pF
_
+12V
-12V
R1
CH-1
C2
100n
10k
3
C3 100n
LAB MEASUREMENTS SHEET - LAB 3
Name _________________________
Student No_____________________
Workbench No_____
NOTE: Questions are related to observations, and must be answered as a part of the
procedure of this experiment.
Sections marked * are pre-lab preparation and must be completed BEFORE coming to the
lab.
1. Non-Inverting Amplifier
1.1. Determine the maximum possible ac voltage swing, i.e. maximum peak to peak voltage
that can be obtained at the output oI the circuit. Compare this to the DC power supply
voltages.
1.2. Voltage gain measurements
Table 3.1 Non-Inverting amplifier measurements
Jin (V)
(measured)
Jout (V)
(measured)
Jin
Jo
Av =
`Jin (V)
(simulated)
`Jout (V)
(simulated)
Jin
Jo
Av = *
1
2
1 *
R
R
Av + =
1.3. Compare how close your practical gain result is to the theoretically calculated value.
1.4. The X-Y mode waveIorms in non-saturated and saturated mode
a) Non-saturated mode b) Saturated mode
Figure 3.12 The X-Y mode waveforms.
3-9
1.5. Explain what happens with X-Y waveIorm when you change the magnitude oI the input
signal beIore and aIter the output signal became saturated.
2. Inverting Amplifier
2.1. Voltage gain and input and output resistance measurements.
Table 3.2 Inverting amplifier measurements
Jin (V)
(measured)
Jout (V)
(measured)
Jin
Jo
Av =
`Jin (V)
(simulated)
`Jout (V)
(simulated)
Jin
Jo
Av = *
1
2
*
R
R
Av ! =
2.2. Compare how close your practical gain result in Table 3.2 is to the theoretically
calculated value.
2.3. Input resistance measurements.
Table 3.3 Input resistance measurements.
Jin (V) Iin (A)
Iin
Jin
Rin = (")
2.4. Compare how close the measured Rin value is to the theoretically calculated value.
3. Integrator
3.1. Determine iI the output waveIorm to a square waveIorm input is what you would expect
Irom an ideal integrator. How close is the waveIorm?
3-10
3.2. Draw the input and output waveIorms oI the integrator circuit Ior the triangle waveIorm
input signals.

!"#$%&'()*( Input/output signal waveforms for triangular input voltage
3.3. Determine iI the output waveIorm is what you would expect Irom an ideal integrator.
How close is the waveIorm?
+) ,-./,012
This space is for the optional part of the procedures.
!"#$%&'()*+'Signal waveforms at pins 2 and 6 of the op-amp
3-11
SIGNATURES TA name:________________________
To be completed by TA during the lab session.
Check Boxes TA Signature Student`s Task
Pre-lab completed.
Circuit of Figure 3.7 connected and equipment used correctly
Circuit of Figure 3.8 connected and equipment used correctly
Circuit of Figure 3.10 connected and equipment used correctly
Data collected and observations made
MARKS
To be completed by TA after the lab session.
Granted Marks Max. Marks Student`s Task
!"
Pre-lab preparation
#$
Circuit of Figure 3.7 connected and equipment used correctly
#$
Circuit of Figure 3.8connected and equipment used correctly
#$
Circuit of Figure 3.10 connected and equipment used correctly
%$
Data collected and observations made
100 Total
!&#%
LABORATORY 4
BASIC ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
OBJECTIVES
1. To study the non-ideal characteristics oI electrical measurement equipment.
2. To become Iamiliar with concepts relating to error analysis and uncertainty.
For this lab, you will be marked on performance. Your TA will check each of your
circuits as requested in the lab procedure and assign a grade on your ability to set up
circuits. Also, you will be assessed on your ability to use the equipment. If you have
forgotten how to use the multimeters, oscilloscope, breadboard, power supplies or
function generator, please refer to Labs 1 and 2.
INFORMATION
Note: Actual lab procedure follows this information section.
1. Errors
Every measurement that is made is subject to a number oI errors. The Iollowing is a list
oI possible sources oI error:
1.1. Static Error
Static error is an error that does not vary with time and is inherent in most instruments. A
typical static error is the zero setting oI the needle in an analog display. The Simpson model
260 analog multimeter is designed to be used laying Ilat on its back. II a measurement is made
with this instrument standing up, then a static error inherent in the design oI the instrument is
introduced.
1.2. Dynamic Error
A dynamic error can occur when the quantity being measured Iluctuates as a Iunction oI time.
An instrument may not give the correct reading iI it is used to measure a voltage that varies
slowly with time. Not all instruments can be used to measure periodic waveIorms at higher
Irequencies.
1.3. Insertion and Loading Errors
An important rule in making any measurement is that the measuring process must not
signiIicantly upset and alter the phenomena being measured. In practice, the measuring process
will have some eIIect on the measurement being made, and this is something that should be
considered as a source oI error. Such errors may be caused by 'inserting an ammeter with a
non-zero impedance in a circuit, or placing a voltmeter across a circuit that 'loads down the
voltage being measured.
4-1
1.4. Instrument Error
Any measuring instrument will be accurate only to a certain extent and only iI it has been
calibrated. This is true Ior the measuring instruments used in this course. The range oI accuracy
oI these instruments are given in Appendices B and C.
For example, suppose that a Simpson 260 model and a BK PRECISION 2831D model
multimeter are used separately to measure a DC voltage oI 1.78 V. II the 2.5 VDC range on the
Simpson is used, there will be an inherent error oI 2 oI Iull scale deIlection (Irom Appendix
B) or 0.05 V (2.5 V x 2). The accuracy will be 1.78 0.05 V. II the 2 VDC range oI the BK
PRECISION 2831D is used, the error introduced will be 0.05 oI the reading plus 5 units in
the last digit (Irom Appendix C). II the BK 2831D digital display shows 1.7824 V, then the
error due to the actual reading is 0.0008912 V. The readout, however, cannot display all these
digits and the error is rounded oII to 0.0009. An additional error is introduced in the last or
least signiIicant digit (LSD) oI 5, giving a total error in the reading oI 0.0014. The recorded
reading now becomes 1.7824 0.0014 V. The error due to the last digit is 0.0005 V because
Ior the 2 V range, there are Iour digits aIter the decimal point in the meter`s display.
1.5. Human Error
A human error is an error made by an observer when recording a measurement or by using an
instrument incorrectly. Two types oI human error are parallax reading error (caused by reading
an instrument pointer Irom an angle) and interpolation error (made in 'guessing the correct
value between two calibrated marks on the meter scale).
1.6. TheoreticaI Error
Theoretical models are oIten used to determine the range oI measurement that can be expected
when measurements oI phenomena are made. The actual phenomena, however, may be
complex and the model used may be valid over a small limited range oI values. This can result
in a discrepency between theoretical and measured results that is not caused by any
experimental error, but by the inadequacy oI the theoretical model to describe the phenomena
being measured.
1.7. MisceIIaneous Error
A miscellaneous error is an error that does not Iit in the above categories. An example oI such
an error is an error caused by taking measurements under diIIerent temperature conditions.
2. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
It is customary in measurement work to report a result with all the digits oI which we
are sure, and a Iinal digit that is believed to be nearest to the true value. It is misleading and
incorrect to give more than one doubtIul Iigure, e.g. to put down a particular value Ior tenths oI
a unit when the number oI units is not deIinitely known. For example, a measurement oI "5.17
V" indicates that the voltage is known to better than one tenth oI a volt and that the
measurement oI the hundredth oI a volt is uncertain but is close to seven.
SuperIluous Iigures are sometimes allowed to accumulate in computations involving
addition, substraction, multiplication or division, but the Iinal answer must be rounded oII iI
4-2
extra digits accumulate beyond the inherent limits oI certainty oI the original data. It is standard
practice that iI the digit to be discarded is less than 5, then it and any succeeding numbers are
dropped; iI the digit is 5 or greater, then the previous digit is increased by one and succeeding
numbers are dropped. For example, iI 67.238 were to be rounded to three signiIicant digits,
then it would rounded to 67.2; iI 67.267 were to be rounded to three signiIicant digits, then it
would rounded to 67.3. Some examples oI accumulation oI superIluous Iigures and rounding
oII are given below.
ExampIe 2.1
Suppose we have two resistances in series with values oI R
1
24.4 ! and R
2
0.516
!. The total series resistance (R
1
R
2
) is 24.916 !, but this value is meaningless since R
1
has
an accuracy oI 0.1 ! and the sum cannot be guaranteed to a one-tenth oI an ohm. The sum
should thereIore be rounded to 24.9 !.
ExampIe 2.2
Suppose we wish to Iind the voltage drop across a resistor using Ohm's law and the
values measured Ior resistance and current are 45.73 ! and 2.56 A respectively. The voltage
drop becomes V IR 117.0688 V. The resistance value is known to Iour signiIicant Iigures
and the current is known to three. This limits the number oI signiIicant Iigures that can be
included in the answer since the answer cannot be known to greater accuracy than the least
deIined oI the parameters. The correct procedure is thereIore to round oII the answer to three
signiIicant Iigures, i.e. to 117 V.
3. LIMITING ERRORS (GUARANTEED ACCURACY)
Suppose the power dissipated in a 100 !, 2 resistor is to be determined using P I
2
R
where I 4.0 A as measured on the 10 A range oI an ammeter with a Iull scale deIlection (!"#)
accuracy oI 1. The manuIacturer's speciIication oI the tolerance on the value oI resistance
does not speciIy a standard deviation or probable error, but instead speciIies that the error will
be no greater than 2 (2.00 ! in our example). Similarly, the manuIacturer oI the ammeter
guarantees that the error in the current measurement will be no greater than 1 Isd (0.100 A).
These are limiting errors in the sense that it is virtually certain that the errors will not exceed
these limits.
4. PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES
Suppose that in addition to calculating the power P we wish to calculate the limits
within which the value oI P can be guaranteed. The maximum value oI P can be calculated
using methods oI partial diIIerentiation by treating the uncertainty in each variable as a
diIIerential and the uncertainty in the derived result as a total diIIerential.
The total diIIerential Ior a Iunction ! "(#, $) is deIined as
%$
$
!
%#
#
!
%!
"
"
"
"
+ =
Equation (4.1)
4-3
where !" and !# are diIIerentials in " and # respectively. II the uncertainties in $%&'% and ( can
be expressed as !$&)&!*, !'&)&!", and !(&)&!#, then the expression Ior the limit oI uncertainty
in P can be written as
(
(
$
'
'
$
$ !
"
"
!
"
"
! + =
Equation (4.2)
where absolute values are used to allow Ior the worst case where the eIIects oI the uncertainties
are additive.
Since $&)&'
+
(, the partial derivatives are
'( ( '
' '
$
2
2
= =
"
"
"
"
Equation (4.3)
2 2
' ( '
( (
$
= =
"
"
"
"
Equation (4.4)
II !'&)&,.100 A and !( 2.00 #, then the uncertainty in $ is
- $ 0 . 112 0 . 32 0 . 80 ) 00 . 2 ( ) 00 . 4 ( ) 10 . 0 )( 0 . 100 00 . 4 2 (
2
= + = + $ $ = ! Equation (4.5)
II - $ 0 . 1600 ) 0 . 100 ( ) 00 . 4 (
2
= $ = , then the maximum percent error is (112/1600) 7.00. It
should be noted that the actual error will be very likely less than the maximum error.
The propagated uncertainty Ior P can also be calculated using relative errors. II
( ' ' '( (
(
$
'
'
$
$ ! ! !
"
"
!
"
"
!
2
2 + = + =
Equation (4.6)
then an expression Ior the relative uncertainty in power can be obtained by dividing both sides
oI the equation by $&)&'
+
(:
(
(
'
'
$
$ ! ! !
+ = 2
Equation (4.7)
where !$.$, !'.', and !(.( are the relative uncertainties in $%&', and ( respectively. Again, the
maximum percent error is 7.00.
PRE-LAB PREPARATION
!"#$%&'$()#(&)&*+,-$./0*$'#$1,.(%#*#2$'#3,)#$1,.+-4$*,$*"#$%&'5$6",7$+*$*,$8,/)$!9$&*$*"#$
'#4+--+-4 $ ,3 $ *"# $ %&' $ &-2 $get his/her signature in the Signature section of the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
1. [ 3 MARKS] Resistor uncertainties
You will use three resistors in the lab having nominal values oI 1.5 k#, 120 k# and 470 k#. II
each resistor has a tolerance oI 5, calculate the uncertainties in the resistors. Enter the
calculated values in Table 4.1.

2. [ 25 MARKS] VoItmeters
a) Figure 4.1 shows an electrical circuit consisting oI a dc voltage source V
1
, two resistors in
series, R
1
and R
2
, and a voltmeter V
M
connected to measure the voltage across R
2
. II V
1

4-4
10.0 VDC, R
1
470 k! 5 and R
2
120 k! 5 and voltmeter V
M
is an ideal voltmeter.
Calculate the expected reading oI the meter (V
M
) , and record it in the column labeled
'Calculated value in Table 4.2 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
Calculate the uncertainty in V
M
due to the uncertainty oI the given resistors. Show all oI your
calculations on a separate sheet oI paper.
b) Calculate the expected reading (V
DIGITAL
) when a practical digital multimeter (BK2831D)
set to measure dc voltage is used instead oI an ideal meter Ior V
M
. Record your results in Table
4.2. Note that the multimeter, when used as a voltmeter, can be modelled as an ideal voltmeter
in parallel with an internal input resistance(R
in
) as shown in Figure 4.2. The value oI the
resistance is dependent on the scale setting used. Include the internal input resistance oI the
meter in your calculations. The values needed Ior this calculation can be Iound in Appendix C.
Calculate the instrument error associated with this reading, and enter the result in Table 4.2.
Again, you will need to use Appendix C.
Figure 4.1 Joltage measurement circuit Figure 4.2 Joltage measurement using a non-
ideal meter
c) Repeat part b) using a practical analog meter (Simpson Model 270) instead oI a practical
digital multimeter, i.e., calculate V
ANALOG
. From Appendix B, assuming a !"# oI 2.5 VDC, the
sensitivity is 20,000 !/V. Hence, the input resistance is 2.5 V x 20,000 !/V 50,000 ! 50
k!. Also calculate the instrument error. Record V
ANALOG
and the instrument error in Table 4.2.
3. [ 22 MARKS] Ammeters
a) Figure 4.3 shows an electrical circuit consisting oI a dc voltage source V
1
, a resistor R and
an ammeter A
M
connected in series. II R 1.5 k! 5 and ammeter A
M
is an ideal
ammeter, then calculate the expected reading oI the meter Ior a DC source voltage V
1
1.3
VDC. Record your results in the column labeled 'Calculated value in Table 4.3 oI the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
Also calculate the uncertainty in the expected reading due to the uncertainty oI the given
resistor. Show your calculations on a separate sheet oI paper.
4-5
10V
V
R1
470k
R2
120k
M
Rin
Digital
V
COM
V1
DEAL
R1
470k
M
R2
120k
V
10V
V1
V
COM
Figure 4.3 Current measurement circuit
b) Re-calculate the current iI a practical digital multimeter (BK2831D) is used instead oI an
ideal meter as shown in Figure 4.4. Include the internal input resistance oI the meter in your
calculations. The values needed Ior this calculation can be Iound in Appendix C. Record your
results in the column labeled 'Calculated value (A
DIGITAL
) in Table 4.3 oI the Lab
Measurements Sheet.
Figure 4.4 Current measurement using a non-ideal meter
The internal resistance oI meters in the ammeter mode can be calculated using the
voltage drops at Iull scale deIlection obtained Irom the instrument speciIications. For example,
the speciIication Ior the Simpson Model 260 meter shows a voltage drop oI 280 mV Isd when
the meter is set Ior the 0-100mA current range (see Appendix B). The ammeter resistance Ior
this range is thereIore:
! =
"
"
=
#
#
8 . 2
10 100
10 280
3
3
A
J
Rin Equation (4.8)
For the BK 2831D, the voltage drop is 0.3 V Ior all ranges up to 200 mA (see Appendix C).
Also, calculate and record in Table 4.3 the instrument error when using the digital meter.
c) Repeat part b) but use an analog multimeter (Simpson Model 270) as an ammeter in the
appropriate dc current measurement setting instead oI the digital multimeter, i.e., calculate
A
ANALOG
. The values needed Ior this calculation can be Iound in Appendix B.
Also calculate the instrument error. Record A
ANALOG
and the instrument error in Table 4.3.
4-6
R
1.5k
V1
1.3V
Com
COM
A
A
M

1.3V
A
R
1.5k
com
V1
D
Rin
A
COM
EQUIPMENT
1. Digital multimeter (BK PRECISION 2831D)
2. Analog multimeter (Simpson 260/270)
3. DC Power Supply
4. PROTO-BOARD (breadboard)
6. Resistors : 1.5 k!, 120 k!, 470 k!.
PROCEDURE
Note the Iollowing inIormation beIore starting the lab:
a) You will be using two diIIerent meters Ior this lab exercise: a digital multimeter and an
analog multimeter that you will use as a voltmeter and an ammeter.
b) When using either the digital and/or analog meter to do any measurement, set it to the range
that will allow you to obtain the maximum digits or deIlection.
1. Ohmmeters
You are provided with three resistors to be used in this and other parts oI the lab exercise.
These have nominal values oI 1.5 k!, 120 k!, and 470 k!.
Measure and record the value oI each resistor in turn using the digital multimeter and
Iill the results in Table 4.1 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
Answer the question in section 2 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.

2. VoItmeters
a) Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4.1 using the PROTO-BOARD. Set V
1
10.0
VDC using the digital multimeter.
!"#$%&'($)!$*&$+,-+#$%&'($+.(+'.*$/01 2-*$,."3,-($".20/*'(-$.0$*,-$4.20/*'(-$"-+*.&0$&5 $
*,- 6/7$8-/"'(-9-0*"$4,--*:$;&'$<.==$7-$>-0/=.?-1$9/(#"$.5$%&'($",--*$."$0&*$.0.*./=-1:
b) Measure V
M
using the digital multimeter set to the range that will allow you to obtain
the maximum digits aIter the decimal point. Record the readings in Table 4.2 (V
DIGITAL
).
c) Repeat part b) using the Simpson analog multimeter set to the range that will allow you
to obtain the maximum scale deIlection. Pictures oI Simpson 260 multimeter are shown
in Figure 4.5. Record the reading in Table 4.2 (V
ANALOG
).
d) Answer the question in section 4 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
!"# Scale with deflection needle !$# Control panel
%&'()*+,-. Simpson 260/270 analog multimeter
4-7
3. Ammeters
a) Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4.3 using the PROTO-BOARD breadboard.
Set V
1
1.3 VDC.
!"#$%&'($)!$*&$+,-+#$%&'($+.(+'.*$/01 2-*$,."3,-($".20/*'(-$.0$*,-$4.20/*'(-$"-+*.&0$&5 $
*,- 6/7$8-/"'(-9-0*"$4,--*:$;&'$<.==$7-$>-0/=.?-1$9/(#"$.5$%&'($",--*$."$0&*$.0.*./=-1:
b) Measure the current using the digital multimeter set to the range that will allow you to obtain
the maximum digits aIter the decimal point. Record the readings in Table 4.3 (A
DIGITAL
).
c) Repeat part b) using the analog multimeter set to the range that will allow you to obtain the
maximum scale deIlection. Record the readings in Table 4.3 (A
ANALOG
).
d) Answer the question in section 6 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet.
4. OPTIONAL
How would you determine experimentally iI an analog multimeter (e.g., Simpson Model 270)
is causing signiIicant loading error? Hint: Consider the circuit shown in Figure 4.6. Ideally,
what voltage do you expect to measure across resistor R2, i.e., do not consider the loading
eIIect oI the meter? Do your calculations in the section oI the lab measurements sheet labeled
'optional.
Now, suppose that the meter is to be used on the 10 V range. What do you expect the meter
will measure; remember to take into account loading error? Do the calculations again with the
meter set to the 50 V range and then to the 250 V range. Using your calculations, suggest a
method Ior determining experimentally iI a meter is causing serious loading error in a circuit.
VeriIy your calculations and suggestion by setting up the circuit in the Iigure and measuring the
voltage across R2 using the analog multimeter with range settings oI 10, 50 and 250 V.
Figure 4.6 Circuit for optional section
4-8
V1
10V
R1
470k
R2
1M
LAB MEASUREMENTS SHEET - LAB 4
Name _________________________
Student No_____________________
Workbench No_____
AO1E: Questions are related to observations, and must be answered as a part of the
procedure of this experiment.
Sections marked are pre-lab preparation and must be completed BEFORE coming
to the lab.
1. Table 4.1 Resistance measurements
Resistor Nominal value
(k!)
`Uncertainty
(k!)
Measured
value (k!)
Error
1
R1 1.5 k!
R2 120 k!
R3 470 k!
1
Calculate the ' Error` using the Iormula:
100
value Nominal
value Measured Nominal
"
#
= Error
2. Are the measured values within the tolerances speciIied by the manuIacturer?
4-9
3. Table 4.2 !"#$%&'()'%*+,')'-$*
Voltage
measurement
`Calculated
value (V)
`Instrument
error (V)
Measured value
(V)
Error from
ideal
2
Error from
calculated
3
V
M (ideal)
V
DIGITAL

V
ANALOG
2
'. ( /,,", ( 0,") ( 12'%# is calculated using the Iormula:
100
value Ideal
value Measured Ideal
!
"
= /,,",
3
For ' Error Irom calculated use the Iormula:
100
value Calculated
value Measured Calculated
!
"
= /,,",
4. When measuring the voltage across a resistor, should the input resistance oI the meter
be lower or higher than the resistance oI the resistor? Why?
4-10
5. Table 4.3 Current measurements
Current
measurement
`Calculated
value (mA)
`Instrument
error (mA)
Measured
value (mA)
Error from
ideal
4
Error from
calculated
4
A
M
A
DIGITAL
A
ANALOG
4
Use Iormulas Irom section 3 oI the Lab Measurements Sheet
6. When measuring the current through a resistor, should the input resistance be lower or
higher than the resistance oI the resistor? Why?
7. OPTIONAL
This space is for the OPTIONAL section of the procedures.
4-11
SIGNATURES TA name:________________________
To be completed by TA during the lab session.
Check Boxes TA Signature Student`s Task
Pre-lab completed.
Circuit oI Figure 4.1 connected and equipment used
correctly
Circuit oI Figure 4.3 connected and equipment used
correctly
Data collected and observations made
MARKS
To be completed by TA aIter the lab session.
Granted Marks Max. Marks Student`s Task
50 Pre-lab preparation
10 Circuit oI Figure 4.1 connected and equipment used
correctly
10 Circuit oI Figure 4.3 connected and equipment used
correctly
30 Data collected and observations made
100 Total
4-12
APPENDIX A
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
The value oI resistance and the tolerance oI many Iixed resistors are marked on the
resistor using bands oI colours that may be read according to a well established code. The
arrangement oI the bands and the associated code are shown in Figure A.l and Table A.l
respectively.
Figure A.1 Arrangement of bands of colour on fixed resistors. Band 1 indicates the
first significant figure, band 2 the second significant figure, band 3 the
decimal multiplier, and band 4 the tolerance.
CoIour Significant Figure DecimaI MuItipIier ToIerance
Black 0 1E + 00
Brown 1 1E + 01
Red 2 1E + 02 2%
Orange 3 1E + 03
Yellow 4 1E + 04
Green 5 1E + 05
Blue 6 1E + 06
Violet 7 1E + 07
Grey 8 1E + 08
White 9 1E + 09
Gold - - 5%
Silver - - 10%
No Colour - - 20%
Table A.1
Reading the bands is very simple, e.g. a resistor marked with the sequence red, red,
orange, silver is a 22 x 10
3
ohm resistor oI 10 tolerance.
In general, the selection oI Iixed resistors is better as the tolerance is decreased, i.e. there
is a greater selection Ior 2 resistors than there is Ior 20 resistors. In this laboratory, 2
resistors are used to obtain the greater selection but it must be remembered that the lower
tolerance means higher price so that in practice when designing circuits one would usually use
the largest tolerance permissible to meet design speciIications.
The values oI the 2 resistors used in this laboratory progress as Iollows:
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82 multiplied by Iactors oI 10.
Note: On some resistors a Iive band colour code is used. In this case, the Iirst three bands are
signiIicant Iigures, the Iourth the multiplier, and the IiIth the tolerance.
App-1

2 1 4 3
APPENDIX B
Simpson ModeI 260/270 MuItimeter Specifications
DC VoItage Measurement Parameters
Knob
Position
250 mV 1 V 2.5 V 10 V 50 V 250V 500V 1000V
Range 0-250 mV 0-1 V 0-2.5 V 0-10 V 0-50 V 0-250V 0-500V 0-1000V
Sensitivity 20 000 !/V
Accuracy 2 Isd (260); 1.25 Isd (270)
AC VoItage Measurement Parameters
Knob
Position
250 mV 1 V 2.5 V 10 V 50 V 250V 500V 1000V
Range 0-250 mV 0-1 V 0-2.5 V 0-10 V 0-50 V 0-250V 0-500V 0-1000V
Sensitivity 5 000 !/V
Accuracy 2 Isd (260); 1.25 Isd (270)
DC Current Measurement Parameters
Knob
Position
50 A 1 mA 10 mA 50 mA 500 mA 10A
Range 0-50 A 0-1 mA 0-10 mA 0-100 mA 0-500 mA 0-10A
Sensitivity 250 mV drop Isd 280 mV
drop Isd
400 mV
drop Isd
250 mV
drop Isd
Accuracy 1.5 Isd (260);
0.75 Isd (270)
2.0 Isd (260); 1.25 Isd (270)
Resistance Measurement Parameters
Knob Position Rx1 Rx100 Rx10000
Range 0-2 k! 0-200 k! 0-20 M!
Scale 12 ! center 1.2 k! center 120 k! center
Accuracy
2.5
o
oI arc (260);
1.5
o
oI arc (270)
2.0
o
oI arc (260);
1.0
o
oI arc (270)
2.0
o
oI arc (260);
1.0
o
oI arc (270)
Note:On ac ranges, the instrument is calibrated to read the root-mean-square (rms) value oI a
sinusoidal voltage.
App-2
APPENDIX C
BK PRECISION 2831D DigitaI MuItimeter Specifications
Measures true RMS for accurate interpretation of any waveform signal
4 Digit LED display for clear reading in darkest environment
Great overload protection on all ranges
Voltage measurements up to 1200VDC and 750VAC
Current measurements up to 20A AC/DC
Basic accuracy for DCV is 0.05%
Important Note: AII accuracies appIy to 5% to 95% fuII scaIe of each range
DC VoItage Measurement Parameters
Range Resolution Accuracy mpedance
2 V
20 V
200 V
100 V
1 mV
10 mV
(0.05% + 5d)
10 MC
1200V
1000V 100mV (0.1% + 5d)
1200V 100mV (0.3% + 5d)
AC VoItage Measurement Parameters
Range Resolution Frequency Accuracy mpedance
2V 100 V
40Hz to 60Hz (0.75% + 10d) 10MC
60Hz to 1kHz (1.5% + 10d)
1kHz to 5kHz (2.5% + 10d)
5kHz to 10kHz (5.0% + 10d)
20V 1 mV
40Hz to 60Hz (0.75% + 10d)
60Hz to 1kHz (2.5% + 10d)
1kHz to 5kHz (5.0% + 10d)
5kHz to 10kHz (10% + 10d)
200V 10 mV
40Hz to 50Hz (1.0% + 10d)
50Hz to 60Hz (0.75% + 10d)
60Hz to 1kHz (2.5% + 10d)
1kHz to 5kHz (5% + 10d)
750V 100 mV 40Hz to 50Hz (1.0% + 10d)
50Hz to 60Hz (0.75% + 10d)
60Hz to 400Hz (2.5% + 10d)
!""#$
400Hz to 1kHz (5% + 10d)
DC Current Measurement Parameters
Range Resolution Accuracy Over Load Protection
2 mA
20 mA
200 mA
100 nA
1 A
10 A
(0.75% + 5d)
2A/250V
2 A 100 A (1.0% + 5d)
20 A 1 mA (1.0 % + 10d) 15A/250V
Voltage Drop: 0.3 V Ior all ranges up to 200 mA
1 V max. at 2 A
2.5 V max. at 20 A
AC Current Measurement Parameters
Note: On ac ranges, the meter is calibrated to read the root-mean-square (rms) value oI voltage
or current.
Resistance Measurement Parameters
Range Resolution Accuracy Over Load Protection
2 kC
20 kC
200 kC
2 MC
0.1 C
1 C
10 C
100 C
(0.2% + 6d)
600V DC or Peak
20 MC 1 kC (1% + 10d)
Range Resolution Frequency Accuracy Over Load
Protection
2mA 100 nA 40Hz to 50Hz (1.5% + 10d)
2A/250V
20mA 1 A 50Hz to 60Hz (0.75% + 10d)
200mA 10 A
60Hz to 1kHz (2.0% + 10d)
1kHz to 5kHz (3.0% + 10d)
2000mA 100 A
40Hz to 50Hz (1.5% + 10d)
50Hz to 60Hz (1.0% + 10d)
60Hz to 1kHz (2.0% + 10d)
1kHz to 5kHz (3.0% + 10d)
20A 1mA
40Hz to 50Hz (1.5% + 10d)
15A/250V
50Hz to 60Hz (1.0% + 10d)
60Hz to 1kHz (2.0% + 10d)
1kHz to 2kHz (3.0% + 10d)
App-4
Frequency
Range Resolution Accuracy Over Load Protection
20 kHz 1 Hz (1.5% + 5d)
600V DC or Peak
200 kHz 10 Hz (2.0% + 5d)
Frequencies under 500Hz requires a minimum amplitude of at least 4Vpp, other
sensitivities are not specified.
The digit error (less than 5 digits) is added in measuring value.
AudibIe Continuity
Test Volt Threshold Over Load Protection
3V Less than 200 C 600V DC or Peak
Diode Test
Test Volt Max. Test Current Over Load Protection
2V Approx. 1.0 mA 600V DC or Peak
!""#$
APPENDIX D
TEKTRONIX TDS 210 : TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
!""#$
!""#$%&'(#
!""#$
!""#$
!""#$
!""#$%
!""#$$
!""#$%
!""#$%