HANDBOOK OF TRANSPORT GEOGRAPHY AND SPATIAL SYSTEMS

Edited by

DAVID A. HENSHER
Institute of Transport Studies, University of Sydney

KENNETH J. BUTTON
The School of Public Policy, George Mason University

KINGSLEY E. HAYNES
Institute of Public Policy, George Mason University

PETER R. STOPHER
The School of Transport Studies, University of Sydney

JL.

ELSEVIER 2004 r
Amsterdam - Boston - Heidelberg - London - New York - Oxford Paris - San Diego - San Francisco - Singapore - Sydney - Tokyo

CONTENTS
Introduction to the series
Chapter 1

Introduction
KINGSLEY E. HAYNES, PETER R. STOPHER, KENNETH J. BUTTON and DAVID A. HENSHER 1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Parti.

Introduction Recent trends in analysis GPS, GIS and other acronyms Land use and transportation institutions The Handbook Transport and Geography

1 2 4 5 7 11

Chapter 2

Recent Developments in US Transport Geography

WILLIAM R. BLACK 13

1. 2. 3. 4.

Some definitions Historical background Transport geography today Recent developments in the field
4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. Deregulation Activity analysis Sustainable transport Environmental justice Economic development Geographic information systems Network design

13 13 16 18
18 19 19 20 21 22 23

5. Some concluding thoughts 6. Closure References

Chapter 3

24 24 25

Institutions, Land Use and Transportation

ROGER R. STOUGH 27

1. Introduction 2. Theory and recent changes in land use and transportation

27 28

ii 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. Altered demand for urban transportation and land use Metropolitan decentralization Edge cities

Contents 29 30 31

3. Institutions 4. Institutional analysis decentralization in metropolitan regions

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. First-level institutions: US values and culture and metropolitan land use patterns Second-level institutions: formal institutions Third-level institutions: governance institutions Fourth-level institutions: resource allocation and short-term outcomes Institutional analysis: conclusions

32 35
35 36 38 39 40

5. Conclusions References
Chapter 4

41 41

Transportation Location and Environmental Justice: A US Perspective

KINGSLEY E. HAYNES 43

1. Introduction 2. TRI geography and environmental justice

2.1. 2.2. Environmental justice and TRI Geography of environmental justice

43 45
45 47

3. Transportation and environmental justice 4. Empirical analysis 5. Conclusion Acknowledgments References

Part 2.
Chapter 5

49 51 59 60 61
65

Transport and Spatial Form

Transport in the Urban Core

EVELYN BLUMENBERG and RANDALL CRANE 67

1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Density Poverty Decentralization

4.1. 4.2. Spatial mismatch The journey to work

67 68 70 71
72 73

5. Summary References

75 75

Contents Chapter 6

ix

Economic Development and Transport Hubs

KENNETH J. BUTTON 77

1. Introduction 2. Airports as hubs 3. Regional impacts of hub airport

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Primary effects Income multiplier effects Tertiary effects Perpetuity effects Surveys and questionnaires Multiplier analysis Econometric models

4. Empirical analysis

5. International airline hubs 6. Conclusions

References
Chapter 7

77 78 83 83 83 84 84 85 85 87 88 89 94 95

Transport and Spatial Clustering

JEAN H.P. PAELINCK

97 97 98 99 102 104 106 109

1. Introduction 2. Preliminary concepts 3. Market approach 4. Non-market approach 5. Synthesis 6. Conclusions References
Chapter 8

Connecting Mass Transit and Employment

THOMAS W. SANCHEZ 111

1. Introduction 2. Elements of travel demand

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. Trip purpose Trip timing Trip origins and destinations Trip mode Available routes Trip frequency

111 112
112 113 114 114 115 116

3. Work trip factors

116

x 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Distribution of trip times and day of week Direction of trip flows Modal availability Network characteristics Network extensiveness Network connectivity Physical access - walking distances Vehicle ownership levels

Contents 117 117 119

4.

Other factors
4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5.

120
120 120 121 121 122

5. Summary References Part 3. Land Use and Transportation Modeling

Chapter 9

122 123 125

Overview of Land use Transport Models

MICHAEL WEGENER 127

1. Introduction 2. Existing urban land use transport models

2.1. 2.2. Urban change processes Twenty urban models

127 128
128 131

3. Future urban land use transport models 4. Conclusions Acknowledgment References

Chapter 10

138 142 143 143

Integrated Land Use/Transport Model Requirements

ERIC J. MILLER 147

1. Introduction 2. A framework for integrated modeling 3. Design issues

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Physical system representation Representation of active agents Representation of processes Generic design issues Implementation issues Credibility criteria Feasibility criteria Usability criteria

147 147 151

151 153 154 156 157

4. Evaluation criteria

160
160 162 162

Contents

xi

5. Summary Acknowledgments References

Chapter 11

164 164 165

Lowry-type Land Use Models

ALAN J. HOROWITZ 167

1. Introduction 2. Land use model concept: urban form and land rents
2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 5.1. 5.2. Urban form and land rents Agglomeration Basic form Population segmentation Measures of attractiveness Land constraints The exogenous workplace Multimodal applications Typical data requirements Anticipated results and cautions Calibration issues Equilibrium conditions Deterrence function parameters Disutility and the value of time Definition of basic employment Adjustments to residential attractiveness Adjustments to service attractiveness

167 168
168 169

3. Residential location models

169
169 171 172 172 173 173

4. Overview of the Lowry model

173
175 175 176 176 176 177 177

5. Derivation of the Lowry-Garin model 6. Iterating a land use model with a travel-forecasting model 7. Critique 8. Closure References
Chapter 12

177
179 180

180 181 182 182

Econometric Models of Land Use and Transportation

MARCIAL ECHENIQUE 185

1. Introduction 2. Theoretical foundations 3. A general model of trade and location

3.1. 3.2. Functional relationships Spatial relationships

185 186 188

188 190

Contents 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. Estimation of spatial prices Changing functional relationships (variable demand coefficients) Modeling the transport systems Integrated spatial system model Policy modeling

4. Applications 5. Conclusions

References
Chapter 13

192 194 195 196 199 200 201 201

Introduction to Urban Simulation: Design and Development of Operational Models

PAUL WADDELL and GUDMUNDUR F. ULFARSSON 203

1. The context and objectives for urban simulation 2. The design and implementation of an operational urban simulation system
2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8. 2.9. 2.10. 2.11. 2.12. 2.13. 2.14. 2.15. Assess the institutional, political, and technical context Assess the stakeholders, value conflicts, and public policy objectives Develop measurable benchmarks for the objectives Inventory the policies to be tested Map the policy inputs to outcomes Assess the model requirements Make preliminary model design choices Select the modeling approach Prepare the input data Develop the model specification Estimate the model parameters Calibrate the model system Develop the software application Validate the model system Operational use

203 205
207 210 212 212 213 217 219 222 226 227 230 231 231 232 232

3. Conclusion Acknowledgments References

Chapter 14

233 233 234

Evolutionary Approaches to Transport and Spatial Systems

AURA REGGIANI 237

1. Introduction 2. Spatial choice and processes: the role of spatial interaction models

237 238

Contents 2.1. 2.2. Spatial interaction models: the analytical form Spatial interaction behavior and choice behavior

xiii 238 239

3. Non-linear dynamic processes: the logistic form 4. Networks and complexity 5. Network complexity
5.1. 5.2. 5.3. Simple models for complex networks: niche models Complex models for complex networks Detecting complexity from data

241 243 245

245 246 247

6. Network resilience 7. Emergence and self-organized criticality

7.1. 7.2. The concepts of emergence and self-organization The concept of SOC

247 249
249 250

8. Conclusions Acknowledgments References

Chapter 15

251 252 252

Transportation and Urban Compactness

HARRY W. RICHARDSON and CHANG-HEE CHRISTINE BAE 255

1. Introduction 2. Implications of urban economic theory 3. Historical evolution 4. Interpreting data and the urban scale 5. The dynamics of transportation, land use, and urban compactness 6. Transit-oriented developments 7. New urbanism 8. Neighborhood types 9. Intertemporal changes 10. Dispersal and travel behavior 11. Information technology 12. International comparisons 13. Conclusions References
Chapter 16

255 256 256 257 258 260 261 262 262 263 264 264 265 266

Computable General Equilibrium Analysis in Transportation Economics

JOHANNES BROCKER 269

1. Introduction 2. A primer in CGE analysis 3. Transportation in CGE analysis

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Goods transport Passenger transport Economic equilibrium and transport network equilibrium

269 270 277

278 280 281

Contents Extensions 4.1. Imperfect markets 4.2. Dynamics 5. An example: the spatial effects of trans-European road networks 6. Conclusions References Part 4. Data 4. 281 281 284 284 286 287 291

Chapter 17 Spatial Data Issues: A Historical Perspective PETER R. STOPHER 1. 2. 3. Introduction Traffic analysis zones Traffic networks 3.1. Bus networks 3.2. Micro-networks 4. Interactions between zones and networks 4.1. Zone size and networks 4.2. The use of a GIS as a network platform 4.3. Network detail and zone size 5. Conclusions References 293 293 294 300 302 303 303 304 305 306 307 308

Chapter 18 Linking Spatial and Transportation Data BRUCE D. SPEAR 1. 2. Introduction GISs and transportation models - a US historical perspective 2.1. Origins of GISs 2.2. Origins of transportation models 2.3. Development of commercial software 2.4. TIGER and GISs 2.5. The Census Transportation Planning Package and GIS 3. Conceptual differences between GISs and transportation models 3.1. GIS spatial objects and relationships 3.2. Network objects and relationships 3.3. Translating between linear spatial objects and networks 4. Other transportation data structures 4.1. Routes 4.2. Linear referencing 4.3. Matrices 309 309 309 309 310 311 311 312 313 314 316 317 320 320 321 323

Contents 4.4. Dynamic spatial objects

xv 324

5. Conclusions References Part 5. GIS Applications

Chapter 19

325 326 327

The Role of GIS in Land Use and Transport Planning

HOWARD L. SLAVIN 329

1. Introduction 2. GIS in land use planning

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. Data development, presentation, and access Data access Urban information systems and urban analysis

329 330
330 330 334

3. GIS in land use modeling 4. GIS in transport planning

4.1. 5.1. 5.2. An overview of GIS-T functionality GIS-T use in modeling: the linkage-integration debate GIS-T application to modeling activities and components

335 337
337

5. GIS in travel-demand modeling 6. Concluding remarks References

Chapter 20

344
344 346

355 356

The Role of GIS in Routing and Logistics

JOHN C. SUTTON and JOHAN VISSER 357

1. Introduction: why use GIS in routing and logistics? 2. GIS routing and logistics capabilities
2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. Vehicle routing/dispatching Arc routing Network flow and distribution analysis. Location and allocation models

357 358
361 361 361 362

3. Logistics issues 4. Public policy-making

4.1. 4.2. 5.1. 5.2. 6.1. Freight modeling Spatial studies From static to dynamic information Convergence of GIS and location aware technologies GIS limitations

364 365
367 367

5. Real-time routing and logistics 6. Software 7. Conclusion References

369
369 370

370
371

373 374

xvi Chapter 21

Contents

GIS and the Collection of Travel Survey Data

STEPHEN GREAVES 375

1. Introduction 2. Use of GIS in travel surveys 3. Geocoding of survey data

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Automated address matching and GIS How the automated geocoding process works Partial matches Checking of geocodes The reference databases Developing the target database Spatial bias and spatial stratification

375 376 377

378 378 380 381

4. Developing the databases

382
382 383 388

5. Summary and future directions References

Chapter 22

389 390

GIS and Network Analysis

MANFRED M. FISCHER 391

1. Introduction 2. Network representation and GIS-T network data models

2.1. Terminology 2.2. The network data model 2.3. Non-planar networks and the turn-table 2.4. Linear referencing systems and dynamic segmentation 2.5. Lanes and navigable data models

391 392
392 392 395 396 398

3. Vehicle routing within a network: problems and algorithms

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. The traveling-salesman problem The vehicle-routing problem Constrained shortest-path problems

400
400 402 405

4. Concluding remarks References Part 6. GPS Applications

Chapter 23

407 407 409

Defining GPS and its Capabilities JEAN WOLF 1. Introduction 2. The Global Positioning System

411 411 412

Contents 2.1. Overview of GPS 2.2. PVT determination 2.3. Other GNSS 2.4. GPS user technologies 2.5. GPS receiver output 2.6. GPS performance measures 2.7. Standalone GPS position accuracy and augmentations 2.8. Free satellite-based augmentation systems 2.9. GPS modernization (or GPS III) 3. GPS capabilities for transport 3.1. Highway, transit, airport, and seaport traffic control and security 3.2. E911 3.3. Location-based services 3.4. Combined measures of travel, physical activity, and health 3.5. Mobile source emissions analysis and modeling 3.6. Long-term travel studies Appendix: Internet resources for GPS References
Chapter 24

xvii 412 414 416 417 417 419 423 425 426 427 427 427 428 428 430 430 430 431

GPS, Location, and Household Travel PETER R. STOPHER 1. 2. Introduction GPS as a solution 2.1. Types of GPS device 2.2. What GPS can do 2.3. What GPS cannot do 3. Processing GPS data 3.1. Problems with GPS data 3.2. Accuracy of GPS 3.3. Wearable GPS devices 4. The future of GPS 4.1. Privacy 4.2. Respondent burden 5. Conclusions References

433 433 434 435 438 440 441 442 443 444 445 447 447 448 449

Chapter 25

GPS and Vehicular Travel GEOFF ROSE 1. Introduction

451 451

xviii

Contents

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Key technology links and applications Remote monitoring of vehicle location Arrival time information In-vehicle navigation Intelligent speed adaptation Advanced driver assistance systems Electronic payment and charging Unresolved issues
9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. Map database related Human factor considerations Willingness to pay Managing privacy Public and user acceptance

452 455 456 457 459 460 461 463

463 464 464 465 465

10. Conclusions References

Chapter 26

466 466

Traffic Monitoring Using GPS

CESAR QUIROGA 469

1. Introduction 2. Measuring travel times, speeds, and delays using GPS

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Generating routes, checkpoints, and segments Linearly referencing GPS data Calculating segment travel times, speeds, and delays Calculating intersection delays Architecture Linear referencing and computation of travel time Intersection delay

469 471
471 473 474 477

3. Data management

479
479 482 485

4. Summary References
Chapter 27

487 487

Other Transportation Applications of GPS

SHAUNA L. HALLMARK 489

1. Introduction 2. Centerline mapping 3. Inventory management 3.1. General

3.2. Mobile mapping systems

489 490 492 492

493

4. Automatic vehicle location

493

Contents 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 5.1. 5.2. In-vehicle navigation systems Fleet management Concept winter vehicle Crash location On-board crash notification systems

xix 494 494 495

5. Safety 6. Locating environmentally sensitive features 7. Summary References Part 7. Spatial Cognition
Chapter 28

495
495 496

497 497 498 499

Cognitive Maps and Urban Travel

REGINALD G. GOLLEDGE and TOMMY GARLING 501

1. Introduction 2. Basic concepts

2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. Cognitive maps Cognitive mapping Cognizing transportation networks Travel behavior Path selection criteria Navigation and wayfinding Route learning The role of trip purpose Travel guidance

501 501
501 502

3. Transportation issues

502
502 504 506 506 507 508 508

4. Incorporating cognitive maps into travel choice models 5. Conclusion References

Chapter 29

509 510 511

Spatial Processes
RYUICHIKITAMURA 513

1. Introduction 2. Trip-based studies and their limitations 3. Trip-chaining analyses 4. Classification approaches 5. Simulation approaches References

513 515 518 522 524 528

xx Chapter 30

Contents

Mental Maps
LISA WESTON and SUSAN HANDY 533

1. Introduction 2. What are mental maps? 3. How do people create mental maps? 4. How have mental maps been used? 5. How can transportation professionals use mental maps? 6. Conclusions References Part 8. Geosimulation
Chapter 31

533 535 536 540 543 544 544 547

Geosimulation, Automata, and Traffic Modeling

PAUL M. TORRENS 549

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Recent developments in the research landscape The emerging geosimulation approach Automata as geosimulation tools Modeling vehicular traffic
5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. Spatial topology Entity descriptions Neighborhood definitions Time Rules Entities Spatial topology Time Neighborhoods Rules

549 549 550 552 554

554 555 555 556 556

6. Modeling pedestrian traffic

557
558 559 559 559 560

7. Conclusion References Part 9. Networks

Chapter 32

561 562 565

Design and Analysis of Transport Networks

HAI YANG and XIAONING ZHANG 567

1. Introduction 2. Formulations of network design problems

567 569

Contents 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 3.1. 3.2. General framework of the bi-level model in network design and analysis The continuous network design problem (CNDP) The optimal toll pricing problem (OTPP) The signal-setting problem Non-differentiability of the reaction function The marginal-function-based solution algorithm

xxi 569 570 571 571

3. Properties of the bi-level model and the solution algorithm

573
573 574

4. Applications in location choice, land use, and network capacity 5. Conclusions References
Chapter 33

580 580 581

Spatial Equilibration in Transport Networks

ANNA NAGURNEY 583

1. Introduction 2. Basic decision-making concepts and models

2.1. System optimization versus user optimization

583 585
586

3. Models with asymmetric link costs 4. Multiclass, multicriteria traffic network equilibrium models
4.1. Traffic network equilibrium conditions

591 599
603

5. Dynamics 6. Summary and new directions Acknowledgments References

Chapter 34

604 606 606 606

Traffic Assignment Methods

WILLIAM H.K. LAM and HONG K. LO 609

1. Introduction 2. Route choice principles 3. Three traffic assignment models

' 3.1. Deterministic UE model 3.2. Logit-based SUE model 3.3. Probit-based SUE model

609 610 612

612 613 615

4. Case study
4.1. 4.2. Model calibration Model validation

618
620 621

5. Concluding comments Acknowledgment References

623 623 624

xxii

Contents

Part 10. Time Use

Chapter 35

627

Time Use and Activity Systems

ANDREW S. HARVEY 629

1. Introduction 2. Activity systems approach 3. Time use and travel behavior

3.1. 3.2. 4.1. 4.2. 5.1. 5.2. The time use perspective Travel perspective Time use data collection methodology and instruments Activities and context Unit of analysis Activity measures

629 629 631

631 632

4. Time use measurement 5. Time use analysis 6. Advantages and challenges of the time use approach 7. Conclusions References
Chapter 36

633
637 638

640
640 642

644 645 645

Activities in Space and Time

HARVEY J. MILLER 647

1. Introduction 2. Time geography

2.1. Activities in space and time 2.2. Space-time path and prism 2.3. The individual and space-time aggregates 2.4. Contrasts with time use and activity analysis 2.5. Time geography and transportation research

647 648
648 649 651 651 652

3. Information technologies and the new time geography

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. Representation of space-time environments New methods for data collection New methods for data analysis Extending time geography to cyberspace

652
653 655 656 657

4. Conclusion References Author Index Subject Index

658 658 661 669