Introduction to DC Machines

1 Physical Structure of DC Machines The DC machine configuration shown in Fig 1-1, introduced in the notes on Torque Production in Bli Machines (Bli notes), is quite adequate as a representative DC machine. As noted in the Bli notes, the one major departure is in the winding details concerned with how the end connections (the connections between active conductors) are made. In the machine in Fig 1-1 the end connections are in the axial direction which is favorable for pancake shaped machines while in machines more hot dog shaped the end connections are circumferential. It is also more common for all but very small DC machines to be four pole machines.

Commutator

Armature Winding Z total turns

Field or Stator Yoke

. .

. .

. .
I

+ + +

a +1 V + I a2

+ + + +

S S

. .
Field Poles

Brush

f1

f2

Armature Core

Field Winding

Fig 1-1 Representative DC Machine

2 Torque and Emf in the DC Machine (the Optimal Bli Machine) The torque developed in the DC machine can be expressed (see Bli notes)

Torque Production in Bli Machines

Tavg = (zlr) Bavg im =

zlr a Bavg I

2-1

where z = total number of conductors, l is the axial length of the model r is the rotor radius Bavg = average flux density, and im is the current in the rotor conductors I = a im = external armature current a = number of parallel paths in armature This result can also be expressed in terms of the flux per pole p 2 rl p= p Bavg resulting in the torque expression T= zp 2 a p I 2-3 2-2

When working with the DC machine in applications, the internal parameters are usually of no interest and the torque expression is often written as T = kT p I = KT I zp where kT = 2 a and KT = kTp 2-4 2-5

The shorthand notation using kT keeps the basic dependence of torque on flux and current in view when flux is adjustable and KT retains only the current dependence when flux is constant (in PM machines for example). Both kT and KT are often called the "torque constant", which of the two is intended requires checking the units. The Emf expressions are also developed in (see Bli notes) and the voltage across one conductor is p Eavg c = l r r avg B( ) = 2 p r 2-6

To find the total voltage between brushes, the conductor voltage must be multiplied by the number of series conductors which is z/a, the total number of conductors divided by the number of parallel paths 2

Torque Production in Bli Machines

z p z E=a = p r 2 2 a p r = kT p r = KT r

2- 7

Note that the constants in the emf equations are the same as in the torque equation. Nonetheless they are often renamed the "emf constants" and the symbols kv and Kv are often used. The torque and emf constants are only equal in MKS units. If rpm is used for speed the two constants are unequal. As a reminder of this unit dependence the two different symbols will be retained in the following material.

3 The DC Machine Equivalent Circuit Circuit models are widely used to describe electric machine behavior and the DC machine equivalent circuit is easily obtained directly from the physics of torque and emf production. The circuit is shown in Fig 3-1. R + V Armature V=IR+E + I E Te r Electromechanical E = kv p r Te = kT p I Rf If Field Vf = If Rf + Vf

p If Magnetization Characteristic

Fig 3-1 DC Machine Equivalent Circuit The model consists of four parts: 1) the armature circuit consisting of the applied voltage V, the armature IR drop and the back emf E 2) the electromechanical coupling, torque and back emf, between the machine and the mechanical load 3) the field circuit (absent in PM machines) which has no electrical coupling to the armature or mechanical portions of the model. Its sole function is to create the flux which enables the energy conversion process. Because the field winding is not moving there is no speed voltage in the field circuit and as a result of the alignment between field and armature windings there is no mutual flux between armature and field and thus no transformer voltage in the field winding. 4) the magnetization curve relating the flux p to the field current If. It represents the only non linear portion of the model. It comes into play only when the flux level is adjusted and often it 3

Torque Production in Bli Machines

is sufficient to simply recognize the change in p and not be concerned with the corresponding value of If. It disappears from the model along with the field circuit in PM machines 4 Load Speed-torque Characteristics The relationship between speed and torque in the mechanical load is very similar to that between voltage and current on the electrical side. In both cases the power is the product of the two variables Pmech = Tr Pelec = V I 4-1

The mechanical load can take on many forms but three of the most common are illustrated in Fig 4-1.

Linear Torque Speed

Constant Torque Square Law Torque

Torque Fig 4-1 Examples of Load Torque Characteristics Constant torque loads occur in some types of compressors and also in some frictional loads. The linear torque load is often called a viscous friction load and is often used as an approximation over a limited range of operation. The square law torque load is very common since it represents the characteristic of fan loads in air moving systems. 4 DC Machine Speed-torque Characteristics The speed -torque characteristics of a DC machine depend upon the form of excitation supplied to the motor. The simplest situation occurs when the excitation is supplied as a controlled current source which using, the torque equation in Fig 3-1. immediately translates to a controlled torque source Te =kTp I = KT I 5-1

The resulting speed -torque characteristics are illustrated in Fig 5-1. The corresponding operating speeds with a fan load are also shown. Controlled current operation is widely used in control applications using feedback because it greatly reduces the impact of motor dynamics on the overall

Torque Production in Bli Machines

system behavior. Since most applications require controlled speed operation, the constant torque mode is unsatisfactory without feedback control in most cases.

x
Controlled Constant Torque

Speed

x x x
Torque

Fig 5-1 Constant Current Speed -Torque Characteristics with Fan Load When operated from a voltage source the speed -torque characteristics are more involved because of the interaction of V, I and E in the armature circuit. Before examining this relation in detail, note that if the IR drop can be neglected, V E and since E is proportional to speed, a constant V would result in a constant speed. This would lead to a family of horizontal, constant speed lines, a kind of partner to the constant torque lines in Fig 5-1. And, in fact, this is a limiting case for the analysis which follows. To find an expression for the speed -torque characteristics with constant V, we begin by solving for speed in terms of E E r = kv p Then solving for E from the armature circuit equation and substituting in 5-2 E = V - IR (V - IR) V IR r = = kv p kv p kv p and finally eliminating I using the torque equation r V R r = T = e r0 2 kv p kekv p Te Te which is the equation of a straight line with an 5 5-5 5-3 5-4 5-2

Torque Production in Bli Machines

intercept

V r0 = kv p

and slope

r R = Te kekv p2

5-6

intercept = r0 = V k v p Speed R slope = r = Te kv k T 2 p Torque Fig 5-2 Constant Voltage Speed-Torque Characteristic of DC Machine The characteristic is well suited to creating curves well suited to various applications since: 1) the armature voltage affects only the intercept on the speed axis 2) the resistance affects only the slope of the curve 3) the flux affects both creating both a intercept shift and a slope change. 5 Speed Control of the DC Motor Controlled Current - With controlled current excitation a family of vertical constant torque characteristics can be obtained as illustrated in Fig 5-1. Depending on the load characteristic, any specific operating speed can be attained by selecting the particular constant torque characteristic passing through the desired speed on the load curve as illustrated by the x's on Fig 5-1. Controlled current operation is usually combined with some form of feedback control to automatically select the appropriate current level. Armature Voltage Control - Controlling the armature voltage to obtain speed control is a very common and effective means of speed control. Since the armature voltage is linearly related to the no load speed (intercept) and does not affect the slope, it results in a family of parallel speed torque curves as shown in fig 6-1.

Torque Production in Bli Machines

1000 800 Speed 600 RPM 400 200 Torque

Rated Torque
Armature Voltage

100 V 80 V
Temporary Operation Only

60 V 40 V 20 V 0V

Fig 6-1 Armature Voltage Control The following points are illustrated in the figure 1) the no load speed and the armature voltage are linearly related 2) the full load speed is NOT linearly related to the voltage 3) the drop in speed from no load to rated load is the same for all voltages 4) the curves extend beyond rated torque for temporary operation, steady operation beyond rated torque leads to overheating 5) the curves extend to negative torques for (regenerative) braking purposes 6) the curve for zero voltage provides positive torque for negative speed, another form of braking but with the energy dissipated in R Utilizing controlled electronic rectification, armature voltage control is a convenient, inexpensive and effective scheme and is widely used. If regenerative operation (reverse current) is required the hardware becomes more sophisticated and expensive but is available. Armature Resistance Control - Varying the armature resistance increase the slope of the curves without changing the no load speed. The resulting speed torque curves are shown in Fig 6-2.

Torque Production in Bli Machines

1000 800 Speed 600 RPM 400 200 Torque 5R

Rated Torque R 2R

Temporary Operation Only

3R

4R

Fig 6-2 Armature Resistance Control The major problem with armature resistance control is the large I 2 R losses associated with the added resistance. The loss is in the external resistor and not in the motor so temperature rise in the motor is not a problem but the high total loss and low efficiency are problems. While it was important in the past, resistance control is seldom used today except in very small motors or as a stopgap in special cases. Flux Control - Reducing the flux increase the no load speed and the slope of the speed torque curve It also decreases the torque constant and therefore the rated torque since the current must be held at its rated value to avoid increasing the I2 R losses. Fig 6-3 illustrates the situation 1 2000 2 p

1500

2 3 p p
Temporary Operation Only

1000 800 Speed 600 RPM 400 200 Torque Fig 6-3 Reduced Flux (Field Weakening) Control 8 1T 2 R 2 T 3 R TR

Torque Production in Bli Machines

For a reduction in flux from p to k p 1) The no load speed increases by 1/k 2) the rated (allowable) torque reduces by k. 3) the slope of the curve increases by 1/k 2 4) the drop in speed from no load to rated torque increases by (1/k 2 ) k = 1/k 5) thus the rated torque speed increases by 1/k 6) and the power output at rated torque thus scales as (1/k) k = 1.0 Reduced flux operation is often called "constant power operation" because the rated power of the machine remains constant as the speed of operation rises. Field weakening operation is widely used to extend the upper speed range of a motor and power supply when the power supply reaches its upper limit of voltage. I = IR on Boundary TR Constant Torque Region Torque Armature Voltage Control Constant Power Region Field Weakening Control 0 0 Speed RPMR 2 RPMR I = IR on Boundary 1T 2 R

Fig 6-4 DC Machine Capability Curve Fig 6-4 illustrates the DC Machine Capability Curve which depicts the operating modes over the full range of speed and torque for which the machine is capable of operating while remaining within its limits of rated voltage and rated current. In the "constant torque range" the machine operates at whatever armature voltage and current the load requires, up to the limit of rated current. This mode ends at rated speed when full rated voltage is utilized. Above this speed in the "constant power region" the machine operates with whatever flux and current are needed to produce the load torque and speed, again limited by rated current. Although the figure ends at twice rated speed the constant power region can go on, theoretically without limit.

Torque Production in Bli Machines

10