Lecture Notes: Mathematical/Discrete Structures

Rashid Bin Muhammad, PhD.

This booklet includes lecture notes, homework problems, and exam problems from discrete structures course I taught in Fall 2006 at the Kent State University, USA. I wrote a good part of these notes in Fall 2006; I revise them every time I teach the course. The problems in the notes have been used in class lectures, homework assignments, or exams. You can nd a collection of homework assignments and exams from past semesters of my class online at http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/. Please do not ask for solutions. If you are a student, the only way to learn the material is solve yourself. If you are a teacher, you should not assign problems that you cannot solve yourself.

Copyright 2006-2011 Rashid Bin Muhammad. Last Update Fall 2009. This work may be freely actual cost of reproduction, storage, or transmittal. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License.

copied and distributed, either electronically or on paper. It may not be sold for more than the

INTRODUCTION

Propositional Logic
1 Introduction
The algorithms in computer science and proofs in mathematics use logical expressions such as if

then

q .

Therefore, it is neccessary to know the truth

value of such expressions, that is, to know the cases in which these expressions are either true or false. We discuss these issues in this lecture.

1.1 Proposition
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence that is true or false but not both.

Example.

(1)

2+2 = 4 (proposition).

(2)

5+2 = 7 (proposition).

(3)

x +2 = 7

(not a proposition). (4) He will go to school. (not a proposition).

1.2 Compound Proposition

Many propositions are composite, that is, composed of subpropositions and various connectives. Such composite propositions are called compound propositions.

1.3 Primitive Proposition

If proposition cannot be broken down into simpler propositions, that is, if it is not composite.

1.4 Basic Logical Operations

This section discusses the three basic logical operations of conjunction, disjunction, and negation.

1.4.1 Conjunction
If

and

are proposition variables, the conjunction of

and

is true when, and only when, both if both are false,

and

are true. If either

q is  p and q . p or q is false,

It or

pq

is false.

p
T T F F

q
T F T F

pq
T F F F

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1.5

Proposition Form

INTRODUCTION

1.4.2 Disjunction
If

and

are proposition variables, the disjunction of

and

is  p or

q .

It is

true when at least one of false.

or

is true and false only when both

and

are

p
T T F F

q
T F T F

pq
T T T F

1.4.3 Negation
If

is a proposition variable, the negation of

is not

p

or It is not the case

that

p

and denoted

false; if

is false,

p. It has p is true.

opposite truth value from

p:

if

is true,

is

p
T F

p
F T

1.5 Proposition Form

A proposition form is an expression made up of proposition variables and logical connectives that becomes a proposition when actual propositions are substituted for the component proposition variable. The truth table for a given proposition form displays the truth values that correspond to the dierent combinations of truth values for the variables.

Example.

(1)(p

q ) (p q ).

(2)(p

q ) r .

1.6 Logical Equivalence

Two proposition forms are called logically equivalent if, and only if, they have identical truth values for each possible substitution of propositions for their proposition variables. The logical equivalence of proposition forms denoted by writing

and

is

P Q. ( p).
(2) Show Nonequivalence:

(p q )

Example.

(1) Double Negative Property:

and

p q .

1.6.1 De Morgan's Laws

The following two logical equivalences are known as De Mogan's laws of logic. The negation of an and proposition is logically equivalent to the or proposition in which each component is negated. Symbolically,

(p q ) p q .

On the other hand, the negation of an or proposition is logically equivalent

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1.7

Tautologies and Contradictions

INTRODUCTION

to the and proposition in which each component is negated.

Symbolically,

(p q ) p q .

Example.
tautology
A

Inequalities and De Morgan's Laws.

1.7 Tautologies and Contradictions

A is a proposition form that is always true regardless of the truth values of the individual propositions substituted for its proposition variables. A proposition whose form is a tautology is called a tautological proposition.

contradiction

is a proposition form that is always false regardless of the

truth values of the indivitual stateemnts substituted for its proposition variables. A proposition whose form is a contradiction is called a contradictory proposition.

Example.

(1) Show that the proposition form

p p

is a tautology. (2) Show

that the proposition form

p p

is a contradiction.

1.8 Logical Equivalences

Theorem 1. Given any proposition variables p, q, and r, a tautology t and a contradiction c, the following logical equivalences hold:
1. Commutative Laws

pq qp pq qp
2. Associative Laws (p (p

q ) r p (q r) q ) r p (q r)

3. Distributed Laws

p (q r) (p q ) (p r) p (q r) (p q ) (p r)

4. Identtity Laws

ptp pcp
5. Negation Laws

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1.9

Conditional Proposition

INTRODUCTION

p p t p p c
6. Double Negation Law

( p) p
7. Idempotent Laws

ppp ppp
8. De Morgan's Laws

(p q ) p q (p q ) p q
9. Universal Bound Laws

ptt pcc
10. Absorption Laws

p (p q ) p p (p q ) p
11. Negations of

and

tc ct

1.9 Conditional Proposition

If

and

are proposition variables, the

conditional
q

of

by

is if

then

q

or  p implies

q .

It is false when

is true and

is false; otherwise it is true.

Moreover, the negation of if

then

q

is logically equivalent to  p and not

q .

Exercise.

(1) Truth table for (3) Show that

r) (q r).

p q p. (2) Show that p q r (p p q p q . (4) Show that (p q ) p q .

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PROPOSITIONAL FUNCTIONS

1.9.1 Contrapositive Proposition

The

contrapositive
then

of a conditional proposition of the form if

then

q

is if

p.

Fact. A conditional proposition is logically equivalent to its contrapositive. 1.9.2 Converse and Inverse Propositions
converse
Suppose a conditional proposition of the form if is if

then

p

and the

inverse

then

is if

then

q  is q .

given. Then, the

Fact. A condtional proposition is not logically equivalent to its converse and to

its inverse.

1.9.3 Biconditional Proposition

Given proposition variable if

q .

It is true if both

and

p and q , the biconditional of p and q is  p if and only q have the same truth values and is false if p and p
T T F F

have opposite truth values.

q
T F T F

pq
T F F T

1.9.4 Necessary and Sucient Conditions

If

and 1. 2.

are propositions:

r r

is a is a

sucient condition for s means if r then s. necessary condition for s means if r then s. r
is a necessary condition for

Example.

Show that

also means if

then

r.

Predicate Logic
2 Propositional Functions
A

propositional function
The

(or

predicate ) is a sentence that contains a nite vari-

ables and becomes a proposition when specic values are substituted for the variables.

domain

of a propositional function variable is the set of all

values that may be substitued in place of the variable.

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2.1

Truth Set

QUANTIFIERS

2.1 Truth Set

If

P (x)

is a propositional function and

the set of all elements of truth set of

P (x)

is

x has domain D, the truth set of P (x) is P (x) true when substituted for x. The denoted{x D | P (x)}. D
that make and

Notation.

Suppose

P ( x)

the common domain of

element in the truth set

P (x) Q(x)

means that

Q(x) be propositional functions and also suppose D. The noation P (x) Q(x) means that every of P (x) is in the truth set of Q(x). The notation P (x) and Q(x) have identical truth sets.
is

3 Quantiers
One way to obtain proposition from propositional functions is to add quantiers.

3.1 Universal Quantication

D the domain of x. A universal x D, Q(x). The universal proposition is dened to be true if and only if Q(x) is true for every x in D . It is dened to be false if and only if Q(x) is false for at least one x in D . The symbol

proposition

Suppose

Q(x)

be a propositional function and

is a proposition of the form

denotes for all and is called the

universal quantier.

Note.

A value for

for which

Q(x)

is false is called a

counterexample

to the

universal proposition.

3.2 Existential Quantication

Suppose

tential proposition

D the domain of x. An exisx D such that Q(x). The existential proposition is dened to be true if and only if Q(x) is true for at least one x in D . It is false if and only if Q(x) is false for all x in D . The symbole Q(x)
be a propositional function and is a proposition of the form denotes there exists and is called the

existential quantier.

3.3 Universal Conditional Proposition

One of the most important forms both in mathematics and in computer science is the universal conditional proposition:

x,

if

P (x)

then

Q(x). x R,
if

Example.
x>2
then

As an example, the infomal proposition if a real number is greater

then 2 then its square is greater than 4 can be written formally as

x2 > 4.

3.3.1 Negation of Universal Proposition

The negation of a proposotion  x

D, Q(x)

is   x

D such that Q(x).

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METHODS OF PROOF

3.3.2 Negation of Existential Proposition

The negation of the existential proposition  x

D such that Q(x)

is  x

D,

Q(x).

3.3.3 Negation of Universal Conditional Proposition

The negation of the univeral proposition  x,

P (x) and Q(x).

P (x) then Q(x)

is  x

such that

4 Methods of Proof
Mathematics, as a science, commenced when rst someone, probably a Greek, proved propositions about any things or about some things without specication of denite particular things - A. N. Whitehead.

4.1 Denitions
You must clearly understand what the proposition is about to evaluate its truth or falsity. Mathematicians dene terms percisely so consider it important to learn denitions virtually word for word.

An integer An integer An integer and

n n

is is

even odd

if and only if

n = 2k

for some integer

k. k. r

if and only if

n = 2k + 1

for some integer

s,

if

n is prime if and only if n > 1 n = r.s, then r = 1 or s = 1. n

is

and for all positive integers

An integer

composite
and

if and only if

n = rs

for some positive integers

r b
If

and

with

r=1 r
is

s = 1.
if and only if

A real number with

rational

r = a/b

for some integers

b = 0.

A real number that is not rational is

irrational.

and

n and d are integers and d = 0, then n is divisible by d if and only if n = d k for some integer k . Note that the notation d | n is read  d divides n.
Given any integer and

such that

n and positive integer d, there exist unique integer q n = d q + r and 0 r < d. [The Quotient-Remainder n and a positive integer d, n div d equals the n is divided by d, and n mod d equals the obtainded when n is divided by d.
, is that unique integer

Theorem]

Given a nonnegative integer integer remainder

integer quotient obtained when

Given any real number

such that

x, the oor of x, denoted x n x < n + 1.

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4.2

Direct Proof

METHODS OF PROOF

Given any real number integer

such that

x, the ceiling of x, n 1 < x n.

denoted

, is that unique

4.2 Direct Proof

Prove that if the sum of any two integers is even then so is their dierence. Theorem 2. integers m and n, if m + n is even then m n is even.
Suppose m and n are integers so that m + n is even. By denition of m + n = 2k for some integer k . Subtracting n from both sides gives m = 2k n. So, m n = (2k n) n = 2k 2n = 2(k n). But k n is an integer because it is a dierence of integers. Hence, m n equals 2 times an integer, and so by denition of even, m n is even. even,

Proof.

Prove that the sum of any two rational numbers is rational. Theorem 3. real numbers r and s, if r and s are rational then
rational. Proof.
Suppose and

r + s is

r = a/b r+s=

r and s are rational rumbers. Then by denition of rational, s = c/d for some integers a, b, c, and d with b = 0 and d = 0. So a c ad+bc b + d = bd . Let p = ad + bc and q = bd. Then p and q are integers because products and sums of integers are integers and because a, b, c, and d p are all integers. Thus, r + s = q where p and q are integers and q = 0. So, r + s

is rational by denition of a rational number.

c.

Prove the transitive property of divisibility. Theorem 4. integers a, b, and c, if a divides b and b divides c, then a divides
By denition of divisibility, are integers such that a divides b and b divides c. b = a r and c = b s for some integers r and s. By substitution c = b s = (a r ) s = a (r s). Let k is an integer since it is a product of integers, and therefore c = a k where k is an integer. Thus a divides c by denition of divisibility. Suppose and

Proof.

a, b,

Prove that given any two consecutive integers, one is even and the other is odd. Theorem 5. Any two consecutive integers have opposite parity.
m and m + 1 are given. By the m is odd. Case 1 (m is even): In this case, m = 2k for some integer k , and so m + 1 = 2k + 1, which is odd. Hence, in this case one of m and m + 1 is even and the
Suppose that two consecutive integers parity property, either

Proof.

is even or

other is odd.

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4.2

Direct Proof

METHODS OF PROOF

Case 2 (m is odd): In this case, m = 2k + 1 for some integer k , and so m + 1 = (2k + 1) + 1 = 2k + 2 = 2(k + 1). But k + 1 is an integer because it is a sum of two integers. Therefore,m + 1 equals twice some integer, and thus m + 1 is even. Hence, in this case also one of m and m + 1 is even and the other is odd. It follows that regardless of which case actually occurs for the particular and

m + 1 that are chosen, one of m and m + 1 is even and the other is odd.

Modulo 4 Integers Representation

Claim.
or We say that any integer can be written in one of the four forms: or

n = 4q n
with

n = 4q + 1

n = 4q + 2 n,

or

n = 4q + 3

for some integer

q.
and a remainder

Proof.
d = 4.

Given any integer

apply the quotient-remainder theorem to

This implies that there exist an integer quotient

such that or

n = 4q+r

and

0 r < 4. q.

that are less than 4 are 0, 1, 2, and 3.

r r Hence, n = 4q or n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 2
But the only nonnegative remainders

n = 4q + 3

for some integer

The square of any odd integer has the form 8m + 1 for some integer m. Theorem 6. odd integers n, an integer m such that n2 = 8m + 1.
Proof.
be written in one of the forms:

n can n = 4q or n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 2 or n = 4q + 3 for some integer q . In fact, since n is odd and 4q and 4q + 2 are even, n must have one of the forms: n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 3. 2 2 Case 1 (n = 4q + 1 for some integer q ): Since n = 4q + 3, n = (4q + 1) = (4q + 1)(4q + 1) = 16q 2 + 8q + 1 = 8(2q 2 + q ) + 1. Let m = 2q 2 + q . Then m is an integer since 2 and q are integers and sums and products of integers are 2 integers. Thus substituting, n = 8m + 1where m is an integer. 2 2 Case 2 (n = 4q + 3 for some integer q ): Since n = 4q + 3, n = (4q + 3) = (4q + 3)(4q + 3) = 16q 2 + 24q + 9 = 16q 2 + 24q + (8 + 1) = 8(2q 2 + 3q + 1) + 1. Let m = 2q 2 + 3q + 1. Then m is an integer since 2, 3, and q are integers and sums 2 and products of integers are integers. Thus, substituting, n = 8m + 1where m
Suppose is a odd integer. By the quotient-remainder theorem, is an integer. Cases 1 and 2 show that given any odd integer, whether of the form or

4q + 1

4q + 3, n2 = 8m + 1

for some integer

m.

Proving a Property of Floor Theorem 7. For all real numbers x and all integers m,
Proof.
Suppose a real number By denition of oor,

x + m = x + m.

x is and an integer m are given. Let n = x . n is an integer and n x < n + 1. Add m to all sides to obtain n + m x + m < n + m + 1. Now n + m is an integer, and so by denition of oor x + m = n + m. But n = x . Hence by substitution x + m = x + m.

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4.3

Indirect Proof

SEQUENCE

4.3 Indirect Proof

4.3.1 Argument by Contradiction Theorem 8. For all integers n, if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
an integer n such that n2 is odd and n is even. By denition of even, n = 2 k for some integer k . So, by substitution n n = (2k ) (2k ) = 2 (2 k k ). Let m = 2 k k . Now m is an integer because 2 products of integers are integers; and 2 and k are integers. Hence, n = 2 m 2 for some integer m. So, by denition of even n is even. But this contradicts the 2 supposition that n is odd.
Assume, to the contrary, that

Proof.

4.3.2 Argument by Contraposition Theorem 9. For all integers n, if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Proof.
Form the contrapositive of the given proposition: For all integers

n,

if

is even, then

n2

is even. Now we'll prove the contrapositive proposition using

the method of direct prove. Suppose for some integer

n is integer. By denition of even n = 2 k k . So, by substitution n n = (2k ) (2k ) = 2 (2 k k ). Let m = 2 k k . Now m is an integer because products of integers are integers; and 2 2 and k are integers. Hence, n = 2 m for some integer m. So, by denition of 2 even n is even. Hence, the given proposition is true by the logical equivalence
between a proposition and its contrapositive.

Sequences
5 Sequence
Informally, the sequence is a set of elements written in a row. In a sequence

am , am+1 , . . .
the values of

an ,

each element

ak

is called a term. The

in

ak

is called a

subscript or index. A general formula for a sequence is a rule that shows how

ak

depend on

k.

5.1 Notations
Summation Notation
tion from If m and n are integers and m n, then the summam to n of ak is the sum of all terms am , am+1 , . . . , an . We n write k=m ak = am , am+1 , . . . , an and call k the index of the summation, m the lower limit of the summation, and n the upper limit of the summation.

equals

Example.
5 k=1

Let a1 = 2, a2 = 1, a3 = 0, a4 = 1, and a5 = 2. ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = (2) + (1) + 0 + 1 + 2 = 0.

Then

We can transform a sum by a change of variable.

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5.2

Properties of Summations 6 PRINCIPLE and Products OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Example.
of variable:

Transform the summation

6 1 k=0 k+1 by making the specic change

j = k + 1.

from

If m and n are integers and m n, then the product m to n of ak is the product of all terms am , am+1 , . . . , an . We n write k=m ak = am am+1 . . . an and call k the index of the product, m the lower limit of the product, and n the upper limit of the product. For instance, 5 k=1 k = 1 2 3 4 5 = 120.

Product Notation
k
equals

5.2 Properties of Summations and Products

Theorem. If am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . and bm , bm+1 , bm+2 , . . . are sequences of real
numbers and c is any real number, then the following equations hold for any n n n integer n m: 1. n k=m ak + k=m bk = k=n (ak + bk ) 2. c k=m c ak 3. n n n ( k=m ak ) ( k=m bk ) = k=m (ak bk ).

Example.
(
n k=m

Using the properties of summation and product, write the following

expressions as a single summation or product: (1)

ak ) (

n k=m bk ).

n k=m

ak + 2

n k=m bk (2)

5.3 Factorial
Denition.
Note.
For each positive integer

n,

the quantity n factorial, denoted

is dened to be the product of all the integers from 1 to

n.

That is,

n (n 1) . (n 2) . . . 3 2 1.

Zero factorial is dened to be 1. That is,

n!, n! = 0! = 1.

The following formula holds for each positive integer

n: n! = n (n 1)!

6 Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let

P (n)

be a propositional function that is dened for integers

n,

and let

be a xed integer. Suppose the following two propositions are true: (1) is true. (2) For all integersk the proposition for all integers

n0 P (n0 )

n0 , if P (k ) is true then P (k + 1) n n0 , P (n) is true.

is true. Then

Lemma. For all integers n 1, 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n2+1) .

n = 1: To establish the formula for n = 1, we 1(1+1) 2 must show that 1 = = 2 = 1, and so the formula is true for n = 1. 2 If the formula is true for n = k then it is true for n = k + 1: Suppose +1) 1 + 2 + . . . + k = k(k2 , for some integer k 1. We must show that 1 + 2 + . . . + (k+1)((k+1)+1) (k+1)(k+2) (k + 1) = , or equivalently, that 1 + 2 + . . . + (k + 1) = . 2 2 k(k+1) 1 + 2 + . . . + (k + 1) = 1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) = 2 k(k+1) (k+1)2 (k+1)(k+2) + = . 2 2 2
The formula is true for

Proof.

Example.
numbers

Prove that except 1.

n i i=0 r

r n+1 1 r 1 , for all integers

n 0

and all real

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FUNCTIONS

7 Functions
A function and elements of

X to a set Y is a relationship between elements of X Y with the property that each element of X is related to a unique element of Y . The notation f : X Y means f is a function from X to Y . The set X is called the domain of f and the set Y is called the co-domain of f . Given an element x X , there is a unique element y Y that is related to x. We can think of x as input and y as the related output. We then say  f sends x to y . The unique element y to which f sends x is denoted f (x) and is called f of x, or the value of f at x, or the image of x under f . The set of all values of f taken together is called the range of f or the image of X under f . Symbollically: range of f = {y Y | y = f (x), for some x in X }. Given an element y Y , there may exist elements in X with y as their image. The set of all such elements is called the inverse image of y . Symbollically: inverse image of y = {x X | f (x) = y }.
from a set

Example.
to

Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Dene a function f from X Y by specifying that f (a) = 2, f (b) = 4, and f (c) = 2. Then, domain of f = {a, b, c}, co-domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 4}, range of f = {2, 4}, inverse image of 2 = {a, c}, inverse image of 4 = {b}, inverse image of 1 = and we can represent f as a set of ordered pairs: {(a, 2), (b, 4), (c, 2)}.

7.1 Injective or One-to-One Functions

X to a set Y . F is one-to-one if, and only if, for x2 in X , if F (x1 ) = F (x2 ), then x1 = x2 . Or equivalently, if x1 = x2 , then F (x1 ) = F (x2 ). Let F be a function from a set X to a set Y . F is not one-to-one if, and only if, elements x1 and x2 in X with F (x1 ) = F (x2 ) and x1 = x2 .
Let be a function from a set all elements

x1

and

Example.

specifying that

X = {1, 2, 3}and Y = {a, b, c, d}. Dene H : X Y by H (1) = c, H (2) = a, and H (3) = d. Dene K : X Y by specifying that K (1) = d, K (2) = b, and K (3) = d. Then, H is one-to-one because each of the three elements of domain of H is sent by H to a dierent element of the co-domain: H (1) = H (2), H (1) = H (3), and H (2) = H (3). However, K is not one-to-one because K (1) = K (3) = d but 1 = 3.
Let

Lemma. If the function f : R R is dened by the rule f(x)=4x-1, for all real
numbers x, then f is one-to-one Proof.
Suppose x1 and x2 are real numbers such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).Then, 4x1 1 = 4x2 1, Adding 1 to both sides gives 4x1 = 4x2 , and dividing both sides by 4 gives x1 = x2 , which is required.

n Z, then g is not one-to-one.

Lemma. If the function

g : Z Z is dened by the rule g (n) = n2 , for all

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7.2

Surjective or Onto Functions

FUNCTIONS

Proof.

(by counterexample) Let and also

22 = 4
and so

n1 = 2 and n2 = 2. Then g (n1 ) = g (2) = g (n2 ) = g (2) = (2)2 = 4. Hence, g (n1 ) = g (n2 ) but n1 = n2 ,

is not one-to-one function.

7.2 Surjective or Onto Functions

Let

be a function from a set

to a set

Y.

F is onto if, and only if, given any

element y=F(x). Let

in

it is possible to nd an element

in

with the property that

be a function from a set

in Y such that Let

X x X , F (x) = y .

to a set

Y.

F is not onto if, and only if,

Example.

X = {1, 2, 3, 4}and Y = {a, b, c}. Dene H : X Y by H (1) = c, H (2) = a, H (3) = c, and H (4) = b. Dene K : X Y by specifying that K (1) = c, K (2) = b, and K (4) = c. Then, H is onto because each of the three elements of the co-domain of H is the image of some element of the domain of H : a = H (2), b = H (4), and c = H (1) = H (3). However, K is not onto because a = K (x) for any x in {1, 2, 3, 4}.
specifying that

Lemma. If f : R R is the function dened by the rule f (x) = 4x 1 for all

real numbers x, then f is onto. Proof.
Let

y +1 4 . Then x is a real number since sums and quotients (other than by 0) of real numbers are real numbers. It follows that = 4 y+1 1 = (y + 1) 1 = y . f (x) = f y+1 4 4

y R.

Let

x =

Lemma. If the function h : Z Z is dened by the rule h(n) = 4n 1 for all integers n, then h is not onto.
Proof.
(by counterexample) The co-domain of for any integer

n.

For if

h(n) = 0,

then

h is Z and 0 Z. 4n 1 = 0 by denition

But of

1 4n 1 or n = 4 . But f (n) = 0, and so f is

1 4 is not an integer. Hence, there is no integer not onto.

h(n) = 0 h, which is n for which

7.3 Bijection or one-to-one correspoundence

A bijection from a set one-to-one and onto.

to a set

is a function

F : X Y

that is both

7.4 Inverse Function

Suppose element The

F :X Y y
in

is a bijection; that is, suppose

is one-to-one and onto. such that

Then there is a function

F 1 : Y X

that is dened as follows: Given any

Y , F 1 (y ) is that unique element x in X 1 function F is called the inverse function of F .

The function

F ( x)

equals

y.

Example.

f : R R

dened by the formula

f (x) = 4x 1

for all real numbers

x.

Then by denition of

f 1 , f 1 ( y ) =

that unique real

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7.5

Pigeonhole Principle

FUNCTIONS

number

y such that f (x) = y . But f (x) = y 4x 1 = y x = y+1 4 . Hence, y +1 1 f (y ) = 4 , which is the inverse function of the given function f (x) = 4x 1.

Lemma. If X and Y are sets and F : X Y is bijection (that is, one-to-one and onto), then F 1 : Y Y is also bijection.
is one-to-one: Suppose y1 and y2 are elements of Y such that F 1 (y1 ) = F 1 (y2 ). Let x = F 1 (y1 ) = F 1 (y2 ). Then, x X , and by de1 1 nition of F , F (x) = y1 since x = F (y1 ) and F (x) = y2 since x = F 1 (y2 ). Consequently, y1 = y2 since each is equal to F (x). F 1 is onto: Suppose x X . Let y = F (x). Then y Y , and by denition 1 1 of F , F (y ) = x.

Proof. F 1

7.5 Pigeonhole Principle

A function from one nite set to a smaller nite set cannot be one-to-one: There must be at least two elements in the domain that have the same image in the co-domian.

Example.

A group of thirteen people must contain at least two who were born

in the same month, for there are only twelve months in a year and

13 > 12.

The truth of the pigeonhole principle depends on the sets being nite. So, the denitions of nite and innite sets are as follows:

Denition.

A set is called nite if, and only if, it is the empty set or there is a

one-to-one correspondence from second case it is said to be

{1, 2, . . . , n} to it,

where

In the rst case, the number of elements in the set is said to be

n is a positive integer. 0, and in the

n.

A set that is not nite is called innite.

Lemma. For any funtion

Proof.
Suppose

f from a nite set X to a nite set Y , if n(X ) > n(Y ), then f is not one-to-one. n(X ) > n(Y ). X to a nite set Y where n(Y ) = m, and denote the elements of Y by y1 , y2 , . . . , ym . 1 Recall that for each yi in Y , the inverse image set f (yi ) = {x X : f (x) = yi }.
is any function from a nite set Let Now consider the collection of all the inverse image sets for all the elements of

Y : f 1 (y1 ), f 1 (y2 ), . . . , f 1 (ym ). By denition of function, each element of X is sent by f to some element of Y . Hence, each element of X is one of the inverse image sets, and so the union of all these sets equals X . But also by denition of function, no element of X is sent by f to more than one element of Y . Thus each element of X is in only one of the inverse image sets, and so
the inverse image sets are mutually disjoint. Therefore, by the addition rule,

n(X ) = n(f 1 (y1 )) + n(f 1 (y2 )) + . . . + n(f 1 (ym )) (Equation 1). 1 Now suppose that f is one-to-one. Then, each set f (yi ) has at most one 1 1 1 element, and so n(f (y1 ))+ n(f (y2 ))+ . . . + n(f (ym )) 1+1+ . . . +1 = m
(Equation 2). Putting Equation 1 and Equation 2 togather gives that This contradicts the fact that one-to-one must be false.

n(X ) > n(Y ), and so Hence, f is not one-to-one.

the supposition that

n(X ) m = n(Y ). f is

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7.6

Composition of Functions

RECURSION

7.6 Composition of Functions

f : X Y and g : Y Z be functions with the property that the range of f is a subset of the domain of g . Dene a new function g f : X Z as follows: (g f )(x) = g (f (x)) for all x X . The function g f is called the composition of f and g .
Let

Example.

squaring function. Then

f : Z Z be the successor function and let g : Z Z be the f (n) = n + 1 for all n Z and g (n) = n2 for all n Z. The function g f and f g are dened as follows: (g f )(n) = g (f (n)) = g (n + 1) = (n + 1)2 for all n Z, and (f g ) = f (g (n)) = f (n2 ) = n2 + 1 for all n Z.
Let Two functions from one set to another are equal if, and only if, they take the same values. In this case, Thus, the two functions

(g f )(1) = (1+1)2 = 4, whereas (f g )(1) = 12 +1 = 2. g f and f g are not equal: g f = f g . F

and

The above example illustrates the important fact that composition of functions is not a commutative operation: for general functions not necessarily equal

G, F G need

GF

, although the two may be equal.

X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c, d}, Y = {a, b, c, d, e}, Z = {x, y, z }. f : X Y and g : Y Z as f (1) = c, f (2) = b, f (3) = a, and g (a) = y , g (b) = y , g (c) = z , g (d) = z , and g (e) = z . Find the arrow diagram for g f and nd the range of g f .
Let Dene functions

Exercise.

Lemma. If f : X Y and g : Y
is one-to-one. Proof.
Suppose Suppose

Z are both one-to-one functions, then g f

f : X Y and g : Y Z are both one-to-one functions. x2 are elements of X such that (g f )(x1 ) = (g f )(x2 ). By denition of composition of functions, g (f (x1 )) = g (f (x2 )). Since g is one-toone, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). And since f is one-to-one, x1 = x2 . x1
and

Lemma. If f
onto. Proof.
a element of

: X Y and g : Y Z are both onto functions, then g f is

f : X Y and g : Y Z are both onto functions. Let z be Since g is onto, there is an element y in Y such that g (y ) = z . And since f is onto, there is an element x in X such that f (x) = y . Hence, there exists an element x in X such that (g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (y ) = z. It follows that g f is onto.
Suppose

Z.

8 Recursion
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is a formula that relates each ak1 , ak2 , . . . , aki , where i is a xed integer and k is any integer greater than or equal to i. The initial conditions for such a recurrence relation specify the values of a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ai1 .
A recurrence relation for a sequence term

ak

to certain of its predecessors

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8.1

Iteration Method

RECURSION

b0 , b1 , b2 , . . . can be dened recursively as follows: k 2, bk = bk1 + bk2 (recurrence relation) and b0 = 1, b1 = 3 (initial conditions). Since b0 and b1 are given, b2 can be computed using recurrence relation. b2 = b1 + b0 = 3+1 = 4. Then, since both b1 and b2 are now known, b3 can be computed using recurrence relation. b3 = b2 + b1 = 4 + 3 = 7.
For example, a sequence For all integer In general, the recurrence relation says that any term of the sequence after b is the sum of the two preceding terms. Thus,

b4 = b3 + b2 = 7 + 4 = 11, b5 =

b4 + b3 = 11 + 7 = 18,

and so forth.

8.1 Iteration Method

An explicit formula for the sequence, whose recurrence relation and initial conditions are given, is called a solution to the recurrence relation. The basic method for nding an explicit formula (i.e., solution) for a recursively dened sequence is iteration. The following example shows the working of the meothod of iteration. let gers

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . be the sequence dened recursively as follows: For all intek 1, ak = ak1 + 2 (recurrence relation) a0 = 1 (initial condition). We ak = ak1 + 2 k.
for all integers In particular,

use iteration to guess an explicit formula for the sequence. Recall that to say what positive integer is replaced

k 1 means no matter a1 = a0 + 2, a2 = a1 +

2, a3 = a2 + 2,

and so forth. Now use the initial condition to begin a process

of successive substitutions into these equations, not just of numbers but of numerical expressions. Here's how the process works for the given sequence:

=1 = a0 + 2 = 1 + 2 = a1 + 2 = (1 + 2) + 2 =1+2+2 = a2 + 2 = (1 + 2 + 2) + 2 =1+2+2+2 = a3 + 2 = (1 + 2 + 2 + 2) + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 We use the shorthand k 2 in place of 2 + 2 + . . . + 2 (k items), so starting from a0 . a0 = 1 =1+02 a1 = a0 + 2 = 1 + 2 =1+12 a2 = a1 + 2 = (1 + 2) + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 = 1+22 a3 = a2 + 2 = (1 + 2 + 2) + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1+32 a4 = a3 + 2 = (1 + 2 + 2 + 2) + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1+42 a5 = a4 + 2 = (1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2) + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1+52
So the guess is:

a0 a1 a2 a3 a4

an = 1 + n 2 = 1 + 2n
The answer obtained for this problem is just a guess. To be sure of the correctness of this guess, you will need to check it by mathematical induction. The sequence like the one in the above example, in which each term equals the previous term plus a xed constant, is called an

arithmetic sequence.

Denition.

A sequence

only if there is a constant

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . is called an arithmetic sequence if and d such that ak = ak1 + d for all integers k 1. Or

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RELATIONS

equivalently,

an = a0 + d n

for all integers

n 0.

In a geometric sequence, each term equals the previous term times a xed constant.

Denition.
equivalently,

if there is a constant

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . is called a geometric sequence if and only r such that ak = r ak1 for all integers k 1. Or an = a0 rn for all integers n 0.
A sequence

Exercise. Let r be a xed nonzero constant and suppose a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . .

is dened recursively as follows:

ak = r ak1

for all integers

k 1, a0 = a.

Use

iteration to guess an explicit formula for this sequence.

9 Relations
Let

R from A to B is a subset A B . (x, y ) in A B , x is related to y by R, written xRy , if and only if (x, y ) is in R. For instance, let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Let us say that an element x in A is related to an element y in B if and only if x is less than y . Then 0R1 since 0 < 1, 0R2 since 0 < 2, 0R3 since 0 < 3, 1R2 since 1 < 2, 1R3 since 1 < 3, and 2R3 since 2 < 3. Recall that the Cartesian product of A and B , A B , consists of all ordered pairs whose rst element is in A and whose second element is in B : A B = {(x, y ) : x A y B }. In this case, A B = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}. The elements of some ordered pairs in A B are related while the elements of other ordered pairs are not. Consider the set of all ordered pairs in A B whose elements are related: {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}. Observe that knowing which A
and

be sets. A (binary) relation

Given an ordered pair

ordered pairs lie in this set is equivalent to knowing which elements are related to which.

A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and dene a binary relation R from A B , (x,y) R if and only if xy is even. Then A B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}. To determine explicitly the composition of R, examine each ordered pair in A B to see whether its elements satisfy the dening condition of R. (1, 1) R because 1 1 = 0 and 0 is even, (1, 2) / R because 1 2 = 1 and 1 is not even, (1, 3) R because 1 3 = 2 and 2 is even, (2, 1) / R because 2 1 = 1 and 1 is not even, (2, 2) R because 2 2 = 0 and 0 is even, and (2, 3) / R because 2 3 = 1 and 1 is not even. Thus, R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}.
Let A to B as follows: given any (x,y)

Example.

Z. That Z as follows: for all (m, n) Z Z, mEn if and only if m n is even. Then, 4E 0 because 4 0 = 4 and 4 is even . . . and so forth. Now we'll show that if n is odd then we have nE 1.
is, dene a binary relation

Generalize the relation in the above example to the set of all integers

from

to

Lemma. If n is any odd integer, then nE 1.

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9.1

Functions

RELATIONS

Proof.

Then n = 2k + 1 for E , nE 1 if and only if n 1 is even. But n 1 = (2k + 1) 1 = 2k, and since k is an integer, 2k is even. Suppose is nay odd integer. Now by denition of Dene a binary relation if and only if

some integer Hence

k.

by substitution,

nE 1. (x, y )

R R, (x, y ) C

Exercise.

C from R x2 + y 2 = 1.

to

as follows: for any

9.1 Functions
A to B that satises x in A, there is an element y in B such that (x, y ) F . (2) For all elements x in A and y and z in B , if (x, y ) F and (x, z ) F , then y = z . If F is a function from A to B , we write y = F (x) if and only if (x, y ) F .
A function from a set to a set is a relation from the following two properties: (1) For every element

Example.

Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}. The relations R dene as R = {(2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (6, 5)} and the relation S dene as for all (x, y ) A B, (x, y ) S if and only if y = x + 1. Then, the relation R is not a function because it does not satisfy property (2). The ordered pairs (4, 1) and (4, 3) have the same rst element but dierent second elements. The relation S is not a function because it does not satisfy property (1). element of It is not true that every

is the rst element of an ordered pair in

S.

For example,

6A

but there is no

in

such that

y = 6 + 1 = 7.

R, (x, y ) C
or

Exercise.
L

(a) Dene a relation from if and only if

follows: for all

R to R as follows: for all (x, y ) R x2 + y 2 = 1. (b) Dene a relation from R to R as (x, y ) R R, (x, y ) L if and only if y = x 1. Which one C

is a function?

9.2 Inverse Relation

Let R be a relation from A to B. Dene the inverse relation as follows:

R 1

from

to

= {(y, x) B A : (x, y ) R}.

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REFERENCES

REFERENCES

References
[1] Kenneth A. Ross and Charles R. B. Wright, Discrete Mathematics, 5th Edition, Pearson Education Inc., 2003. [2] Susanna S. Epp, Discrete Mathematics with Applications, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, MA, 1995 [3] .Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lipson, Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Discrete Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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