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Principles of Programming Language

Unit-VIII Logic Programming Languages

Topics

Introduction A Brief Introduction to Predicate Calculus Predicate Calculus and Proving Theorems An Overview of Logic Programming The Origins of Prolog The Basic Elements of Prolog Deficiencies of Prolog Applications of Logic Programming
Introduction

Logic programming languages, sometimes called declarative programming

languages

Express programs in a form of symbolic logic Use a logical inferencing process to produce results Declarative rather that procedural:
them)

Only specification of results are stated (not detailed procedures for producing
Proposition

A logical statement that may or may not be true

Symbolic Logic

Consists of objects and relationships of objects to each other

Logic which can be used for the basic needs of formal logic:

Express propositions Express relationships between propositions Describe how new propositions can be inferred from other propositions
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Principles of Programming Language

Particular form of symbolic logic used for logic programming called predicate
calculus Object Representation

Objects in propositions are represented by simple terms: either constants or

variables

Constant: a symbol that represents an object Variable: a symbol that can represent different objects at different times

Different from variables in imperative languages

Compound Terms

Atomic propositions consist of compound terms Compound term: one element of a mathematical relation, written like a
mathematical function

Mathematical function is a mapping Can be written as a table

Parts of a Compound Term

Compound term composed of two parts

Functor: function symbol that names the relationship Ordered list of parameters (tuple)
Examples:
student(jon) like(seth, OSX) like(nick, windows) like(jim, linux)

Forms of a Proposition

Propositions can be stated in two forms:

Compound proposition:

Fact: proposition is assumed to be true Query: truth of proposition is to be determined

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Principles of Programming Language

Have two or more atomic propositions Propositions are connected by operators

Logical Operators
Name negation conjunction disjunction equivalence implication a a a a a Symbol Example a b b b b b Meaning not a a and b a or b a is equivalent to b a implies b b implies a

Quantifiers
Name universal existential Example X.P X.P Meaning For all X, P is true There exists a value of X such that P is true

Clausal Form

Too many ways to state the same thing Use a standard form for propositions Clausal form:
B1

means if all the As are true, then at least one B is true

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B2

Bn

A1

A2

Am

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Principles of Programming Language

Antecedent: right side Consequent: left side

Predicate Calculus and Proving Theorems

A use of propositions is to discover new theorems that can be inferred from

known axioms and theorems

Resolution: an inference principle that allows inferred propositions to be

computed from given propositions Resolution

Unification: finding values for variables in propositions that allows matching

process to succeed succeed

Instantiation: assigning temporary values to variables to allow unification to After instantiating a variable with a value,
Theorem Proving if matching fails, may need to backtrack and instantiate with a different value

Basis for logic programming When propositions used for resolution, only restricted form can be used Horn clause - can have only two forms

Headed: single atomic proposition on left side Headless: empty left side (used to state facts)
Overview of Logic Programming

Most propositions can be stated as Horn clauses Declarative semantics

Programming is nonprocedural
form of the result

There is a simple way to determine the meaning of each statement Simpler than the semantics of imperative languages Programs do not state now a result is to be computed, but rather the

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Principles of Programming Language

The Origins of Prolog

University of Aix-Marseille University of Edinburgh

Natural language processing Automated theorem proving

Terms

Edinburgh Syntax Term: a constant, variable, or structure Constant: an atom or an integer Atom: symbolic value of Prolog Atom consists of either:

a string of letters, digits, and underscores beginning with a lowercase letter a string of printable ASCII characters delimited by apostrophes
Terms: Variables and Structures

Variable: any string of letters, digits, and underscores beginning with an

uppercase letter

Instantiation: binding of a variable to a value Structure: represents atomic proposition

functor(parameter list) Fact Statements

Lasts only as long as it takes to satisfy one complete goal

Used for the hypotheses Headless Horn clauses

female(shelley). male(bill). father(bill, jake).

Rule Statements

Used for the hypotheses

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Principles of Programming Language

Headed Horn clause Right side: antecedent (if part)

Left side: consequent (then part)

May be single term or conjunction Must be single term

Conjunction: multiple terms separated by logical AND operations (implied)

Example Rules ancestor(mary,shelley):- mother(mary,shelley).

Can use variables (universal objects) to generalize meaning:

parent(X,Y):- mother(X,Y). parent(X,Y):- father(X,Y). grandparent(X,Z):- parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z). sibling(X,Y):- mother(M,X), mother(M,Y), father(F,X), father(F,Y).

Goal Statements

For theorem proving, theorem is in form of proposition that we want system

to prove or disprove goal statement

Same format as headless Horn

man(fred)

Conjunctive propositions and propositions with variables also legal goals

father(X,mike) Inferencing Process of Prolog

Queries are called goals If a goal is a compound proposition, each of the facts is a subgoal To prove a goal is true, must find a chain of inference rules and/or facts.
For goal Q: B :- A C :- B Q :- P

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Principles of Programming Language

Process of proving a subgoal called matching, satisfying, or resolution

Approaches

Bottom-up resolution, forward chaining

that leads to goal

Begin with facts and rules of database and attempt to find sequence Works well with a large set of possibly correct answers Begin with goal and attempt to find sequence that leads to set of facts
in database

Top-down resolution, backward chaining

Prolog implementations use backward chaining

Subgoal Strategies

Works well with a small set of possibly correct answers

When goal has more than one subgoal, can use either

Depth-first search:
working on others

find a complete proof for the first subgoal before

Prolog uses depth-first search

Backtracking

Breadth-first search: work on all subgoals in parallel Can be done with fewer computer resources

With a goal with multiple subgoals, if fail to show truth of one of subgoals,
reconsider previous subgoal to find an alternative solution: backtracking

Begin search where previous search left off Can take lots of time and space because may find all possible proofs to every
subgoal Simple Arithmetic

Prolog supports integer variables and integer arithmetic

left operand

is operator: takes an arithmetic expression as right operand and variable as

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Principles of Programming Language

Not the same as an assignment statement!

Example speed(ford,100). speed(chevy,105). speed(dodge,95). speed(volvo,80). time(ford,20). time(chevy,21). time(dodge,24). time(volvo,24). distance(X,Y) :speed(X,Speed), time(X,Time), Y is Speed * Time. Trace

A is B / 17 + C

Built-in structure that displays instantiations at each step Tracing model of execution - four events:

Call (beginning of attempt to satisfy goal) Exit (when a goal has been satisfied) Redo (when backtrack occurs) Fail (when goal fails)
Example likes(jake,chocolate). likes(jake,apricots). likes(darcie,licorice). likes(darcie,apricots). trace. likes(jake,X), likes(darcie,X).

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Principles of Programming Language

Other basic data structure (besides atomic propositions we have already

seen): list

List is a sequence of any number of elements Elements can be atoms, atomic propositions, or other terms (including other
lists) [apple, prune, grape, kumquat] [] (empty list) [X | Y] (head X and tail Y) Append Example append([], List, List). append([Head | List_1], List_2, [Head | List_3]) :append (List_1, List_2, List_3). Reverse Example reverse([], []). reverse([Head | Tail], List) :reverse (Tail, Result), append (Result, [Head], List). Deficiencies of Prolog

Resolution order control The closed-world assumption The negation problem Intrinsic limitations
Applications of Logic Programming

Relational database management systems Expert systems Natural language processing

Summary

Symbolic logic provides basis for logic programming Logic programs should be nonprocedural Prolog statements are facts, rules, or goals Resolution is the primary activity of a Prolog interpreter Although there are a number of drawbacks with the current state of logic
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Principles of Programming Language

programming it has been used in a number of areas

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