Defra Research Project Final Report

Defra Project Code: Project Title: Contractor Organisation: SP1001 Contaminated Land Remediation CL:AIRE 7th Floor 1 Great Cumberland Place London W1H 7AL 35,100 4th January 2010 29th November 2010

Total Defra Project Costs: (agreed fixed price) Project Start Date: Project End Date:

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Remediation of contaminated land can be an expensive and technically difficult process. There are a range of different remediation techniques to address both the wide variety of potential contaminants and the differing conditions on each site. In the past, the contaminated land sector has tended to rely primarily on heavy engineering solutions which typically offer relatively quick-fix solutions, but can be very expensive and have high environmental and social impacts. In many cases heavy engineering solutions are the only realistic option, but in other cases less impactful ways of dealing with risks may be suitable. For example, some sites are suitable for soil-treating techniques such as bioremediation, and in other cases it is possible to deal with the risks without treating the soil (e.g. using fencing to prevent access to a site). This research aims to summarise the current understanding and utilisation of different contaminated land remediation techniques, to identify current and likely future factors influencing their selection and to set out the relative economic, environmental and social costs and benefits (i.e. the sustainability) of each technique. The contaminated land sector in the UK and elsewhere is looking at ways to improve remediation working practices, including how sustainability is measured and considered during remediation. This thinking includes how to rely less on excavation and removal techniques that involve disposing of large amounts of contaminated soil in landfills and to reuse material wherever possible, thus protecting the use of natural resources and protecting soil which is a valued resource. Much of these improved working practices are tied up with the concept of sustainability and therefore the understanding of what sustainability means in the context of remediation and how it can be measured is extremely important. The UK Sustainable Remediation Forum (SuRF-UK) framework document provides a mechanism for practitioners to undertake sustainability assessments using an agreed methodology. This research complements the work being conducted by SuRF-UK and will be useful for SuRF-UKs Phase 2 work, which is looking at real case studies measuring sustainability. An assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts and benefits (i.e. the sustainability) of selected remediation techniques was carried out. This was undertaken by evaluating which sustainability indicators could be used at a technology specific level, and using them to qualitatively assess each selected remediation technique. If required, the assessment could be used to undertake a semi-quantitative assessment using scoring systems and impact weightings. A desk-based study was carried out to compile information on remediation techniques from a number of sources, presented as 21 Technology Profiles. Brief descriptions of each technique are given in addition to describing the effectiveness of each of these methods in addressing different contaminants and when circumstances (e.g. geology, hydrogeology, contaminant form etc) may or may not be suitable to their use. The study also describes the advantages and disadvantages of each technique and the barriers to their use. A study was undertaken to compile information on the typical costs of remediation techniques utilising information that is already available and from the most up-to-date information available from practitioners within the contaminated land sector. A literature search identified that there is limited research which addresses the issue of remediation costs. The main reason for this is because remediation costs are strongly site-specific and dependent upon the details of a number of different aspects such as the geological, hydrogeological and chemical data available from the site investigation at an individual site. The costs are also strongly influenced by how stringent the remedial targets are which in turn affects the duration. From an analysis of the cost data from the industry questionnaire no broad conclusions could be drawn that either in situ or ex situ treatment methods were more costly or had more variable costs. It was observed that costs generally decreased for higher volumes of material treated (>5000 m3) and this effect was displayed strongly for permeable reactive barriers, ex situ thermal desorption and soil washing. This is a trend that may be expected as these technologies generally have considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs making them a more cost-effective option where larger volumes are required.

Another notable trend is that for a number of remediation techniques the variance in costs decreased 3 for volumes greater than 5000 m . This trend is again perhaps to be expected as average costs per 3 m should be better constrained for larger volumes where the considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs are averaged across larger volumes. A desk-based study was also conducted using a number of different resources to collect data on the current and historic usage of each remedial technique in the UK, supplemented by the industry questionnaire. The research also investigated emerging and potential remediation techniques in order to identify areas for potential further research and development, which may also attract investment, both of which will be of benefit to UK plc. In the review of techniques that are currently under development, whether they are near-market or had only limited applications in the UK, it was noted that a number of collaborative research and development and applied research projects were still ongoing and had yet to disseminate their results. Therefore, it is difficult to assess the potential benefits that they might bring to the remediation industry at this stage. The work in this project has been reviewed by the CL:AIRE Technology and Research Group, an independent group of experts in contaminated land remediation, and the sustainability aspects have been reviewed by the SuRF-UK Steering Group. This report presents the findings of this work and will be disseminated to the whole contaminated land stakeholder community.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CL:AIRE would like to thank the following organisations which took the time and effort to complete the industry questionnaire (in alphabetical order): Technology vendors Bilfinger Berger Environmental Churngold Remediation DEC NV Ecologia Environmental Solutions ERS Provectus Group QDS Remedx RAW VHE Construction WSP Remediation Environmental consultants Arcadis CH2M Hill Entec ERM Parsons Brinckerhoff URS Corporation WorleyParsons CL:AIRE would like to acknowledge the support of Davis Langdon in preparation of the cost assessment part of this work. Finally, CL:AIRE would like the thank the members of the CL:AIRE Technology and Research Group and SuRF-UK Steering Group for reviewing and commenting on the Milestone Reports on which this final report is based. CL:AIRE Technology and Research Group: Mr Mike Pearl Babcock International Group Mr Mike Summersgill RSK Ltd Dr Brian Bone Environment Agency Dr John Campbell SAC Associates Professor Max Coleman Caltech Mr Steve Edgar Vertase FLI Dr Theresa Kearney Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland Professor David Lerner University of Sheffield Professor Andy Moffat Forest Research Professor Phil Morgan The Sirius Group Dr Mike Rivett University of Birmingham Professor Jonathan Smith Shell Global Solutions SuRF-UK Steering Group: Ms Nicola Harries CL:AIRE Professor Jonathan Smith Shell Global Solutions through the Soil and Groundwater Technology Association Mr Frank Evans National Grid through the Soil and Groundwater Technology Association Dr Brian Bone Environment Agency Professor Paul Bardos r3 Environmental Technology Ltd Dr Richard Boyle Homes and Communities Agency Dr David Ellis DuPont and SURF USA

CONTENTS

Executive Summary Acknowledgements Contents Introduction Background and context Aims and objectives 1. An overview of the understanding of remediation techniques 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Treatment profiles for in situ techniques 1.3 Treatment profiles for ex situ techniques 1.4 Treatment profile for civil engineering-based methods 2. An environmental, social and economic impact assessment of remediation techniques 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Headline indicators, suitability for remediation technology selection and definitions 2.3 In situ remediation technology impact tables 2.4 Ex situ remediation technology impact tables 3. A cost assessment of remediation techniques 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Remediation technique questionnaire 3.3 Data analysis and presentation of the results 3.4 Summary and discussion 4. Status of the use of remediation techniques in the UK 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Current and historic usage of remediation techniques 4.3 Drivers for technique selection 4.4 Status of sustainability measurement in remediation 4.5 Future remediation practices Discussion and conclusions References Appendices Appendix 1: List of remediation techniques mentioned in Section 1 of the report Appendix 2: CL:AIRE Remediation Technique Questionnaire Appendix 3: CL:AIRE Technology Demonstrations Projects

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INTRODUCTION Background and context

The UK has a considerable legacy of land contamination. Such land may be remediated in response to various drivers. For example, landowners may wish to remediate voluntarily to raise the value of land or to reduce potential liabilities. Remediation may be required as land is being re/developed under the planning system and therefore changing the land use; or there may be direct regulatory requirement to remediate (e.g. if land has been determined as contaminated land under Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990). Remediation of contaminated land can be an expensive and technically difficult process. The contaminated land industry, both in the UK and worldwide, has developed a range of different remediation techniques to address both the wide variety of potential contaminants and the differing conditions on each site. In the past, the contaminated land sector has tended to rely primarily on heavy engineering solutions. These techniques usually offer relatively quick-fix solutions which can be very expensive and have high environmental and social impacts. In many cases heavy engineering solutions are the only realistic option, but in other cases less impactful ways of dealing with risks may be suitable. For example, some sites are suitable for soil-treating techniques such as bioremediation, and in other cases it is possible to deal with the risks without treating the soil (e.g. using fencing to prevent access to a site). The contaminated land sector in the UK and elsewhere is looking at ways to improve remediation working practices, including how sustainability is measured and considered during remediation, how to rely less on excavation and removal techniques that involve disposing of large amounts of contaminated soil in landfills and to reuse material wherever possible, thus protecting the use of natural resources and protecting soil which is a finite resource. Much of these improved working practices are tied up with the concept of sustainability and therefore the understanding of what sustainability means in the context of remediation and how it can be measured is extremely important. The UK Sustainable Remediation Forum (SuRF-UK) framework document (SuRF-UK, 2010) provides a mechanism for practitioners to start to undertake sustainability assessments using an agreed methodology. This research complements the work being conducted by SuRF-UK and will be useful for SuRF-UKs Stage 2 work, which is looking at real case studies measuring sustainability. This research seeks to improve the knowledge of the costs and benefits (environmental, social and economic) of the variety of remediation techniques available in the UK, with the aim of working to encourage smarter remediation solutions to be used in practice.

Aims and objectives

The aims of this research are to summarise the current understanding and utilisation of different contaminated land remediation techniques, to identify current and likely future factors influencing their selection and to set out the relative economic, environmental and social costs and benefits (i.e. the sustainability) of each technique. The six objectives of this research are to: 1. Provide an overview of the understanding of remediation techniques 2. Conduct an environmental and social impact assessment of remediation techniques 3. Conduct a cost assessment of remediation techniques 4. Design two questionnaires to survey (i) technology providers and (ii) environmental consultants 5. Assess the status of the use of remediation techniques in England and Wales 6. Provide a written summary report and disseminate the results

1. 1.1

AN OVERVIEW TECHNIQUES Introduction

OF

THE

UNDERSTANDING

OF

REMEDIATION

This section provides an overview of the understanding of remediation techniques available in the UK. They have been classified according to whether they are treatments that are applied in situ (in the subsurface) or ex situ (to excavated soil, abstracted groundwater, or gaseous emissions), or whether they involve civil-engineering based processes to excavate and treat/dispose, abstract and treat, or contain. The most recent and authoritative work on this topic is the Contaminated Land Ready Reference (Nathanail et al., 2007) and this has been used to help structure this section. Supplementary information has been incorporated from a number of other references. The section is divided up into Treatment Profiles which focus on individual technologies or groups of similar techniques and these are presented in Table 1.1. It shows that many remediation technologies belong in more than one classification, for example, permeable reactive barriers can include biological, physical or chemical processes. Overall, there are 21 Treatment Profiles, which account for over 80 remediation techniques (listed in Appendix 1). Table 1.1: Classification of remediation technologies by process. In situ - Remedial activities taking place in the subsurface (see Section 1.2) Biological Physical Chemical Permeable reactive barriers Flushing Enhanced Chemical oxidation bioremediation and reduction Phytoremediation Electro-remediation Monitored natural Stabilisation/solidification attenuation Sparging Venting Vitrification

Thermal Thermal treatment

Ex situ - Remedial actions applied to excavated soil or the treatment at surface of contaminated water or gaseous emissions (see Section 1.3) Biological Physical Chemical Thermal Biological treatment Soil washing and separation processes Thermal treatment Stabilisation/solidification Venting Chemical oxidation and reduction Vitrification Water and gas/vapour treatment Civil engineering-based methods e.g. excavation/abstraction, landfill, containment measures (see Section 1.4) Each Treatment Profile includes a brief summary to describe the main chemical, physical, biological or thermal processes, or whether a combination of these processes is taking place. A short technology description is given to outline the main aspects of the technique, followed by an assessment of which contaminants and ground materials the technique may be effectively applied to. In order to assess whether a particular technique could be used on a contaminated site, it is necessary to have details on: the type of contamination present on the site; whether the contaminants are present in the groundwater, the soil/strata, or both: and the type of ground materials present at the surface and in the subsurface. These factors will be explained further in the following paragraphs.

In terms of the type of contamination at a site, it is possible to categorise contaminants into different groups depending on their properties (for example, whether they are organic or inorganic). Table 1.2 lists the main contaminant groups that are found on contaminated sites in the UK. Table 1.2: Contaminant groups used to assess applicability Organic Halogenated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Halogenated semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) Non-halogenated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Non-halogenated semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) Organic corrosives Organic cyanides Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hydrazine Lead, mercury, chromium, zinc Radioactive isotopes of uranium, radon Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid Metallic cyanides Blue, brown, white Common examples Trichloroethene (TCE), chloroform, vinyl chloride Tetrachlorophenol, 2-chloronaphthalene Benzene, xylene, toluene, ethylbenzene (BTEX), acetone, carbon disulphide Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), phenol Acetic acid, aniline Organonitriles PCB (Arochlor)-1016 4, 4 DDT, Heptachlor 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran

It can be seen that the first four organic contaminant groups are categorised as either halogenated or non-halogenated, and as volatile organic compounds (VOC) or semivolatile organic compounds (SVOC). A VOC or SVOC that contains one or more of the more common halogen elements (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) is termed halogenated. While there are no universally accepted definitions as to what constitutes a VOC as opposed an SVOC, the United States Environmental Protection Agency website does provide the following definition: A VOC is an organic compound which has a boiling point below that of water and which can easily vaporise or volatilise. An SVOC is an organic compound which has a boiling point higher than water and which may vaporise when exposed to temperatures above room temperature (USEPA MidAtlantic Brownfields & Land Revitalization website, 2010). Although the definitions may differ from source to source, and in fact naphthalene is commonly described as both a VOC and an SVOC (e.g. Chemex website, 2010), there are general properties which help to define the differences. VOCs have relatively high volatility and most will readily evaporate at ambient temperatures, whereas SVOCs do not. VOCs also have high vapour pressure compared to SVOCs and this leads to them being frequently detected in liquid, solid and air samples. Conversely, because of their lower vapour pressures and solubility, SVOCs are usually detected in solid samples such as biota, soil, or waste materials. In general, VOCs have lower molecular weights and lower viscosity than SVOCs and this contributes to their tendency to readily migrate in the environment whereas SVOCs migrate more slowly (Otten and Johnson, 2008). Other organic contaminant groups, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides/herbicides can also be classified as SVOCs, but have been listed separately in Table 2.1 to provide greater understanding of their treatability as their behaviour is sufficiently different from the broader range of SVOCs. Conversely, petroleum hydrocarbons and fuel contaminants, such as

benzene and phenol are included in the non-halogenated VOC and SVOC contaminant groupings as they exhibit behaviour typical of these groups. Although using the contaminant categories in Table 2.1 provides a useful starting point for assessing the appropriateness of remediation techniques, it is a simplification of what in reality is likely to be a much more complicated scenario. Determining whether a technique is applicable to a particular contaminant group can rarely be completely accurate and there are several reasons for this which are explored below. Due to this uncertainty, the assessments provided in Sections 1.2 and 1.3 are based on three descriptive categories: whether there is strong potential applicability, whether there may be some applicability under certain conditions, or if the technique is not suitable. Many contaminated sites will contain more than one contaminant category and when this is the case the applicability of a technique should be assessed for each category separately in order to assess which technique might be applicable. However, this does not take into account whether the presence of one type of contaminant will affect the degree to which another may be remediated. Even within the same contaminant group there can be variation in the applicability of a treatment technique. For example, low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are more amenable to biodegradation than heavier molecular weight PAHs, yet both are categorised as non-halogenated SVOCs. There are also instances when a treatment technique may be applicable to a contaminant group in theoretical terms or even demonstrated at laboratory-scale, but there are practical reasons why it has not been applied on site, such as health and safety concerns or scaling-up issues in implementing the technique. The Treatment Profiles also assess each technique for its applicability to the ground materials (e.g. soil types) to be treated. Ground materials can be described as coarse, fine or organic depending on the size and type of their constituent components. Coarse materials are those that contain more than 65% sand and gravel sizes, whereas fine materials contain over 35% silt and clay sizes (British Standards Institution, 1999). An example of an organic soil is peat. The Treatment Profiles assess the main potential advantages and limitations to the technique. However, remediation timescale (Tables 1.2 and 1.3) and costs (Section 3) are covered separately in this report. The maturity and availability of each of the techniques is not included in the individual Treatment Profiles. However, according to Nathanail et al., (2007), which comments on the relative availability of techniques in the UK, the following are considered widely available: venting, sparging, flushing, pump and treat, in situ bioremediation, and ex situ bioremediation. These techniques are considered available: permeable reactive barriers, chemical oxidation and reduction, monitored natural attenuation and soil washing. Thermal treatment is quoted as being available from several suppliers, and stabilisation/solidification is generally available, depending on the binder used. Electroremediation and phytoremediation are listed as emerging techniques with growing availability. The authors do not define what is meant by the terms widely available and available, but they can be used as a relative measure of usage from those that are commonly applied to those that have fewer reported instances of success. Although the report of Nathanail et al., (2007) is three years old it is not felt that the availability of remediation techniques has altered considerably. This is corroborated by further discussion of the status of techniques provided in Section 4 of this report. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the information provided in the Treatment Profiles is the first step to understanding the suitability of a particular technique to a particular contaminated site. The applicability of all potential techniques must be further investigated in practice by employing appropriately skilled personnel, performing bench, pilot and treatability testing where appropriate and considering each site on a case-by-case basis. The final assessment will include costs, track record, sustainability (environmental, social, economic) impacts and availability of equipment.

1.2

Treatment Profiles for In Situ Techniques

In situ methods are those that take place in the subsurface, without excavation of the contaminated soil or abstraction of groundwater. The main advantages of in situ methods are that they can often

avoid excessive environmental impacts and costs associated with excavation and abstraction and they can typically be implemented on operational sites. The major constraint is ensuring that the remediation technique can make effective contact with the contaminants in the subsurface (e.g. facilitating and optimising the mixing of reagents and contaminants or installing a permeable reactive barrier in the correct place). It may be possible to enhance this contact using pressure injection of reagents, or hydrofracturing techniques to improve penetration in clay. Overcoming this constraint requires a detailed understanding of the characteristics of the site in terms of contaminant properties (types, concentration, distribution etc) and physical properties (e.g. soil matrix, heterogeneity, presence of buried structures, hydrogeology etc) (CIRIA, 1995). This may require pilot and treatability studies to fully understand if a particular technique will be effective at a site. Due to the complex nature of the subsurface and the level of understanding required, it can be difficult to verify the performance of in situ techniques. The Environment Agency supports a lines of evidence approach to verification which means collecting data sets of key parameters to demonstrate the performance of remediation (Environment Agency, 2010). Some of the more commonly used lines of evidence are described in Table 1.3 for each remediation technique. Table 1.3: Lines of evidence to verify remediation and typical timescales for in situ remediation processes. Techniques Lines of evidence Remediation timescale (year) (Environment Agency, 2010) (Adapted from FRTR, 2007; CIRIA, 2004; Nathanail et al., 2007) <1 Chemical oxidation and Geochemical indicators reduction Remediation process conditions Geophysical properties Electro-remediation Geochemical indicators 1-3 Remediation process conditions 0.5-3 Enhanced bioremediation Geochemical indicators Biodegradation indicators Remediation process conditions Other biotransformation changes Flushing Remediation process conditions 1-3 Tracer tests Thermal treatment Remediation process conditions <1 1-30 Monitored natural attenuation Geochemical indicators Highly dependent on specific Biodegradation indicators contaminant and remediation Geophysical properties design Other biotransformation changes Permeable reactive barriers Geochemical indicators >10 Remediation process conditions >10 Phytoremediation Bioassays Geotechnical properties Other biotransformation changes 0.5-3 Sparging Geochemical indicators Biodegradation indicators Remediation process conditions Geophysical properties Stabilisation/solidification Geochemical indicators <1 Remediation process conditions Geotechnical properties Venting Remediation process conditions 1-3 Vitrification Remediation process conditions <1
Notes: Geochemical indicators (e.g. redox potential, electron acceptor/donor concentrations) Remediation process conditions (e.g. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen) Geophysical properties (e.g. surface and downhole surveying techniques such as electrical resistivity) Biodegradation indicators (e.g. the presence of suitable microorganisms in groundwater) Other biotransformation changes (e.g. stable isotope fractionation) Tracer Tests (e.g. bromide and chloride) Bioassays (e.g. toxicity testing using invertebrates, plants and biosensors) Geotechnical properties (e.g. hydraulic conductivity)

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Primary evidence will normally be based on a reduction in contaminant concentration, using accredited laboratory data, however, additional lines of evidence are often needed to provide more certainty in the remediation outcome. Furthermore, as monitoring and sampling over extended time periods may be necessary to demonstrate remediation success, the timescales for in situ remediation techniques, also shown in Table 1.3, are generally longer than ex situ techniques (see page 24). Treatment Profiles are presented in the proceeding pages for the following in situ remediation techniques: Chemical oxidation and reduction Electro-remediation Enhanced bioremediation using redox amendments Flushing Monitored natural attenuation Permeable reactive barriers Phytoremediation Sparging Stabilisation/solidification Thermal Treatment Venting Vitrification

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Technology name:

Brief summary:

Fentons reagent, ozone, permanganate, sodium persulphate, sodium percarbonate, dechlorination, zero-valent iron, in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) In situ chemical method involving addition of chemicals to soil or groundwater to oxidise or reduce the contaminants thereby degrading them, reducing their toxicity, changing their solubility, or increasing their susceptibility to other forms of treatment. Chemical oxidation and reduction

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations

Technology description: Chemical oxidation involves the injection of liquid or gaseous oxidising agents (or oxidants) to the subsurface to bring about the rapid degradation of many organic contaminants. Some organic compounds will undergo partial degradation and can then be treated by other methods, such as bioremediation. Arsenic (As) may also be oxidised from As(III) to As(V), however, as the latter is more harmful, additional techniques will be required in order to complete the remediation. Typical oxidants include the following: Fentons reagent: hydrogen peroxide with a ferrous iron (Fe 2+) catalyst produces highly reactive free radical species. Permanganate (MnO4 ): can oxidise contaminants by direct electron transfer or via free radial species. Ozone (O3): can oxidise contaminants directly or via free radical species. Sodium persulphate and sodium percarbonate are also used. Chemical reduction involves the addition of reducing agents (reductants) to degrade chlorinated solvents and reduce the toxicity of metals. Typical reductants include the following: Zero valent iron: although commonly used as the reactive material in permeable reactive barriers, zero valent iron can be added to soil by mixing or injected as nanoparticles (still at demonstration stage); Polysulphides: used in the reduction of metals to less lower toxicity forms (e.g. chromium (VI) to chromium (III)).

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: reactions are fast and can result in complete degradation; applicable to a wide range of organic contaminants; uses reagents that are considered low cost and easily delivered to the subsurface. Y Y Y Y N N Y ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? ? N ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: may require large volumes of reagent; environmental considerations as using aggressive reagents; toxic intermediate breakdown products may be formed; groundwater may be coloured by reagents (e.g. permanganate is purple in solution); precipitation reactions may be reversible with changes in redox conditions over time; may be difficult to facilitate contact between contaminants and reagents in the treatment zone. Y ? N Y Y Y ? N

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006; FRTR, 2007; Princeton Chemistry and Environment, 2003.

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Technology name:

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Electro-kinetic techniques, electrosynonyms and process chemical techniques, electric current variations methods, electro-migration In situ physical/chemical method involves using an electric field to move contaminants and water and also to bring about chemical reactions at electrodes. Electro-remediation

Technology description: Electro-remediation uses electro-chemical and electro-kinetic processes to remove metals, radionuclides and organic contaminants from saturated or unsaturated clay-rich soils, sludges, and sediments. It is principally a separation and removal technique which involves the application of a low intensity direct current across electrode pairs that have been implanted in the ground on each side of a contaminated soil mass. This mobilises charged species, causing ions and water to move toward the electrodes. Metal ions, ammonium ions, and positively charged organic compounds move toward the cathode. Anions such as chloride and negatively charged organic compounds move toward the anode. Three mechanisms transport contaminants through the soil towards one electrode or the other: electromigration, electroosmosis and electrophoresis. In electromigration, ions and ion complexes are transported towards an electrode, in electroosmosis, a liquid (typically water) containing ions is moved relative to a stationary charged surface, and electrophoresis refers to the movement of charged particles. Once contaminants, principally metals, have been transported by electromigration toward the respective electrodes they can be removed and treated. This can occur by electroplating at the electrode; precipitation or co-precipitation at the electrode; pumping of water near the electrode above ground for ex situ treatment, or capture on ion exchange resins which are emplaced in the ground.The direction and rate of movement of an ionic species will depend on its charge, both in magnitude and polarity, as well as the magnitude of the electroosmosis-induced flow velocity. Non-ionic species, both inorganic and organic, will also be transported along with the electroosmosis induced water flow. Electroosmosis can be used to transport organic contaminants backwards and forwards through treatment zones placed between electrodes, so that the contaminants do not need to be removed. The polarity of the electrodes is reversed periodically, which changes the direction of the contaminants movement. Other uses of electro-remediation include promoting chemical reactions such as precipitation of an iron-rich band as a sorptive barrier, an electro-kinetic fence for ongoing capture of contaminants from groundwater, or facilitating other treatment processes by moving reagents and nutrients through the soil (e.g. nutrients used to enhance bioremediation). It can also be applied as an ex situ process on soil piles, or soils within large containers. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans ? ? ? ? N N N N N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y ? ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Y ? N N ? Y Y ?

Potential advantages: works best with fine grained materials such as clays; applicable to metal contaminants, including some radionuclides; may be used to create in situ treatment zones by controlling water movement.

References:

Limitations: an emerging technique with few UK case studies; need a soil water content of soil >10% to be effective; buried services, metallic objects or ore deposits can cause problems; production of hydroxide ions has to be controlled at the cathode to avoid unpredictable metal hydroxide precipitation; it is possible for the soil to heat up to temperatures that may cause damage to soil flora and fauna; carbonate-rich materials limit application. Nathanail et al., 2007; CIRIA, 1995; CL:AIRE RB2, 2003; CL:AIRE RB9, 2009; FRTR, 2007

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Biostimulation, bioaugmentation, oxygen release materials, hydrogen release materials; use of calcium peroxide, magnesium peroxide, hydrogen peroxide, molasses, vegetable oil Brief summary: In situ biological method which uses reagents to enhance aerobic or anaerobic biodegradation of organic contaminants or the transformation of inorganic contaminants into less mobile or less toxic forms. Technology description: Enhanced bioremediation using redox amendments Bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms, commonly bacteria or fungi, to transform or degrade contaminants ultimately to non-toxic by-products. This process can be enhanced by the addition of reagents which release oxygen, creating aerobic conditions or, stimulate the removal of oxygen and the generation of hydrogen, creating anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, microorganisms can bring about the biodegradation of organic contaminants to carbon dioxide, water and microbial cell mass. Under anaerobic conditions, microorganisms can be used to biodegrade organic contaminants to methane, limited amounts of carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of hydrogen gas. The reagents can be added in solution, slurry or as powder by injection, or direct emplacement. Reagents that release oxygen (to promote aerobic bioremediation): calcium peroxide, magnesium peroxide, hydrogen peroxide, proprietary oxygen release compounds. Reagents that release hydrogen (to promote anaerobic bioremediation): molasses, vegetable oil, proprietary hydrogen release compounds. While bioremediation cannot degrade inorganic contaminants, it can be used to change the valence state of inorganic species and cause subsequent adsorption, immobilisation onto soil particles, and precipitation. Enhanced bioremediation can also be used in conjunction with soil flushing (see page 15) in which case a groundwater circulation and treatment system is created.

Technology name:

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: can be used to treat soil and groundwater; minimal site disturbance; lower monitoring costs in comparison with monitored natural attenuation due to accelerated remediation; relatively simple technique. Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? ? ? ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: difficult to apply to a heterogeneous subsurface; uncertain supply of quantity of amendments; toxic intermediate breakdown products may be formed. Y ? N Y Y Y ? ?

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006; CL:AIRE TDP4, 2004.

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Similar processes, Soil flushing, in situ soil washing, in synonyms and process situ soil leaching, solvent flushing variations Brief summary: In situ physical/biological/chemical method that uses aqueous solutions to dissolve and recover contamination from the ground. Above ground the recovered solution is treated and reused if appropriate. Technology description: Flushing An aqueous solution (often treated groundwater) is injected into the ground or sprayed over the ground and allowed to infiltrate. Treatments are known for both the saturated and unsaturated zones. Commonly used additives include acids (soil leaching), alkalis, chelating agents, surfactants and organic solvents (solvent flushing). The purpose of the flushing solution is to solubilise or mobilise contaminants into an aqueous solution, to stimulate in situ biodegradation, and/or to stimulate in situ redox reactions. After flushing, the solution is recovered using wells or trenches and is treated at the surface to remove contaminants using a water treatment plant. The water may then be returned to the aquifer (possibly after being conditioned), discharged to the ground or to sewer, subject to regulatory requirements.

Technology name:

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: process can be designed to treat specific contaminants, including both organic and inorganic compounds; can be used in both pathway management and source control; may prevent the need for excavation. Y Y Y Y ? ? N N N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y ? ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: low permeability or heterogeneous soils are difficult to treat; risk of worsening situation by producing more toxic or mobile compounds; effectiveness can be hindered by a shallow water table; good understanding of site geology and hydrogeology is required to prevent loss of contaminant and soil flushing solution beyond the capture zone and allay regulatory concerns; above ground separation and treatment can be expensive. Y ? N Y Y ? N N

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006; CIRIA C622. 2004

15

Technology name:

Monitored natural attenuation

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Natural attenuation, enhanced natural synonyms and process attenuation, intrinsic remediation variations In situ risk management method to confirm that natural processes are reducing the load, concentration, flux or toxicity of contaminants within a specified timescale.

Technology description: Natural attenuation relies upon natural physical, chemical and biological processes reducing the load, concentration, flux or toxicity of contaminants within a specified timescale. Monitoring these processes firstly to acknowledge that they exist and secondly to measure the rate at which they are occurring can be used as a risk management method. Attenuation processes include biodegradation, chemical degradation, sorption, immobilisation, dispersion and dilution, any or all of which may result in a reduction in contaminant load, concentration, mobility or toxicity. Although considered a monitoring activity, there is a requirement to extensively characterise the site being managed, and then collect lines of evidence to demonstrate that attenuation processes are occurring and will continue to occur in order to meet the site remedial objectives within the agreed time frame. This may require modelling. Enhanced natural attenuation is the active enhancement of natural attenuation processes. This may be achieved by increasing the flux of oxygen or hydrogen to enhance aerobic biodegradation and anaerobic biodegradation respectively, or creating conditions suitable for the transformation of inorganic contaminants into less mobile or less toxic forms. Techniques such as flushing (page 15) and redox amendments (page 14) either alone or in combination can be used to bring about these enhancements.

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: less generation or transfer of remediation wastes; less intrusive as few surface structures are required; can be used in conjunction with, or after, other remediation methods; overall cost likely to be lower than many active remediation technologies. Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives Y ? ? ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: Y ? N Y Y ? ? ?

References:

requires extensive site investigation; requires a long term commitment to monitoring and a contingency plan (and funds) if the contaminants or groundwater do not behave as predicted; requires significant depth of understanding of local geology and hydrogeology; subsurface conditions may change over time and may result in renewed mobility of previously stabilised contaminants. Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; CL:AIRE RB3, 2005; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006;

16

Technology name:

Permeable reactive barriers

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Treatment walls, reactive zones synonyms and process variations In situ physical/biological/chemical method to treat groundwater. It allows the passage of water and contains reagents that cause the degradation or removal of contaminants.

Technology description: A permeable reactive barrier (PRB) is an engineered treatment zone placed in the saturated zone to remediate contaminated groundwater as it flows through. PRBs can be designed in a variety of configurations, depending on the contaminants to be treated, the layout of the area requiring remediation and the requirements of the land user(s). There are two basic types of PRB: Funnel-and-gate: contaminated groundwater is directed to a permeable reactive zone (the gate) by impermeable barriers, such as a cut-off wall (the funnel); and Continuous wall: a reactive treatment zone is placed in the subsurface across the complete flow path of the contaminated groundwater. The use of different reactive media within the reactive zone of a PRB allows the treatment of a wide variety of groundwater contaminants. Reactive media could include zero-valent metals, chelators, sorbents or microbes. In addition to the applicability given below, PRBs can also be designed to treat acidic spoil drainage and anions such as nitrate. The mechanisms involved may be sorption, oxidation/reduction, precipitation, fixation, and biodegradation. PRB designs may also incorporate additional measures or modifications to enhance treatment efficiency, such as gravel trenches, abstraction boreholes, and reaction vessels.

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: solution for inaccessible or dispersed source; relatively easy to maintain and monitor; minimal above-ground disturbance. Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: loss of reactive capacity over time, requiring replacement of reactive media; loss of permeability due to precipitation of metal salts or biofilm production; may have to dispose of reactive media as a hazardous waste; requires significant depth of understanding of local geology and hydrogeology; may be limited by the depth of the contamination below ground. Y ? N Y Y ? ? ?

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; CL:AIRE TDP13, 2005, TDP17, 2008, TDP20, 2009; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006;

17

Technology name:

Phytoremediation

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Phytoextraction, phytostabilisation, synonyms and process phytodegradation, phytocontainment, variations phytovolatilisation In situ biological method which uses living plants to contain, disperse, stabilise, extract and/or destroy contaminants.

Technology description: Phytoremediation can be defined as the use of the natural ability of vegetation to extract, accumulate, store, and/or degrade organic and inorganic substances. Phytoremediation can occur via a number of mechanisms which include phytoextraction, phytocontainment, phytostabilisation, phytodegradation and phytovolatilisation. Phytoextraction: the use of plants which can take up and store high concentrations of contaminants (called hyperaccumulators). The process separates the contaminants from the soil through the roots and translocates the contaminant to other parts of the plant such as the leaves and stem. Phytovolatisation: the contaminant is separated from the soil, translocated through the plant and transpired through the leaves. This mechanism may be accompanied by phytodegradation. Phytodegradation: involves the uptake and breakdown or degradation of organic contaminants within the plant. It also applies to the degradation of contaminants external to the plant where the degradation is due to substances such as enzymes which have been released by the plant. Phytostabilisation: takes place within the roots and root zone of plants, and immobilises the contaminants by preventing their migration by such processes as accumulation and absorption into the root, adsorption onto the root, and precipitation within the root zone. Phytocontainment: the use of plants to establish a cover layer on sites to reduce the migration of contaminants and to restrict the availability of contaminants to humans by minimising surface erosion, runoff, dust generation and skin contact. Phytocontainment can also be used to reduce groundwater contamination through the interception of soil water by plant roots. Energy forestry can be applied which combines aspects of phytoremediation with returning land to economic use. For example, short-rotation coppicing can be grown as a biofuel (see Nathanail et al., 2007 for more details). Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives Y Y Y Y Y Y Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Y ? N Y Y Y Y Y

Potential advantages: low cost; may enhance biodiversity; provides vegetative cover.

References:

Limitations: extraction moves the contaminants to biomass which may create a hazardous waste, which may be expensive to dispose;; depth of treatment limited; high concentrations of contaminants can be toxic to plants; may require a further waste reduction process to concentrate contaminants in harvested biomass (e.g. incineration). contaminants can be moved from depth to the surface which may expose surface receptors to them; transfer of contamination across media, e.g., from soil to air; products may be mobilised into groundwater or bioaccumulated in animals. Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; CL:AIRE, 2001.

18

Similar processes, Air sparging, biosparging synonyms and process variations Brief summary: In situ physical/biological method involving the injection of air (or other gases) below the water table to promote volatilisation and/or biodegradation of contaminants from soil, water and the vapour phase. Technology description: Sparging Typically, air is injected into the saturated zone via vertical wells at a point below the target contamination. The air moves upwards through the contaminated material, causing contaminant removal by two mechanisms: 1. Volatile contaminants partition into the air as it moves upwards through the water. The resulting vapour is collected and treated at surface if necessary. 2. Aerobic bacteria, stimulated by the supply of oxygen, consume contaminants as a food source (biodegradation). Because sparging transfers contaminants from the saturated to the unsaturated zone, it is commonly used in conjunction with vapour collection techniques, most commonly vacuum extraction or soil vapour extraction (SVE). Vapour phase treatment (e.g. activated carbon; thermal or catalytic oxidation see page 33) is then applied to remove or destroy the contaminant and prevent uncontrolled transfer of the contaminant to the atmosphere. Oxygen concentration can be increased or ozone added to improve performance and may result in contaminant removal via oxidation. Sparging requires a good understanding of site hydrogeology, the nature and extent of contamination and the physical/chemical properties of the contaminants themselves. Air sparging and biosparging are similar and related methods with the main difference being air flow rate. Air sparging should be designed to operate at high flow rates to maximise volatilisation, whereas in biosparging the air flow rate is optimised to provide enough oxygen to maximise biodegradation. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: offers enhanced clean-up rates relative to groundwater pump and treat techniques; can be highly cost-effective; minimal site disturbance. Y ? Y Y N N N ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives N N N N N N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: References: should only be applied to unconfined aquifers where injected air can freely reach the unsaturated zone and be subsequently collected; should not be applied where significant free phase hydrocarbons are present due to risk of contaminant mobilisation; need to ensure a uniform air flow to avoid spreading the contaminant plume; not suitable for treatment of inorganic contaminants. Y ? N Y Y ? N N

Technology name:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP9, 2004; FRTR, 2007

19

Technology name:

Brief summary: Technology description:

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations In situ physical/chemical method involving a reaction between a binder and soil to reduce the mobility of contaminants by physical encapsulation or chemical immobilisation. Stabilisation and solidification

Stabilisation/solidification (S/S) is a remediation technology that relies on the reaction between reagents and the soil matrix to reduce the mobility of contaminants. The mixture of reagents and additives used for S/S is commonly referred to as the binder, and can range from a single reagent to a multi-component system. Stabilisation involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material (e.g. soil or sludge) to produce more chemically stable constituents; and solidification involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material to impart physical/dimensional stability in order to contain contaminants in a solid product and reduce permeability to air and water. Common reagents used in S/S are cements, pozzolans, ground granulated blastfurnace slag, lime-based binders (calcium oxide or hydroxide) and organophilic clays. In situ S/S relies on efficient mixing of the reagents with the soil, which is typically conducted by mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing: use of equipment such as mixing augers to form monolithic contaminated material-binder columns. The columns are usually either constructed in an overlapping configuration to ensure complete treatment of the contaminated area or to form a barrier wall around a contaminated site. Deep mixing is usually carried out using augers while shallow mixing can be carried out using augers, backhoes, blenders or mass stabilisation tools. Alternatively, surface layers can be applied using a rotovator. Jet injection may be used although there is less control over its application. It is good practice to custom design the mix of binder and contaminated soils for each application for which treatability studies are required. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: can be used to treat recalcitrant contaminants (e.g. metals, PCBs, dioxins); process equipment occupies a relatively small footprint; the physical properties of the soil are often improved by treatment (e.g. increased strength, lower permeability). N ? N ? ? ? ? ? ? Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y Y Y Y Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: does not destroy or remove the contaminants; may be difficult to predict long-term behaviour; may result in an overall increase in volume of material; may require long-term maintenance of protection systems and/or long-term monitoring; reagent delivery and effective mixing can be difficult to achieve. Y ? N Y Y Y Y N

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TB9, 2004, GB1, 2005; FRTR, 2007

20

Technology name:

Thermal treatment

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations

Steam injection, hot air injection, electrical resistance heating, microwave heating, radiofrequency heating, electromagnetic heating, thermal conductive heating, thermally-enhanced soil vapour extraction

Brief summary:

In situ thermal method involving the use of electrical energy or radiation to enhance the mobility of organic contaminants in both the saturated and unsaturated zones which can facilitate their recovery and treatment.

Technology description:
Thermal treatment involves increasing the temperature in the ground and can lead to enhanced contaminant removal by one or more of several methods: increased volatilisation; reduced viscosity; increased solubility in water; decreased adsorption; drying of the soil can increase air permeability which may improve extraction; and direct application of heat may accelerate chemical reactions which may result in contaminant destruction. In addition, after the application of the heating process, subsurface conditions can be suitable for accelerating biodegradation of residual contaminants. There are four main methods for in situ heating: Injection (steam or hot air) Steam or hot air is generated on the surface and then injected into the treatment zone via a series of injection wells. This provides both heat and pressure to the treatment zone so that contaminants are driven towards the extraction wells. Injection techniques can generate temperatures in situ of up to 170C. Electrical resistance heating An electric current is passed through the soil/aquifer between electrodes within the treatment zone. As the current flows through the moisture in soil pores, the resistance of the soil produces heat. Electrical resistance techniques can generate temperatures in situ of approximately 100C. In situ vitrification also utilises electrical resistance heating, but achieves higher temperatures (see page 23 for applicable contaminants and ground materials). Electromagnetic heating (radiofrequency or microwave) Radio-frequency waves or microwaves emitted from electrodes or antennae within the treatment zone increase molecular motion and heat the soil. Microwaves have greater energy but low penetration into materials and the heating is strongly influenced by presence of free water in the matrix to be heated. Radio-frequency waves have lower energy but greater penetration and can also heat dry soils.Electromagnetic heating can heat soils to over 300C. Thermal conductive heating Heat is applied to the treatment zone through conductive heat transfer generally utilising metal rods installed within cased wells. Conductive heating can generate temperatures up to 800C. The heating methods above have differing ranges of applicability for contaminants and soil and groundwater conditions, treatment efficiencies, and cost. Therefore, they should not necessarily be compared on their ability to attain a specific temperature, as it may not be an efficient form of heating under a particular set of conditions. All of the heating methods require some form of recovery operation, such as by venting and/or pumping, followed by treatment at the surface (e.g. by activated carbon; thermal or catalytic oxidation see page 33).

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials

Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans ? Y ? Y N N ? ? ? Miscellaneous Explosives ? Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Y ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos ? N N N N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Y Y Y Y ?

Potential advantages:
applicable to a wide range of soil types; applicable to difficult dense non-aqueous phase (DNAPL) contaminants; minimal site disturbance.

Limitations:
buried objects or utilities may cause operating problems; limited to enhancement of VOC/SVOC recovery; potential for damage to soil structure, fauna and flora and impacts on groundwater quality; enhanced mobility of contaminants might lead to migration outside the treatment zone.

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP26, 2008 CL:AIRE TDP28, 2009; CL:AIRE TDP24, 2010, FRTR, 2007; Unified Facilities Criteria, 2006; USEPA, 2006.

21


Technology name: Soil venting, bioventing, bioslurping, soil vapour extraction, dual vapour extraction, dual phase extraction, multi-phase extraction In situ physical/biological method involving the movement of air through the unsaturated zone to promote volatilisation and/or biodegradation of contaminants from soil and the vapour phase. Venting Similar processes, synonyms and process variations

Brief summary:

Technology description: In situ venting involves the movement of air through the unsaturated zone via extraction and/or injection wells which induces contaminant removal by two mechanisms: 1. Volatile contaminants partition into the air as it moves upwards through the soil. The resulting vapour is collected and treated at surface if necessary (e.g. by activated carbon; thermal or catalytic oxidation see page 33). 2. Aerobic bacteria, stimulated by the supply of oxygen, consume contaminants as a food source (biodegradation). In bioventing the air flow rate is optimised to provide enough oxygen to maximise biodegradation and minimise volatilisation. Bioslurping combines elements of both bioventing and vacuum-enhanced free-product recovery to simultaneously remove light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) and bioremediate soils. Dual vapour extraction, dual-phase extraction or multi-phase extraction involves the use of a high vacuum system to remove contaminated groundwater, LNAPLs and hydrocarbon vapour from the subsurface, which are then treated at the surface, if necessary.

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: can be cost-effective; can treat many organic compounds, free product and dissolved phase; can induce physical and biological processes; minimal site disturbance. Y ? Y Y N N N N N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives N N N N N N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: limited by the structure of the soil, degree of saturation, pore connectivity and porosity; effectiveness can be hindered by a shallow water table unless water is pumped out; limited by the depth of contamination; verification of treatment can be difficult; not applicable to inorganic compounds due to their low volatility. Y ? N Y Y ? ? N

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP16, 2007; FRTR, 2007

22

Technology name: Brief summary:

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations In situ thermal or physical/chemical method involving the use of extremely high temperatures to destroy organic contaminants or immobilise inorganic contaminants within a glass-like material. Vitrification

Technology description: In situ vitrification (ISV) uses extremely high temperatures (typically 1,400 to 2,000 C) to melt soil in the ground. The high temperatures cause the thermal or chemical destruction of contaminants, or they are incorporated within the vitrification product. Some gaseous contaminants are removed in an emission control system. There are two methods for producing heat for melting the contaminated soil. One uses electrodes and electrical resistance to vitrify materials, while the other uses plasma arc technology. The electrical resistance method works by inserting electrodes in the contaminated area, adding a starter material (generally graphite) to the soil surface and passing an electric current between the electrodes, melting the soil between them. Melting starts near the ground surface and moves down. As the soil melts, the electrodes sink further into the ground causing deeper soil to melt. This causes the ground surface in the area to sink slightly which may cause subsidence and may require infilling. When the power is turned off, the melted soil cools and vitrifies. The vitrification product is a chemically stable, leach-resistant, glass and crystalline material. A modification of the conventional ISV method involves planar melting in which material is injected in a vertical plane between electrodes at depth. As the melt proceeds, it grows vertically and horizontally away from the starter planes. Because the melts are initially separated and only merge late in the process, the potential for driving gases down into the formation is greatly reduced as compared with conventional ISV. ISV using plasma arc technology has been demonstrated in the USA but has yet to reach commercialisation. The process consists of lowering a plasma arc torch into a cased hole and initiating a columnar melt from the bottom up. A plasma torch is a device that converts electrical energy into thermal energy. The bottom-to-top approach has several advantages over existing technologies such as being able to guarantee the target depth is reached and the borehole itself providing a route for collection and treatment for off-gases. For both methods, a vacuum hood is often placed over the treated area to collect off-gases, which are treated before release. A heat recovery system may also be used. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: applicable to a wide range of contaminants and contaminated materials; able to treat difficult to remediate contaminants, such as radionuclides. ? ? ? ? ? ? Y Y Y Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y Y Y Y Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Y ? N ? Y Y Y ?

Limitations:

References:

off-gas needs to be carefully controlled due to volatilisation of organics and some metals; volume reduction may lead to risk of subsidence; expensive and energy intensive; entire soil function is destroyed; material with high water content can be problematic; concerns over the reuse of treated material and stability of the vitrified glass (especially for radionuclides, as the product would still be classified as a radioactive waste and require appropriate disposal). Nathanail et al., 2007; Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) website, 2010; Center for Public Environmental Oversight website, 2010; USEPA, 2006; Circeo and Martin, 2001.

23

1.3

Treatment Profiles for Ex Situ Techniques

Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to excavated soil, or treatments of contaminated water or gaseous emissions that take place at the surface. The main advantage of ex situ techniques, compared with in situ, is that contaminants, being brought up to the surface, are made more accessible to treatment processes (Nathanail et al., 2007). This means that there can be more intimate mixing of reagents and contaminants and process optimisation is more straightforward. Related to this is that verification of process performance is also typically simpler as the treated materials are easier to access and sample. As described on page 9 for in situ techniques, the Environment Agency supports a lines of evidence approach to verification. Some of the more commonly used lines of evidence are described in Table 1.4 for each ex situ remediation technique. Due to the greater process control mentioned above, the timescales for ex situ remediation techniques, also shown in Table 1.4, are typically much shorter than for in situ techniques. Table 1.4: Lines of evidence to verify remediation performance and typical timescales for ex situ remediation processes. Techniques Lines of evidence Remediation timescale (year) (Environment Agency, 2010) (Adapted from FRTR, 2007; CIRIA, 2004; Nathanail et al., 2007) 0.5-3 Biological treatment Geochemical indicators Biodegradation indicators Remediation process conditions Bioassays Geotechnical properties Other biotransformation changes Chemical oxidation and Geochemical indicators <0.5 reduction Remediation process conditions Soil washing and separation Remediation process conditions <0.5 processes Geotechnical properties <0.5 Stabilisation/solidification Geochemical indicators Remediation process conditions Geotechnical properties Thermal treatment Remediation process conditions <0.5 Geotechnical properties Venting Remediation process conditions <0.5 Vitrification Remediation process conditions <0.5 Geotechnical properties
Notes: Geochemical indicators (e.g. redox potential, electron acceptor/donor concentrations) Biodegradation indicators (e.g. the presence of suitable microorganisms) Remediation process conditions (e.g. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen) Bioassays (e.g. toxicity testing using invertebrates, plants and biosensors) Geotechnical properties (e.g. hydraulic conductivity) Other biotransformation changes (e.g. stable isotope fractionation)

The main limitations of ex situ remediation are the need for excavation and/or pumping which will increase costs and impact the ground environment. Consideration must also be given to material handling and exposure of workers to contaminants. Treatments can involve intrusive ground works which may pose a risk on an operational site, and they may be conspicuous which will raise awareness of site works to the local community. Often additional land is required on site for the ex situ operation. Reuse of treated material Material that has been treated can be re-used on-site if it follows the three principles detailed in the Definition of Waste: Development Industry Code of Practice (CL:AIRE, 2008). These are: suitability for use, certainty of use, quantity of material given. Material can be taken off-site by making a sitespecific request to the Environment Agency, or as part of a Cluster project. Further information on the re-use of treated material can be found at: www.claire.co.uk/CoP.

24

Treatment Profiles are presented in the proceeding pages for the following ex situ remediation techniques: Biological treatment Chemical oxidation and reduction Soil washing and separation processes Stabilisation / Solidification Thermal treatment Venting Vitrification Water and gas/vapour treatment

25

Technology name:

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Biopiles, windrow turning, landfarming, synonyms and composting, slurry-phase bioreactors process variations Ex situ biological method which exploits existing microbial processes to degrade, or reduce the toxicity of, contaminants in soil. Biological treatment

Technology description: Bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms, commonly bacteria or fungi, to transform or degrade contaminants to non-toxic or less toxic by-products. Several different biological treatment configurations are available: Biopile: an engineered treatment system which involves mounding the contaminated material in a contained area. In actively managed biopiles an air injection or air-extraction system is used to optimise oxygen levels within the pile. The process can be further optimised by specific management of the following parameters: soil structure, nutrient and moisture content, and pH. Typically, biopiles are constructed to a height of between 0.5 m and 3 m. Windrow turning: piles of contaminated soil, regularly turned by mechanical equipment to improve oxygen supply. Landfarming: a layer of 0.5 m-1 m of contaminated material is cultivated in lined beds, and periodically turned over to improve soil structure and oxygen supply Composting: a controlled biological process, which can be aerobic or anaerobic. The heat produced by microorganisms during the degradation must be maintained to properly compost contaminated soil (54 to 65 C). Soils are mixed with bulking agents and organic amendments, such as wood chips, animal, and vegetative wastes, to enhance the porosity and nutrient content of the mixture to be decomposed. Slurry-phase bioreactor: is an engineered system that is designed to optimise conditions for biological degradation to take place. Soils are mixed with water to form a slurry and then put into a enclosed reaction vessel which gives greater control over the process. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: can result in complete contaminant degradation; soils can often be reused on site; preservation or enhancement of soil structure (except for slurryphase bioreactor). Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives N N N N ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: heavier organic contaminants are difficult to degrade; potential for formation of toxic intermediate breakdown products; conditions must be carefully controlled to ensure complete and consistent treatment. Y ? N Y Y Y ? ?

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP4, 2004; TDP6, 2004; FRTR, 2007

26

Similar processes, Fentons reagent, ozone, permanganate, synonyms and cyanide oxidation, dechlorination, zero-valent process variations iron Brief summary: Ex situ chemical method involving addition of chemicals to excavated soil to oxidise or reduce the contaminants thereby degrading them, reducing their toxicity, changing their solubility, or increasing their susceptibility to other forms of treatment. Technology description: Chemical oxidation and reduction Chemical oxidation involves the mixing of liquid or gaseous oxidising agents (or oxidants) to excavated material to bring about the rapid degradation of many organic contaminants. Some organic compounds will undergo partial degradation and can then be treated by other methods, such as bioremediation. Typical oxidants include the following: Fentons reagent: hydrogen peroxide with a ferrous iron (Fe 2+) catalyst produces highly reactive free radical species. Permanganate (MnO4-): can oxidise contaminants by direct electron transfer or via free radical species. Ozone (O3): can oxidise contaminants directly or via free radical species. Sodium persulphate and sodium percarbonate are also used. Chemical reduction involves the addition of reducing agents (reductants) to degrade chlorinated solvents and reduce the toxicity of metals. Typical reductants include the following: Zero valent iron: can be added to soil by mixing; Polysulphides: used in the reduction of chromium (VI) to less toxic chromium (III). Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: easier to facilitate contact between contaminants and reagents in excavated soil (c.f. in situ treatment); can treat a wide range of contaminants. Y Y Y Y N N Y ? N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives N Y N ? ? N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: Y ? N Y Y Y Y N

Technology name:

References:

may require large volumes of reagent; may affect soil structure and biochemistry of soil; control is needed to prevent leaching into water courses, as some reagents are aggressive; toxic intermediate breakdown products may be formed. Nathanail et al., 2007; EA Remediation Position Statements, 2006; FRTR, 2007

27

Technology name:

Brief summary: Technology description:

Similar processes, Chemically enhanced soil washing, chemical Soil washing and synonyms and extraction, chemical leaching separation process variations processes Ex situ physical/chemical method using an aqueous solution (typically water) to separate contaminants and/or contaminated soil particles from uncontaminated material.

Soil washing is a volume reduction/waste minimisation treatment process where those soil particles which "host" the majority of the contamination are separated from the bulk soil fractions in a series of aqueous treatment steps. The separated contaminants then go to hazardous waste landfill or are further treated by chemical, thermal or biological processes. By removing the majority of the contamination from the soil, the bulk fraction that remains can be: recycled on the site; used on another site as fill; or disposed of relatively inexpensively as less hazardous material. Soil washing works via physical separation and/or dissolution processes. For example, differences between physical properties such as particle grain size, settling velocity, specific gravity, surface chemical behaviour and rarely magnetic properties are exploited. Soil washing equipment is standard mineral processing equipment which is more generally used in the mining industry. Traditional, water-based soil washing can be enhanced/modified by using aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis, complexants, other solvents and surfactants by selectively transferring the contaminants on the soil into solution. This solution is then treated to remove the contaminants (e.g. by sorption on activated carbon or ion exchange see page 33). The economics of soil washing processes can be heavily influenced by the percentage clay and silt content, or fine content (particles less than 0.063 mm), of the material being treated. Typically, greater than 40% fine material may be considered too high. Treatability studies will be required to assess the potential effectiveness of soil washing. Material can be treated on-site enabling clean-fractions to be reused. Alternatively material could be treated at a treatment centre which has no mobilisation cost, but does have a cost associated with transport to the treatment centre. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: applicable to a wide range of contaminants; reduces volume of contaminated material which may reduce the cost of disposal, or treatment by another technology. Y Y Y Y ? ? Y Y ? Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y ? ? ? Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: may be uneconomic to treat small volumes; uneconomic to treat material with a high fine content; contaminant depleted fractions may not meet the required remediation standard, and therefore require further treatment or disposal;; a water processing unit is likely to be required, which will add cost. Y ? N Y Y ? ? ?

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP2, 2003, TB13, 2007; FRTR, 2007

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Technology name: Brief summary:

Similar processes, synonyms and Stabilisation and process variations solidification Ex situ physical/chemical method involving a reaction between a binder and soil to reduce the mobility of contaminants by physical encapsulation or chemical immobilisation.

Technology description: Stabilisation/solidification (S/S) is a remediation technology that relies on the reaction between reagents and the soil matrix to reduce the mobility of contaminants. The mixture of reagents and additives used for S/S is commonly referred to as the binder, and can range from a single reagent to a multi-component system. Stabilisation involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material (e.g. soil or sludge) to produce more chemically stable constituents; and solidification involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material to impart physical/dimensional stability in order to contain contaminants in a solid product and reduce permeability to air and water. Common reagents used in S/S are cement, pozzolans, ground granulated blastfurnace slag, lime-based binders (calcium oxide or hydroxide) and organophilic clays. Effective mixing of contaminants and binder is critical to performance success. Ex situ mixing can involve one of three main methods: Plant processing: mixing is carried out with mechanical mixers using either batch or continuous processes. The mixing plant could be fixed (off-site) or mobile (typically on-site) and is designed specifically for this purpose or adapted from other applications such as concrete batching and mixing. Direct mixing: involves the transport of the contaminated material to a designated final disposal area, which could be onsite or off-site. The material is spread out in layers along with the binder(s) and is mixed in-place using the appropriate mechanical equipment. The blended material is then compacted and left to cure in-place. In-drum processing: binder(s) is added to the contaminated material which is placed in a drum or similar container. This initially acts as the container for mixing and then for setting and hardening. Once hardened, the treated material and the drum are disposed of together. It is good practice to custom design the mix of binder and contaminated soils for each application for which treatability studies are required. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: can be used to treat recalcitrant contaminants (e.g. heavy metals, PCBs, dioxins); process equipment occupies a relatively small footprint; the physical properties of the soil are often improved by treatment (e.g. increased strength, lower permeability); treated material can be reused on site or be re-classified for less expensive disposal, both subject to regulatory approval. N ? N ? ? ? ? ? ? Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y Y Y Y Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: does not destroy or remove the contaminants; may be difficult to predict long-term behaviour; may result in an overall increase in volume of material; may require long-term maintenance of protection systems and/or long-term monitoring; reagent delivery and effective mixing can be difficult to achieve. Y ? N Y Y Y Y N

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TB9, 2004, GB1, 2005; FRTR, 2007

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Technology name:

Brief summary:

Similar processes, Thermal desorption, incineration synonyms and process variations Ex situ thermal method involving the use of heat to destroy organic contaminants or enhance their mobility and facilitate their recovery and treatment. Some inorganic contaminants may also be treated. Thermal treatment

Technology description: Thermal treatment can be undertaken in two stages (e.g. low temperature thermal desorption followed by secondary treatment) or in a single stage (incineration): Low temperature thermal desorption (LTTD): uses heat to separate organic contaminants from soil. Treatment units are typically designed to heat soils to temperatures up to 600C. Under these conditions, a wide range of organic contaminants will physically desorb from soil particles and volatilise. A moving air stream within the LTTD unit captures the contaminants and directs them to secondary treatment units. Secondary treatment can include: direct combustion, thermal or catalytic oxidation, condensation or adsorption onto activated carbon. Direct combustion and oxidisers destroy the organic constituents. Condensers and carbon adsorption units trap organic compounds for subsequent treatment or disposal. Depending on the nature of the soil, some pre-treatment may be necessary and commonly involves screening to remove large objects and clumps of soil. Oversize materials may be rejected, or crushed or shredded and returned to the feedstock. After treatment, soils are cooled and re-moistened to control dust. Incineration: thermal destruction of contaminants takes place in a combustion chamber at high temperatures up to 1300C. The most common type of incinerator is a rotary kiln design, but fluidised beds and infra-red systems have also been developed. The higher operating temperature, compared with thermal desorption, means that incinerators can successfully treat a wider range of contaminated materials, higher concentrations of contaminants and those that are harder to treat. An air pollution control system is essential. It should be noted that although thermal desorption and incineration are classified as different processes, some desorption occurs during incineration and some thermal decomposition may occur within the desorber unit. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: applicable to a wide range of organic and some inorganic contaminants; potential for high contaminant removals. Y Y Y Y ? ? Y Y Y Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? ? N ? ? ? Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: Y ? N N Y Y ? ?

References:

incineration can be expensive with high energy costs; material may need screening and pre-treatment; may result in loss of organic matter in the soil which restricts its use post-treatment; emissions must be carefully controlled in case incomplete combustion products (e.g. dioxins and furans) are formed, particularly for thermal desorption. Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP1, 2004; FRTR, 2007; CIRIA, 1995.

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Similar processes, Ex situ soil vapour extraction synonyms and process variations Brief summary: Ex situ physical/biological method in which air is moved through a stockpile of excavated contaminated material to promote volatilisation and/or biodegradation of contaminants from soil and the vapour phase. Technology description: Venting Ex situ venting is a development of in situ venting, the difference being that the soil is excavated for treatment. Venting is a means of removing VOCs and some SVOCs from unsaturated soils. Typically, a treatment bed is constructed above ground and lined with an impermeable membrane while an array of venting slotted pipes is placed at the base of the bed and joined with manifolds to a conventional venting system. Excavated soils are then placed in the treatment bed and covered with an impermeable cover. The venting system is then operated as per in situ treatments. Excavation and treatment of soil can be performed within a containment building to control emissions. Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: soil can be engineered to suit contaminant properties and remediation requirements; not limited by the heterogeneity of the subsurface (c.f. in situ venting). Y ? Y Y N N N N N Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives N N N N N N Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Y ? N Y Y ? ? N

Technology name:

Limitations: potential for loss of volatile contaminants over permitted emission levels during excavation, unless properly managed; health and safety concerns at all stages.

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; CL:AIRE TDP16, 2007; FRTR cost and performance website, 2010.

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Technology name:

Brief summary:

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations Ex situ thermal or physical/chemical method involving the use of electrical power to produce high temperatures to destroy organic contaminants or immobilise inorganic contaminants within a glass-like material. Vitrification

Technology description: Vitrification is performed using an electrical current, plasma discharge or other heat source to melt excavated soil in a contained unit at extremely high temperatures (1400 - 2000C). Organic compounds are vaporised by the high temperatures. The melt exits the vitrification unit where it cools to form a glassy solid that immobilises inorganic compounds. Vitrification produces fewer air emissions than thermal desorption and incineration and produces a solid product that is chemically stable and leach-resistant. An air pollution control system is an important part of the process and a heat recovery system may also be employed.

Applicability to contaminants and ground materials Organic Halogenated VOCs Halogenated SVOCs Non-halogenated VOCs Non-halogenated SVOCs Organic corrosives Organic cyanides PCBs Pesticides/herbicides Dioxins/furans Potential advantages: applicable to a wide range of contaminants and contaminated materials; able to treat difficult to remediate contaminants, such as radionuclides. ? ? ? ? ? ? Y Y Y Inorganic Metals Radionuclides Corrosives Cyanides Asbestos Miscellaneous Explosives ? Y Y Y Y Y Materials Gravel >2mm Sand 0.06-2mm Silt 2-60m Clay <2m Peat Key Usually or potentially applicable May be applicable Not applicable Limitations: off-gas needs to be carefully controlled due to volatilisation of organics and some metals; expensive and energy intensive; entire soil function is destroyed; material with high water content can be problematic; concerns over the reuse of treated material and stability of the vitrified glass (especially for radionuclides, as the product would still be classified as a radioactive waste and require appropriate disposal). Y ? N ? Y Y Y ?

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) website, 2010.

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Technology name:

Brief summary:

Similar processes, synonyms and process variations Ex situ physical/chemical/biological methods to treat water effluents or air emissions. Water and gas/vapour treatment

Technology description: Both in situ (e.g. venting and sparging) and ex situ remediation techniques produce contaminated water and gaseous streams which requires treatment at the surface. Some of these techniques are briefly summarised below: Air stripping: VOCs in groundwater are transferred from the dissolved phase to the vapour phase by air bubbles. The contaminated air rises to the water surface where vapours are drawn off and treated. The process can be enhanced using steam to treat other contaminants. Carbon adsorption: adsorption of dissolved organic contaminants on to granular activated carbon (GAC). May be used to treat water and air. Filters: mechanical separation based on removing particulate material from water or vapour. Membrane filtration: filtration using semi-permeable membrane on the basis of different molecular size. Can be used to treat inorganic and organic compounds. Ion exchange: contaminant ions are removed from water as they are exchanged with non-contaminant ions in the exchange resin. Reverse osmosis: low concentrations of inorganic contaminants may be removed through this separation mechanism. Chemical oxidation: ozone, hydrogen peroxide and ultraviolet light may be used to degrade contaminants by oxidation. Precipitation: dissolved contaminants are transformed into insoluble compounds which may be less toxic, or easier to treat or remove. Neutralisation: chemical reaction to amend the pH of a solution. Oxidation: thermal oxidation is used to destroy organic compounds in an air stream at high temperatures. Lower temperatures can be used if the air is passed through a catalyst (catalytic oxidation). Biodegradation: sand/gravel filters are colonised with microorganisms to promote biodegradation of organic compounds in water. Biofiltration: vapour-phase organic contaminants are passed through a bed of porous media and sorb to the media surface where they are degraded by microorganisms. References: Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007

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1.4

Treatment Profile for Civil engineering-based methods

Containment, barriers, cover systems, Similar processes, synonyms and process excavation, landfill disposal, abstraction, pump and treat variations Ex situ or in situ methods to manage contaminated soil and groundwater using established engineering approaches. Civil engineeringbased methods

Technology name:

Brief summary: Technology description:

Civil engineering approaches are commonly used and can be grouped into containment measures and excavation/abstraction measures. The potential advantages of these methods are that they are applicable to a range of ground conditions and contaminant types, they can be rapidly deployed and use established and proven engineering techniques. In containment, the contaminated matrix is isolated through the use of barriers or cover systems which prevent exposure of the surrounding environment. Vertical barriers: a physical wall constructed around a contaminant source to isolate contaminants, minimise the spreading of contaminants and restrict further groundwater contamination. Horizontal barriers: injection or placement of a physical impermeable construction above or beneath a contaminated volume. Cover systems: an engineered horizontal layer of uncontaminated material placed on the surface or in the sub-surface. The cover may be single or multi-layered and may be used for forming a barrier between contaminated materials and people, animals and plants or for controlling the upward migration of contaminated water or gas. Covers may be soil or soil-like material or synthetics such as geotextiles and membranes. Containment measures may be economic where large volumes of contaminated material prevent the cost-effective use of excavation, although they do not remove contamination or treat groundwater and require long term monitoring. Excavation and abstraction measures rely on the removal of soil or groundwater, which then needs to be disposed of or subjected to treatment. Excavation: a process for removal of solid material, including soil, from the ground prior to treatment or disposal. Material may be temporarily stockpiled to allow screening and segregation, additional sampling or because of limits on the cost of transport or disposal. Pump and treat: groundwater abstraction by wells followed by above-ground surface treatment (see page 33) and return to surface water, the aquifer or to sewer. Pumping alone may also be used as a means of hydraulic containment i.e. lowering the water table to isolate contamination. Landfill: disposal of excavated material to controlled void space, either on-site or off-site. The main advantage of excavation and off-site disposal is that it removes the contaminants (and the risk they pose) from the site. However, their use may be restricted on sites with operational structures or services. High costs associated with handling and transporting large volumes of material, and the noise and nuisance of vehicle movements to local populations, means that alternative remedial solutions may be sought. Pump and treat can be an effective method for remediating dissolved phase contaminants. There is a likelihood of contamination rebound after pumping stops, which means it can be difficult to decide when to cease pumping.

References:

Nathanail et al., 2007; FRTR, 2007; CIRIA, 1995.

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2.

AN ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES Introduction

2.1

This section presents the results of a desk-based assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts of each selected soil and groundwater remediation technique. As a basis for this assessment, formulated indicators of sustainability are taken from the United Kingdoms Sustainable Remediation Forum (SuRF-UK) which has developed 18 Headline Indicator Categories for assessing the sustainability of soil and groundwater remediation1. These Headline Indicator Categories are shown in Table 2.1, taken directly from the 2010 SuRF-UK Report A Framework for Assessing the Sustainability of Soil and Groundwater Remediation. For each Headline Indicator Category, active descriptions have been, and presently are being, collectively developed, tested and refined. This assessment uses the most recent October 2010 indicator descriptions, as written in Tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4. These tables initially assess the appropriateness of using each of the 18 identified Headline Indicator Categories against remediation technology use. This section has also drawn upon the Contaminated Land Ready Reference (Nathanail et al., 2007) as the most recent and comprehensive work on practical implementation of various remediation technologies, and follows the technology separation units as in Section 1. In addition to providing a guide to assessing remediation technologies qualitatively, it could become the base framework for conducting case-specific, or more sophisticated semi-quantitative assessment using sustainability criteria in the selection of remediation technologies. Table 2.1: Environmental, Social and Economic Headline Indicator Categories1 Environmental Social Economic (Described in Table 2.2) (Described in Table 2.3) (Described in Table 2.4) Impacts on air (including Impacts on human health and Direct economic costs and 1 climate change) safety benefits Impacts on soil and Ethical and equity Indirect economic costs and 2 ground conditions considerations benefits Impacts on neighbourhoods 3 Impacts on water Employment and capital gain or regions Community involvement and 4 Impacts on ecology Gearing satisfaction Use of natural resources and Compliance with policy 5 Life span and project risks generation of waste objectives and strategies Intrusiveness 6 Uncertainty and evidence Project flexibility A summary of the process and structure of this section is as follows: 1) The 18 SuRF-UK Headline Indicator Categories are listed from October 2010 descriptions, and are discussed as to their suitability for assessment purely against remediation technique type (i.e. independent of the case-specific site and geographical context) (Section 2.2); 2) For those Headline Indicator Categories from which assessment is judged to be suitable at a remedial technique level, this report has derived a selection of principal definition criteria (or actual sustainability impact criteria) to represent the Headline Indicator Categories for remedial technique type assessment (Section 2.2); 3) Each selected remediation technology is qualitatively assessed against the derived definition criteria to provide insight into how different remedial techniques perform. Also, this provides an example of how qualitative assessment for remedial techniques can be built up once further site and context information becomes available, as introduced in Section 2.3 and shown in Section 2.4 (in situ) and 2.5 (ex situ).

As first identified within A Review of Published Sustainability Indicator Sets (SuRF-UK, 2009) and developed further in A Framework for Assessing the Sustainability of Soil and Groundwater Remediation (SuRF-UK 2010). Future updates to Headline Indicators will be made available at www.claire.co.uk/surfuk.
1

35

Where Remediation Impacts Begin and End A first key point of studying sustainability indicator categories for land developments, is recognition of the scale at which they may apply, which could be any of the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) capable of assessment at a technology-scale (as demonstrated within this assessment); site related (e.g. contaminant, geology and remedial target dependent); context related (e.g. Fit with planning and policy strategies and initiatives); or a combination of the above.

Assessment Level Approach Within Section 2 of this report, assessment could have been made by studying headline indicators for the net impacts of both the technology-specific remediation and the entire remediation-redevelopment project (site and context related issues). However, this approach would have resulted in the majority of impacts to be assessed relating to the wider development which is case-specific. Additionally, net impacts surrounding the technology-specific remediation selection may have been outweighed by the larger development-wide advantages and disadvantages. It was decided that the most appropriate and objective approach was through assessing just the impacts relating to the remediation technology-related scale. This approach has the advantage of net impacts for all technologies not being dwarfed by differing site or contextual-issues for each technology. Minor disadvantages of this approach are: i) listed negative impacts may appear to outweigh positive impacts in number (as the overall benefits of the remediation will be incorporated in the more encompassing development-scale); and ii) a number of the Headline Indicator Categories may not be appropriate in assessing impacts at the remediation technology-selection scale. Appropriate and Defined Impact Criteria (for Headline Indicators) Definition criteria which best represent the Headline Indicator Categories appropriate for assessment at a technology-scale are derived and explained in Tables 2.3 (Environmental Headline Indicators), 2.4 (Social Headline Indicators), and 2.4 (Economic Headline Indicators). These assessment definition criteria have been selected as they are considered vital to allow practical implementation of the framework for a qualitative review of positive and negative impacts relating to technology selection. Providing clear definitions of the sustainability impact factors allows an awareness of what could be used for assessing impacts and provides accountability for qualitative judgements made. Sections 2.4 and 2.5 showcase impact assessment tables for each principal remediation technology type based on the appropriate definition criteria.

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2.2

Headline Indicators, Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection and Definitions

This section consists of three tables which represent the Environmental, Social and Economic pillars of sustainable development, and sets out to examine in more detail the 18 SuRF-UK Headline Indicator Categories. By each Headline Indicator Category there are three tabulated rows which represent the SuRF-UK descriptions, a discussion as to their suitability for judging remediation technology-specific impacts, and then what criteria have been selected to define these indicators for the purposes of the assessment against the remediation techniques selected in Sections 2.4 and 2.5. This section is provided to show an example of how remediation technologies can be qualitatively assessed against sustainability criteria, and could be adapted further if either: different measurable criteria were deemed more important than those provided; or more information was available relating to the site, or context of the proposed remediation (i.e. if the assessment were an exercise based on: technology; site; and context-related knowledge).

Headline Indicator Suitability

As stated, the Headline Indicators used in this report are taken from the 2009 SuRF-UK Report: A Review of Published Sustainability Indicator Sets. In the following Tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 the Headline Indicator Categories are evaluated to decide upon their capability of appraisal with the scales of assessment and approach outlined in Section 2.1. It should be noted that once more information is known about the actual site earmarked for remediation and its situation, or local context, then an assessment using wider impact criteria would be possible.

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Table 2.2: Environmental Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description 1. Impacts on air SuRF-UK Description (including climate change) Includes: Emissions that may affect climate change or air quality, such as greenhouse gases (e.g. CO2, CH4, N2O), NOX, SOX, particulates (especially PM5 and PM10), O3, VOCs, ozone-depleting substances, etc. (Note: Does not include any odorous effects, bioaerosols, allergens or dust, as these are included in Social 3: Impacts on neighbourhoods or regions.) Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Impacts on the air are contaminant dependent, with many technologies reliant upon enhanced volatilisation of organic contaminants. Careful management and treatment of off-gas would often be a suitable mitigation measure. Suitable. Definition Criteria Emissions of: - Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) - Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) - Particulates and Aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1, PM2.5, PM10) - Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 2. Impacts on soil and SuRF-UK Description Includes: Changes in physical, chemical, biological soil condition that affects the functions or services provided by soils. May ground conditions include soil quality (chemistry), water filtration and purification processes, soil structure and/or organic matter content or quality; erosion and soil stability, geotechnical properties, compaction and other damage to soil structure affecting stability, drainage, or provision of another ecosystem good or service. Impacts on geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest and geoparks. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Directly Suitable Definition Criteria Changes in: - Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) - Accumulated chemicals (contamination) - Physical status (e.g. geotechnical properties, water holding capacity, sealing) - Biological state (e.g. soil fertility, habitat quality to support soil biodiversity) 3. Impacts on water SuRF-UK Description Includes: Release of contaminants (including nutrients), dissolved organic carbon or silt/particulates, affecting suitability of water for potable or other uses, water body status (under the Water Framework Directive) and other legislative water quality objectives, biological function (aquatic ecosystems) and chemical function, mobilisation of dissolved substances. Effects of water abstraction included, such as lowering river levels or water tables or potential acidification. (Note: Does not include any water abstraction use or disposal issues, as this is covered in Environmental 5: Use of natural resources and generation of wastes.)

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Table 2.2: Environmental Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Directly Suitable. Assessing volume of the aquifer restored would be a good impact criterion once site and contextual information is available, however, could not be adequately judged only at remediation technology scale. Nevertheless principal definition criteria can be suitably created from the main SuRF-UK Description and are listed below. Definition Criteria Changes in: - Dissolved phase contaminants - Nutrients - pH / redox - Particulates 4. Impacts on ecology SuRF-UK Description Includes: Direct consequences for flora, fauna and food chains, especially protected species, biodiversity and impacts on Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Introduction of alien species. Significant changes in ecological community structure or function. Impacts of light, noise and vibration on ecology. Use of decontamination equipment that affect fauna (e.g. affecting bird or bat flight, or animal migration, etc). (Note: Does not include effects on soil and aquatic ecosystems, which are covered in Environmental 2: Impacts on soil and ground conditions and Environmental 3: Impacts on water, whilst impacts of light, noise and vibration on humans are covered in Social 3: Impacts on neighbourhoods and regions.) Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Due to the interwoven nature of the effects on both the ecological system described, and the soil ecosystem, it is determined that all ecological impacts included in this assessment will also include those stemming from within the soil ecosystem. This acknowledges that the ambient ecological conditions within the soil profile will generally be altered by the remediation treatment, such as the alteration of redox and pH. Suitable. Definition Criteria Changes in: - Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species - Ecosystem functionality 5. Use of natural SuRF-UK Description resources and generation Includes: Consequences for land and water resources, use of primary resources and substitution of primary resources within the project or external to it, including raw and recycled aggregates. Use of energy/fuels taking into account their type/origin and the of waste possibility of generating renewable energy by the project. Handling of materials on-site, off-site and waste disposal resources. Water abstraction, use and disposal.

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Table 2.2: Environmental Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Key Indicator: would require more detailed investigation to assess general eco-efficiency, such as resource use, production cost, and waste recycling potential. * Directly Suitable. Definition Criteria Changes in: - Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) - Energy use - Water abstraction - Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, or subject to a discharge consent / trade effluent consent) SuRF-UK Description Includes: Impacts on flooding or increased risk of flooding; alteration of landforms that affect environment, (e.g. a natural view). (Note: Does not include effects on built environment and protection of archaeological resources, which are covered in Social 3: Impacts on neighbourhoods or regions, whilst affects on ecology are covered in Environmental 4: Impacts on ecology.) Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Impacts on flooding and landform alteration are site-specific and are particularly relevant to development-scale assessment rather than necessarily being dependent upon remediation technology type. Long-term development specific requirements relating to flooding would be considered through Planning Policy Statement 15. For this assessment it is assumed that any temporary (during remediation) flood storage volume removed (for disposal or treatment) would be replaced, which would be a development-scale design issue. Remediation technology specific exceptions that could impact on flood storage or risk are in situ technologies which severely affect the physical soil structure and therefore bulk density. Examples are stabilisation/solidification and vitrification, whereby pore volumes would be removed through sealing or destruction. Suitable. Definition Criteria - Changes in flood risk

6. Intrusiveness

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Table 2.3: Social Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description 1. Impacts on human SuRF-UK Description health and safety Includes: Risk management performance in the short term, including: risks to site workers, site neighbours and the public from remediation works and their ancillary operations (includes hazardous process emissions such as bioaerosols, allergens, PM10 as well as impacts from operating machinery and traffic movements, excavations, etc). Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Human health indicators are an important part of assessing technology suitability and in many cases will be the reason for undertaking the suggested remediation. Some of the impact types suggested such as noise, odour and dust are accounted for within the Impacts on neighbourhoods or regions Headline Indicator Criteria. The reduction of risk resulting from the remediation of the contamination should not be undervalued, however as an exposure-based risk it is site and context-specific and for this reason is not considered further in this technology-specific assessment. For this assessment the criteria are opened up to include potential safety implications associated with the mobilisation or use of the remediation technique, which can be adequately assessed generically at a technology-based scale. Suitable. Definition Criteria Safety risks due to the remediation activity assessing changes in: - Chemical exposure hazards - Vehicle movements (excludes any off-site treatment not covered through the assumed on-site remediation). - Excavation and drilling 2. Ethical and equity SuRF-UK Description How are social justice and/or equality addressed? Is the spirit of the polluter pays principle upheld with regard to the distribution considerations of impacts and benefits? Are the effects of works disproportionate to, or more beneficial towards, particular groups? What is the duration of remedial works and are there issues of intergenerational equity (e.g. avoidable transfer of contamination impacts to future generations)? Are the businesses involved operating ethically (e.g. open procurement processes)? Does the treatment approach raise any ethical concerns for stakeholders (e.g. use of genetically modified organisms)? Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Ethical and equity considerations are generally not remediation technology-specific dependent variables and would normally apply at a development-scale with issues relating to stakeholders and procurement. Special modified organisms used in a remediation project must been assessed ad hoc, once this level of information is known and not at broad remediation technology categories assessment. N/A at generic remediation technology scale. Definition Criteria N/A 3. Impacts on SuRF-UK Description Includes: Impacts to local community, including dust, light, noise, odour and vibrations during works and associated with traffic, neighbourhoods or including both working-day and night-time / weekend operations. Effect of antisocial use of site, and its impact on other regions regeneration activities. Impacts on the built environment, architectural conservation, conservation of archaeological resources. Effect of the project on local culture and vitality. (Note: Does not include effects or perceptions of a natural view, which is covered in Environment 6: Intrusiveness.)

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Table 2.3: Social Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Impacts on neighbourhoods or regions are generally context-related, and or, site-specific. Although to some extent contextrelated, noise, visual impacts, dust and odour can be assessed per technology type. Ex situ processes are likely to have a much greater risk of aesthetic intrusiveness by being above ground level. Suitable. Definition Criteria Changes in: - Noise - Aesthetic impact (inc dust and odour) 4. Community SuRF-UK Description involvement and Includes: Impacts of works on public access to services (all sectors commercial, residential, educational, leisure, amenity). satisfaction Inclusivity and engagement in decision making-process. Transparency and involvement of local community, directly or through representative bodies. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Generally less relevant to technology selection and more to do with how a remediation solution is applied including a risk communication plan. Whilst different remediation technologies may involve differing levels of impacts (measured by other indicators) that will affect community satisfaction, the community satisfaction aspect of these impacts cannot be measured generically. Once a site is known and remediation technologies are shortlisted, qualitative assessment of community satisfaction could be attempted (e.g. taking into account that different technology types may necessitate different access to services in and around a particular site). N/A for the purposes of this assessment. Definition Criteria N/A 5. Compliance with policy SuRF-UK Description Includes: Compliance of the works with policies, regulatory standards and good practice as set out nationally, by local authority, at objectives and strategies the request of community and/or in line with industry working practices and expectations. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Adherence to local planning regulations and conditions based on the location of the site will be a prerequisite of the development. Although it may be possible for some remediation technologies to contravene local planning regulations, this is specific to the locality and so has to be considered at a site-specific, rather than technology-specific assessment scale. N/A for the purposes of this assessment. Definition Criteria N/A 6. Uncertainty and SuRF-UK Description How has sustainability assessment been carried out and what has it considered? Quality of investigations, assessments evidence (including sustainability) and plans, and their ability to cope with variation. Accuracy of record taking and storage. Requirements for validation/verification.

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Table 2.3: Social Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Uncertainty is inherent in the application of all alternative remediation technologies (principally due to site investigation and characterisation data quality). It could generally be said that remediation is harder to achieve in situ than ex situ, as good treatment-matrix contact is less certain when operating in situ, and greater changes in boundary conditions are required to change matrix conditions. It would however be unfair to say remediation verification is generally less certain in situ rather than ex situ, nevertheless in situ verification monitoring/sampling is likely to be more expensive. Verification is linked to the outcome success, an aspect covered under Economic Headline Indicator 5 Life span and project risks and listed as one of the criteria under this category. All remediation technology selection relies upon the same quality of investigation, assessments and plans. Certain technologies may lend themselves better to coping with variation and this aspect is picked up by the definition criteria Robustness/Durability, which is also covered under the Headline Indicator Category Life span and project risks. Definition Criteria - Included and described in Table 2.4 under Economic Headline Indicator 5 Life span and project risks.

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Table 2.4: Economic Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description 1. Direct economic costs SuRF-UK Description Includes: Direct financial costs and benefits of remediation for organisation, consequences of capital and operation costs, and sensitivity and benefits to alteration (e.g. uplift in site value to facilitate future development, minimisation of risk or threat of legal action). Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Direct costs of remediation technologies are highly dependent on many variables (such as the remedial target set and the geological media); nevertheless it is possible to broadly compare relative costs. Site-specific criteria come into play for all direct costs; therefore the criteria listed below are very broad (costs have been presented in more detail in Section 3). Cost criteria assigned below exclude site investigation and characterisation costs, which for simplicity; have been assumed as being independent of remediation technology selection. Suitable. Definition Criteria Criteria are separated into: - Outlay on plant/mobilisation costs & installation - Operation & maintenance costs (duration dependent) - including sampling, verification and personnel time. 2. Indirect economic SuRF-UK Description Includes: Long term or indirect impacts and benefits, such as financing debt, allocation of financial resources internally, changes in costs and benefits site/local land/property values, and fines and punitive damages (e.g. following legal action, so includes solicitor and technical costs during defence). Consequences of an areas economic performance. Tax implications. Financial consequences of impact on corporate reputation. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection For the purposes of this assessment it has been assumed that indirect costs associated with the remediation should be bundled in as 'direct costs' (as the remediation costs). It is assumed that indirect benefits of the remediation to the area should not be evaluated at a 'remediation technology selection scale', but at an area-wide planning scale. Therefore indirect costs/ consequential costs will be of the project redevelopment, not the remediation. Operation and maintenance costs, along with those related to data collection and sampling are included as direct costs of the remediation (the previous Headline Indicator). N/A for the purposes of this assessment. Definition Criteria N/A 3. Employment and SuRF-UK Description Includes: Job creation, employment levels (short and long term), skill levels before and after, opportunities for education and training, capital gain innovation and new skills. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection It is assumed that different remediation technologies would not greatly affect numbers of people employed (particularly at a local/regional scale) with most specialist practitioners bringing in their own specialist in-house personnel. Whilst it is possible that a labour-intensive technology may be able to create employment at a local scale, for the purpose of this assessment it is assumed as not applicable. N/A for the purposes of this assessment. Definition Criteria N/A

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Table 2.4: Economic Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description 4. Gearing SuRF-UK Description Includes: Creating opportunities for inward investment, use of funding schemes, ability to affect other projects in the area / by client (e.g. Cluster) to enhance economic value. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Positive gearing may become a consequence of the site remediation/redevelopment. Nevertheless it is assumed that this level of benefit may be accounted for at the higher scale of assessment (e.g. planning) where it would be site specific. N/A for the purposes of this assessment. Definition Criteria N/A 5. Life span and project SuRF-UK Description Includes: Duration of the risk management (remediation) benefit, (e.g. fixed in time for a containment system); factors that might impact risks the chances of success of the remediation works and issues that may affect works, including community, contractual, environmental, procurement and technological risks. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection This Headline Indicator links with those described under the Social Headline Indicator Category 6 Uncertainty and evidence. Risk factors through the use of different remediation technologies can be assessed with respect to their certainty of outcome Outcome Success / Certainty of Outcome Impacts relating to outcome success will be site specific, as for example, certainty of outcome will be dependent upon the achievability in each case of the aspired remedial target for each contaminant and the timescale afforded by the project plan to achieve the remediation. Nevertheless, generalisations can be provided depending on a combination of the maturity of the technology (more mature, better understanding and certainty) and their in situ / ex situ status which provides a strong guide to certainty of outcome. Suitable. Life span: Within the SuRF-UK indicators, the criteria life span is contextualised for an entire development (site and context-scale). At a remediation technology-specific scale the shorter the life span of this period of the works, the more beneficial as: i) the expenditure of the operation of remediation phase would have been curtailed quicker; and ii) the development can complete earlier and therefore be in an earlier position to recoup revenue from completion. As costs due to the duration of remediation is included inherently within Economic Headline Indicator Category 1 Direct Costs, it is considered not applicable to consider further within this category. Reliability: It is assumed that all remediation technologies that would have been suitably selected (see Treatment Profiles in Section 1) as being applicable, have reached a point of maturity that, with experience in their application, certainty of outcome is now well understood. Therefore it is assumed as not applicable for the purposes of this assessment. Robustness/Durability: A remediation technique must be robust; nevertheless some techniques may not have the long-term verification data against them when compared to others. Therefore it is felt that robustness can be broadly compared. In this case,

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Table 2.4: Economic Element of Sustainability Headline Indicator Description robustness is meant with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change) and quantity of peer-reviewed verification data a technology type has achieved. Suitable. Definition Criteria Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success 6. Project Flexibility SuRF-UK Description Includes: Ability of project to respond to changing circumstances, including discovery of additional contamination, different soil materials, or timescales. Robustness of solution to climate change effects. Robustness of solution to altering economic circumstances. Requirements for ongoing institutional controls. Ability to respond to changing regulation or its implementation. Suitability for Remediation Technology Selection Flexibility: Assumed that the remediation technology selected is capable of achieving the remedial targets sets. If not, and a treatmenttrain approach may be necessary, then it would be assumed that the costs of appending a second remediation technique (following the first selected technique) would not be any different regardless of which technology was first selected. Flexibility could also be engineered into a solution as a positive management action nevertheless this would be introduced in the application and does not necessarily lend itself generically to one technology type over another. N/A for the purposes of this assessment. The robustness of the technology due to climate change is covered in this assessment within Life span and project risks where interrelated robustness and durability issues have been collated. Definition Criteria N/A

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Conclusions In summary Tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 identified the following Sustainability Impact Criteria from the following Headline Indicator Categories. Headline Indicator Categories Air o o o o Water o Dissolved phase contaminants o Nutrients o pH / redox o Particulates Soil and Ground Conditions o Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) o Accumulated chemicals (contamination) o Physical status (e.g. geotechnical proporties, water holding capacity, sealing) o Biological state (e.g. soil fertility, habitat quality to support soil biodiversity) Ecology o Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species o Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Intrusiveness o Changes in flood risk Resource use and waste o Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) o Energy use o Water abstraction o Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, or subject to discharge consent/trade effluent consent) Impacts on Human Health and Safety o Chemical exposure hazards o Vehicle movements (excludes any off-site treatment not covered through the assumed on-site remediation) o Excavation and drilling Impacts on Neighbourhoods and Regions o Noise o Aesthetic impact (e.g. visual impact, dust and odour) Direct Costs o Plant/mobilisation and installation costs o Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Life Span / Project Risks o Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). o Outcome success Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Sustainability Impact Criteria

Please note that these Sustainability Impact Criteria have been selected for this assessment as being most representative of the Headline Indicator Categories but are not, and should not be, considered a comprehensive coverage of each category. The impact criteria have been selected to be used in qualitative sustainability assessments. Nevertheless qualitative sustainability assessments for remediation technology selection could equally be made using additional or replacement definition criteria to those selected in this assessment.

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2.3

Remediation Technology Impact Tables

This section introduces the remediation technology impact tables contained within Section 2.4 (in situ technologies) and Section 2.5 (ex situ technologies). Sustainability Impact Criteria Assessment Comments Tables 2.5 2.23 provide details of anticipated impacts for the selected remediation technologies, for each selected Sustainability Impact Criteria, which are allocated following appropriate positive (Pros +) or negative (Cons -) labels. Please note that impacts listed in the tables are based on practical inferences that could reasonably be expected to be observable during site works. Details of impacts are provided where well documented impacts associated with the technique exist, in relation to the alternative of not remediating. With the benefit of remediation already assumed in the assessment, there are therefore more negative comments listed in the assessment tables than positive. Where no comment is provided within the tables, it is deemed that there would be no significant impact associated with this technique that would be observable at a practicable level through site works. In some cases where it could confidently be expected to observe no impact (even at a theoretical level), none is written following either pro or con, depending upon what the impact was. For example, where there would be no noise impact associated with the use of monitored natural attenuation, none is written after pro, as this would certainly be positive when compared with other proactive remediation technologies employed. Comparison of Qualitative Impacts Tables 2.5 2.23 provide details for qualitative assessment of sustainability impacts which may not necessarily be considered obvious at a technology-specific scale. At this scale of assessment, independent of site or geographical context information, the tables should not be taken as an exact comparator guide, as site-specific information would be needed in order to quantify impacts and judge them accordingly. Nevertheless, attempts are made to classify the likely significance of impacts for selected Sustainability Impact Criteria (listed below) into four broad categories of none, low, moderate, or high. These criteria were considered suitable for classification in this way, in that they are more measurable and less reliant on site-specific or context-related factors (as described in Section 2.1) than the full list of criteria shown on page 47. o o o o o o o o o Particulates in water; Noise; Visual Impact; Changes in Flood Risk Energy Use; Waste Disposal; Plant & Mobilisation Costs; Vehicle Movements; and Excavation & Drilling.

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2.4

In Situ Remediation Technology Impact Tables

This section provides guideline tables assessing in situ remediation technologies against the headline indicators and definition criteria selected from Section 2.2. These tables demonstrate how remediation technologies can be assessed more holistically; and illuminate advantages and disadvantages of those different technologies which may or may not be immediately obvious. The in situ remediation technologies evaluated in this section are: Chemical oxidation and reduction (Table 2.5) Electro-remediation (Table 2.6) Enhanced bioremediation (Table 2.7) Flushing (Table 2.8) Monitored natural attenuation (Table 2.9) Permeable reactive barriers (Table 2.10) Phytoremediation (Table 2.11) Sparging (Table 2.12) Stabilisation/solidification (Table 2.13) Thermal Treatment (Table 2.14) Venting (Table 2.15) Vitrification (Table 2.16)

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Table 2.5: In Situ Chemical Oxidation & Reduction

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Soil Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in Flood Risk Impacts (Pros + / Cons -) Con: Breakdown product is commonly degassed CO2.

Air

Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Can mobilise redox-sensitive and exchangeable sorbed material. Con: Chemicals may reduce nutrient content. Cons: - Potential to significantly alter ambient aquifer pH. Some products can generate HCl. . - Ozone can produce the OH (the hydroxyl radical) which can be damaging to human health. Cons: - Potential to significantly alter ambient soil pH and Eh. - Chemicals may deplete natural soil organic matter. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Possible generation of toxic breakdown products. Cons: - Can facilitate indiscriminate removal of soil organic matter and organisms. - Biological perturbation. Con: - Removal of organic matter and nutrients will affect and limit local soil-based biodiversity. Cons: - Can facilitate indiscriminate removal of soil organic matter and organisms. - Biological perturbation.

Intrusi veness

Ecology

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Resource use and waste

Con: Chemically reactive media used. Pro: Low Con: May be required Pro: Minimal (low) / None Con: Oxidants and/or reductants may pose safety hazard. Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate. May require high density treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Pro: Minimal (low) Pro: Minimal headworks & visual impact (low)

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Pro: Low Con: Timescales strongly dependent on in situ application success. Can be difficult to set into a fixed project plan. Consequently, costs coupled to time. Pro: Quick reactions for an in situ technique, although often a longer requirement to monitor/re-inject/revisit. Cons: - As a contact dependent remediation technique, proving an effective method of delivery is significant risk. - Frequently used with chlorinated solvents where partial degradation product can be more toxic and is a considerable risk.

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Table 2.6: In Situ Electro-Remediation

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Air Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Con: Can be applied to volatile and semi-volatile organics. Heating could lead to VOC degassing. Pro: Facilitates the migration and treatment of certain dissolved phase contaminants. Con: Desorption / dissolution of contaminants prior to migration to cathode/anode. Con: Can strongly affect pH and redox conditions. Con: Can strongly affect pH and redox conditions. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Heating likely to affect soil organic matter. Con: Heating could jeopardise biodiversity on a local and short term scale. Con: Soil fertility likely to be affected by heating and its effects on soil organic matter. Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to generate electric current.

Intrusiveness Resource use and waste

Ecology

Soil

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards

Con: Power supply constantly required, be it direct electrical supply or through a fuelpowered generator. Con: Likely as necessary Pro: Minimal / None for soils Cons: Often set-up would require treatment and discharge of groundwater. Pro: None Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Low Moderate. Electrodes / probes will need to be installed into the ground. May require moderate monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Con: Dependent on power generation unit being required on site. Con: Moderate headworks. Cathode, anode and water treatment area.

Safety Neighbourhood & Regions

Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Pro: Low - Moderate Con: Has the potential to be high cost as electricity generation could be required for a relatively long duration. Con: Relatively few documented trials and dependency make this a less well proven durable remediation technique. Con: Few field-scale case studies combined with strong depth and media-type dependencies make it high risk as a sole remediation technology at demonstration scale.

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Table 2.7: In Situ Enhanced Bioremediation (redox amendments) Dependent on amendment used
Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Pros: - Intended for the remediation of target compounds. - Potential to reduce the mobility of radionuclides. Cons: - Addition of chemicals to the subsurface. Water - Can mobilise redox-sensitive and exchangeable sorbed material. - Possible generation of toxic breakdown products in the case of reductive dechlorination. Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Con: Can reduce the quantity of dissolved organic matter. Con: Potential to significantly alter ambient aquifer pH, Eh and nitrate concentrations. Con: Potential to significantly alter ambient soil pH and Eh. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Pro: Will alter the biological status of the soil. Con: Affecting the organic matter and nutrients may alter the localised existing soil-based biodiversity during treatment. Con: Affecting the organic matter and nutrients may alter the localised existing ecosystem functionality. Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: - Breakdown product of chlorinated solvents is commonly degassed CO2. - Methane generation can occur when using hydrogen-related amendments to promote anaerobic conditions.

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil

Air

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Resource use and waste Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Amendment-dependent. May be using chemical reactive media (aerobic/reductive release compounds). Pro: Minimal Con: May be required Con: Oxidants and/or reductants may pose safety hazard. Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate - Low. May require moderate treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Pro: Minimal (low) Pro: Minimal headworks & visual impact.

Neighbour hoods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Pro: Low - Moderate Con: Timescales strongly dependent on in situ application success. Can be difficult to set into a definite project plan. Accordingly, costs dependent upon time. Con: Relatively slow technique which may involve long-term monitoring and possibly reinjections as required. Cons: - As a contact dependent remediation technique, significant reliance and risk lies with providing effective contact. - Frequently used with chlorinated solvents where partial degradation products can be more toxic and pose a considerable risk.

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Table 2.8: In Situ Flushing (with amendments)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Air Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds through in situ biodegradation & redox reactions. Cons: - Addition of chemicals to the subsurface. - Can mobilise redox-sensitive and exchangeable sorbed material. - Potential for production of more toxic compounds. Con: Potential to significantly alter ambient aquifer pH, Eh and nitrate concentrations. Con: Low. Forced gradient could increase turbidity in situ. Abstracted water will also need settlement / particulate control before discharge or disposal. Con: Potential to significantly alter ambient soil pH, Eh and nitrate concentrations (when used in the unsaturated zone). Pro: Solubilise/mobilise contaminants into a liquid phase for ex situ treatment. Pro: Can alter the biological status of the soil further to in situ biodegradation. - Can adversely affect organic matter (amendment dependent). Con: Affecting the biological status and soil organic matter may alter the localised existing soil-based biodiversity during treatment. Con: Amendment-dependent. Acidification or solvent flushing particularly may negatively affect the soils ecosystem functionality. Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Cons: - Risk of possible release of noxious gases from chemical reactions in the ground. - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Water Soil Ecology Intrusiven ess

Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Amendments required. Con: Power required for pump and treat plant. Con: Groundwater abstracted and re-circulated Con: Discharge licence required. Con: Conditioning amendments used for flushing. Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate - Low. May require moderate treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Con: Plant required Con: Plant required

Neighbour hoods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Con: Low-moderate. Plant and headworks required. Pro: Dependent on whether used as a temporary pathway management solution or a longterm source removal technique.

Con: Dependent upon expectations, i.e. can be very successful as a management method where complete contaminant removal is not the required outcome.

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Table 2.9: Monitored Natural Attenuation (In Situ)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Pro: Remains ambient Con: Some intermediates may be more toxic than original contaminants. Pro: Remains ambient Pro: Remains ambient Pro: Remains ambient Pros: - None low if introducing amendments as with enhanced bioremediation. - Remains ambient Cons: - Likely to remain within the sub-surface for longer due to reliance on natural processes. Degradation rates may drop. - Some intermediates may be more toxic than original contaminants. Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal/food chain) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Pro: Remains ambient Pro: Remains ambient Pro: Remains ambient Pro: Remains ambient Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -)

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Air

Resource use and waste

Pro: None (except borehole construction). Pro: None Pro: None Pro: None Pro: None Pro: Low - None due to being an in situ process. Pro: Low. May require moderate monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Pro: None during operation. Pro: None during operation.

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Safety

Lifespan / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change).

Direct Costs

Pro: Low. Site investigation and monitoring boreholes required. Pro: Low. Monitoring costs, verification. Con: Subsurface conditions may change affecting progress and at worst case, could lead to the release of adsorbed or absorbed contaminants.

Outcome success

Con: Risk of contamination reaching receptor before natural attenuation is complete.

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Table 2.10: Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) - (In Situ)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Cons: - Dependent upon reactive media type, whether it is a sorption barrier, precipitation barrier, or the more common degradation barrier. - Addition of chemicals to the subsurface. - Can mobilise redox-sensitive and exchangeable sorbed material. - Possible generation of toxic breakdown products. Con: Barrier type dependent. Likely to significantly impact the chemical and/or biological state of the groundwater, e.g. Aquifer pH, redox conditions, nitrate concentration and dissolved organic matter. Con: Low. As a passive or low-energy system PRBs are not believed to exacerbate suspended particulates. Nevertheless, for effective PRB treatment, they need to be controlled within the treatment media. Con: Barrier type dependent. Likely to impact the chemical and/or biological state of the soil matrix within the aquifer e.g. pH, redox conditions, nitrate concentration and dissolved organic matter. Impacts (Pros +/ Cons ) Con: CO2 would be produced in the manufacture of reactive media such as Zero Valent Iron (ZVI) or Granular Activated Carbon (GAC).

Water Soil

Air

Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Con: Barrier type dependent. Likely to impact the chemical and/or biological state of the soil matrix within the aquifer. Con: Affecting the organic matter and nutrients may alter the localised existing soil-based biodiversity. Con: Affecting the organic matter and nutrients may alter the localised existing ecosystem functionality. Con: Low. PRBs, particularly funnel and gate system can disrupt local hydraulic regime, although minimally impact flood risk or actual flood storage volumes.

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Resource use and waste Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Cons: - Considerable resources utilised for construction of funnel and gate component. - Reactive media required. Media dependent, ranging from limestone aggregate to the commonly used Zero Valent Iron (ZVI). Pro: Ideally none. Con: Non-passive forced gradient PRBs require a power source. Con: Only for forced gradient PRBs. Con: Depending on time taken to reach complete treatment, reactive media (sorption barrier) may need disposal but infrequently every 10+ years. Con: Reactive media may pose safety hazard. Con: Moderate. Excavation and significant engineering may be required resulting in vehicle movements. Con: Moderate / High. Excavation required for installing PRB. Likely to require moderate monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Pro: Once active, none/low. Con: During construction, medium to high. Pro: Low after construction complete. Con: During short-term construction phase, medium to high.

Safety

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Direct Costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Con: Moderate High. Varies from simple passive systems to highly-engineered processbased demonstrations. Can be significant. Pro: True to the passive system philosophy, this would generally be relatively low (duration dependent). Con: Passive systems are dependent upon a steady (long term) localised hydrogeological gradient, which in certain cases could be susceptible to new recharge/abstraction patterns. Con: Presently relatively little longer-term data with regards to longevity of reactive media and its re-installation.

Life Span / Project Risks

55

Table 2.11: Phytoremediation (In Situ)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Pro: Taking in CO2 through the photosynthesis process. Con: phytovolatilisation to volatile contaminants may cause greenhouse gas release. Con: Release of dust if the soil is disturbed (e.g. crop planting & ploughing). Cons: - When applied to volatile contaminants, it is likely to cause their volatilisation to the atmosphere. - Release of VOCs if the soil is disturbed (e.g. crop planting & ploughing). Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Water Pro: Can degrade/ remove contaminants within pore solution.

Air

Pro: Improved due to the volatilisation/stabilisation and increased soil organic matter. Pro: Contaminants removed, degraded, immobilised or contained by phyto-processes. Pro: Positive effects of increasing water holding capacity and favourable conditions around the root zone. Pro: Likely to increase the amount of soil organic matter, nutrients and fertility. Pro: To provide habitat for other species. Cons: - Release of contaminants via: the food chain and subsequent uptake by larger mammals; falling leaves, mulch or biomass. Con: - Introduction of non-native plants into an ecosystem. Pro: Likely to improve the ecosystem functionality.

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Pro: Low. Seeds and fertilizer requirement. Pro: Low Pro: Low. Supplementary irrigation may be required. Cons: - Plants which phytoextract can be burned and the residual ash containing contaminants needs to be recycled (if possible) or disposed of. - Biomass use inhibited following cultivation (due to contaminant uptake). Pro: None Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Pro: None Pro: None Pro: Positive

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change).

Direct Costs

Pro: Low. Planting management and cultivation required. Pro: Low although time dependent and a longer-term technique. Phytoextraction would have cost implication of dealing with the secondary waste, absorbed into the plant. Cons: - Increases in extreme weather could adversely affect this technique with prolonged hot conditions favouring increased dust generation. - Phytoremediation can be an effective management tool rather than a proven remediation method. Not yet a strong technique with respect to durability.

Outcome success

Cons: - Plant growth may be affected/inhibited by the contaminants. Addition of ameliorants may be necessary to support initial plant growth. - Effectiveness of containment is dependent on the generation of new soil over old surfaces. - Has a small niche as a pathway management tool for certain contaminants within the soil profile. Can be effective given time and realistic expectations.

56

Table 2.12: In Situ Sparging

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Con: VOCs and extractable compounds are actively and significantly partitioned into the gas phase through the air-sparging process. Vacuum pump and off-gas treatment may mitigate. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Risk of spreading the plume. Pro: Nutrients can be added to aid the biostimulation process. Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. - CH4 can be used to enhance co-metabolism of some chlorinated solvents. Vacuum pump and off-gas treatment may mitigate. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Air

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil

Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds.

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Power generation necessary (typically three-phase electricity) for all pump/treatment related surface processes. Pro: Unlikely Con: Carbon from within granular activated carbon vessels for vapour treatment, to be recycled/disposed of. Con: If methane or ozone is used as enhancements then they may pose safety hazard. Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate - Low. May require moderate treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Con: Moderate, but relatively short-lived. Headworks and treatment tanks.

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change).

Direct Costs

Con: Moderate Con: Moderate, but typically a relatively quick technique. Pro: Within its operational performance range, a relatively robust process with remediation outcomes of extraction, dispersal or destruction. Con: Possible rebound of contamination 6-12 months after system shutdown.

Outcome success

57

Table 2.13: In Situ Stabilisation / Solidification

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Soil Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Intrusiveness Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. - Significant greenhouse gas emissions associated with the cementitous binder production. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Con: Risk of liberating particulates typically dust from batching plant. Con: Volatile contaminants may be released by stabilisation / solidification processes. Emissions containment is a common mitigation measure. Con: Soil treatment method only. Dewatering is a common first stage.

Water

Air

Ecology

Con: Low-Moderate. Particulates introduced into the matrix as slurry during treatment are likely to diffuse into the groundwater and could migrate from treated area. Pro: Technique relies on complete control of soil chemistry / pH. Cons: - Strongly impacts pH and Eh of encapsulated soil. - May raise pH of surrounding ground. Con: Introduction of reagents (binder) as part of the stabilisation process. Con: Does not destroy or remove the contaminants. Pro: Improvements from a materials handling / geotechnical properties perspective. Con: Physical encapsulation from solidification modifies the soils physical status from that of soil to becoming a consolidated mass/block. Con: Eliminated. Pro/Con: Eliminated. Con: Eliminated. Completely sealed.

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Binders typically consist of: Cementitious materials; Organophilic clays; or Thermoplastic materials Con: Power required typically by generation unit. Con: Water source sometimes required. Con: Can creates cement blocks for disposal although more commonly associated with ex situ stabilisation / solidification. Con: Chemical reagents used may pose safety hazard. Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate Low. May require a high density network of injection points to be drilled. Pro: Moderate Pro: Moderate, although relatively short-lived.

Neighbour hoods & Regions

Safet y

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change).

Direct Costs

Con: Batching plant required. Pro: Relatively quick process (weeks to months for curing). Con: May require long-term monitoring. Cons: - Long-term performance concerns have been raised due to the relatively little longterm leachate data available. - More extreme climatic conditions brought about by climate change could increase the weathering process (& therefore leachability) of the final stabilised product.

Outcome success

58

Table 2.14: In Situ Thermal Treatment (Steam Injection, Hot Air Injection, Conductive Heating, Resistive Heating, Microwave Heating)
Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: - Contaminant breakdown product is commonly degassed CO2.. - Vacuum pumps and air emission treatment systems required. - CO2 from heat/electricity generation could be significant. - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Air

Cons: - VOC generation likely through the thermally enhanced volatilisation. - Vacuum pumps and air emission treatment systems required. Pros: - Intended for the remediation of target compounds. - Heating generally reduces solubility in (ground)water. Con: Change in dissolved organic matter. Con: Accelerates chemical reactions such as redox reactions. Con: Accelerates chemical reactions such as redox reactions. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Potential to damage the soil structure (e.g. fissuring). Con: Changes in organic matter content. Pro: Initial raising to high temperatures may encourage a temporary increase in biological activity (however, see Ecosystem functionality). Con: High temperatures impacting on organic matter will have a sterilising effect on biological activity and consequently on the longer term localised biodiversity. Con: Sterilising effect on soils will stunt biological activity and inhibit ecosystem functionality.

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Chemical reactive media used for emissions process treatment. Con: Significant power requirement. Con: Likely. Dependent upon heating method. Resistive heating and steam rely on injecting water/steam. Pro: None Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate. May require moderate treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Con: Moderate Con: Headworks, associated pipework and control area required.

Neighbour hoods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Pro: Moderate - High. Pro: Relatively quick with no chemical costs. Con: Significant energy costs. This is traded off against not requiring treatment for as long as a non-heated equivalent (e.g. cold Soil Vapour Extraction). Con: The heating effect for some techniques may by-pass zones of reduced permeability. Pro: Reported potential % removal is very high. Con: Incomplete removal of sources may result in elevated groundwater concentrations.

Direct Costs

59

Table 2.15: In Situ Venting (inc Bioventing, Bioslurping, Soil Vapour Extraction and Dual Vapour Extraction)
Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Air Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Water Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Pro: Off-gas granular activated carbon vessel will adsorb CO2. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Con: Airborne particulates from soil drying through potential off-gas leakage. Cons: - Soil Venting and SVE actively encourage volatilisation of VOCs. Creation of negative pressure through vacuum pump and vapour treatment may mitigate. - Off-gassing particularly liable when bioventing through air injection without air extraction. Pro: In the case of Bioslurping and Dual Phase Extraction intended for the remediation of target compounds. Pro: Nutrients can be added to enhance.

Soil

Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Pro: Nutrients can be added to aid the bioventing process.

Intrusiveness Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Ecology

Neighbou rhoods & Regions

Con: Granular activated carbon required within the vapour treatment vessels. Con: Electricity required Con: Required Cons: - Required with effluent treatment plant. - Granular activated carbon from within carbon vessels for vapour treatment, to be recycled/disposed of. Pro: None Pro: Low due to being an in situ process. Con: Moderate - Low. May require moderate treatment/monitoring borehole network to be drilled. Con: Moderate but relatively short-lived. Headworks and vapour treatment vessels. Con: Moderate space requirement for pipework, tenting and stockpiles.

Safety

Resource use and waste

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Con: Low - Moderate Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Cons: - Soil Venting and SVE actively encourage volatilisation of VOCs. Creation of negative pressure through vacuum pump and vapour treatment may mitigate. - Off-gassing particularly liable when bioventing through air injection without air extraction.

60

Table 2.16: In Situ Vitrification

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Air Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Impacts (Pros + / Cons -) Cons: - CO2 is produced from the heat/electricity generation process. Can be significant. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Can produce NOx, SOx emissions. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significantly through the gaseous thermal process outputs. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significant volatiles can be generated in the high temperature process. - Stringent emissions process control required - With respect of volatile emission management it should be noted that significant volatilisation is likely during excavation and materials handling. Con: Soil/Solids treatment technique only.

Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Water

Con: Rendered inert. Will heat ambient soil and remove the soil organic matter. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: All physical status properties are destroyed as the soil is glassified. Con: All biological properties are destroyed as the soil is glassified. Ambient soil will also be rendered sterile by the process. Con: Soil destroyed into glassified product, rendered unreactive for disposal. Ambient soil functionality and biodiversity will suffer temporarily, during and immediately following treatment. Con: Low - Moderate: Soil porespace will be eliminated, removing flood storage volume and creating an impervious surface. This effect is mitigated somewhat as volumes treated and affected are likely to be relatively small scale. Con: Reactive materials required for emissions treatment process. Con: Very significant power requirement. Con: Perhaps only for dust suppression Con: Should not be necessary as in situ treatment should only be practical if intended for glassified product to remain in the ground. Pro: None Pro: Unlikely Con: High due to excavation requirement of in situ process. Dependant on volume of excavation. Con: Moderate Cons: - Moderately visually intrusive - Dust (& odour) may need management - Could be contentious, perhaps scale-dependent Cons: - Moderate - low. Electrodes will need emplacement and as would headwork/tenting requirements for the off-gas treatment. Cons: - Very significant energy costs. Also high maintenance in terms of skilled personnel operation on site. - Unless used on the most highly toxic (preferably non-combustible) contaminants, this method would be viewed as both disproportionately energy intensive and expensive. Pro: Generally very effective and robust destruction of appropriate contaminants with stable end-product. Pro: Low risk.

Intrusiveness Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact Neighbourh oods & Regions Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks Safety Resource use and waste Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Ecology

Soil

61

2.5

Ex Situ Remediation Technology Impact Tables

This section provides guideline tables assessing ex situ remediation technologies against the headline indicators and definition criteria selected from Section 2.2. These tables demonstrate how remediation technologies may be assessed more holistically; and illuminate advantages and disadvantages of those different technologies which may or may not be immediately obvious. The same reasoning set out in Section 2.3 regarding Sustainability Impact Assessment criteria and qualitative impacts equally applies to this section. The ex situ remediation technologies evaluated in this section are: Biological treatment (Table 2.17) Chemical oxidation and reduction (Table 2.18) Soil washing (Table 2.19) Stabilisation / Solidification (Table 2.20) Thermal treatment (Table 2.21) Venting (Table 2.22) Vitrification (Table 2.23)

62

Table 2.17: Ex Situ Biological Treatment (Biopiles, Windrows, Landfarming)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Con: Without comprehensive dust management there is risk of particulate emissions. Cons: - Generation of volatile emissions during excavation, materials handling and treatment process. Impacts (Pros + / Cons -) Cons: - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power aeration/vacuum system. - CO2 production through bioremediation. - CH4 production through bioremediation.

Water

Air

Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Ecology Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Con: Low. Ex situ treatments generally require some form of run-off control to mitigate particulates in suspension prior to drainage/water discharge. - Some biological treatments can be of waters/slurries in which case the impact would be increased to moderate. Cons: - If operating practice is poor, there can be spillage of treatment reagents if used. This could include pH adjusters. - Dependent on whether treatment reagent is used. Potential to significantly alter ambient soil pH and Eh. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Cons: - Possible that intermediate compounds are formed that may still be toxic. - Reasonable possibility of residual contamination after treatment. Con: All physical status properties altered from in situ state through excavation. - Risk of damage through treatment process if not carefully managed. Pro: Amendments such as woodchip, compost or nutrients may be added as biostimulants to enhance the biological status of the soil. Pro: Post-treatment and deposition, biodiversity likely to be enhanced. Pro: Augmenting with organic matter may result in improved long-term ecosystem functionality.

Intrusiveness

Soil

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards

Resource use and waste

Pro: Amendment-dependent but minimal. Pro: Dependent on aeration/off-gas management. Likely to be minimal (low). Con: Water supply required Con: Leachate may require disposal or further treatment. Pro: None Con: Moderate High. Due to being an ex situ process, many on-site vehicle movements are likely. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependant on volume of excavation. Pro: Minimal (low) Pro: Minimal headworks (excluding stockpiles) & visual impact. Cons: - May require extensive use of space and involve stockpiles. - Dust generation - Odour generation Pro: Low. Tenting is commonly used to control ambient conditions and collect off-gas. Con: Excavation and ex situ management costs. Con: Excluding bioreactors, timescales are typically relatively long. Can be difficult to set into a fixed project plan. Consequently, costs coupled to time. Con: Relatively slow technique which may involve long-term treatment and monitoring. Cons: - Feasibility/pilot trials usually necessary to test conditions on targeted contaminants. - Process may be self-limiting for some contamination problems (see Robustness/Durability) and there is always the likelihood of residual contamination.

Safety Neighbour hoods & Regions Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks

Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

63

Table 2.18: Ex Situ Chemical Oxidation & Reduction

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Soil Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Intrusiveness Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Con: Breakdown product is commonly degassed CO2.

Air

Con: Without comprehensive dust management there is risk of particulate emissions. Con: With respect to volatile emission management it should be noted that significant volatilisation is likely during excavation and materials handling.

Water

Con: Ozone can produce the OH (the hydroxyl radical) which can be damaging to human health. Con: Low. Ex situ treatments generally require some form of run-off control to mitigate particulates in suspension prior to drainage/water discharge. Con: Potential to significantly alter ambient soil pH and Eh. Some product can generate HCl. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: Possible generation of toxic breakdown products. Con: All physical properties altered from in situ state through excavation. Con: Can facilitate indiscriminate removal of soil organic matter and organisms. - Biological perturbation. Con: Removal of organic matter and nutrients will affect and limit local soil-based biodiversity. Con: Can facilitate indiscriminate removal of soil organic matter and organisms. - Biological perturbation.

Ecology

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards

Resource use and waste

Con: Chemical reactive media used. Pro: Dependent on aeration/off-gas management. Likely to be minimal. Con: May be required Con: Leachate drainage may need to be disposed of or further treated. Con: Oxidants and/or reductants may pose safety hazard. Con: Moderate High. Due to being an ex situ process, many on-site vehicle movements are likely. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Pro: Minimal (low) Pro: Minimal headworks (excluding stockpiles) & visual impact on-site (low). Con: May require extensive use of space and involve stockpiles. - Dust. (& Odour)

Safety Neighbour hoods & Regions

Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Direct Costs

Con: Moderate. Excavation and ex situ management costs. Pro: Timescales likely to be quicker and more dependable than in situ equivalent as more thorough control can be exerted.

Pro: Quick reactions and as a contact dependent technique more controllable in an ex situ environment than would be the case in situ. Con: Frequently used with chlorinated solvents where partial degradation product can be more toxic and is a risk.

64

Table 2.19: Soil Washing (Ex Situ)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Air Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: - Breakdown product is commonly degassed CO2. - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Con: Without comprehensive dust management there is risk of particulate emissions. Cons: - With respect to volatile emission management it should be noted that significant volatilisation is likely during excavation and materials handling. - Volatile emission through treatment. Con: Soil treatment method only. Effects on treatment water covered in Resource use & Waste category. Con: Moderate High. Soil washing generally requires some form of run-off control to mitigate particulates in suspension prior to drainage/water discharge. Con: Process variation dependent. Potential to significantly alter soil chemical state through chemical variants. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: All physical properties altered from in situ state through excavation and soil washing process. Con: Likely to strongly affect biological state through saturation and process variation treatments. Con: Sterilising effect means time is required to re-build ecosystem functionality during and shortly after remediation.

Intrusiveness

Ecology

Soil

Water

Resource use and waste

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards

Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Con: Chemical enhancements commonly used. Con: Significant power requirement. Con: Water supply required, typically through abstraction. Cons: - As a waste minimisation technique, contaminated residue (filter cake) will need to be treated further/disposed of. - Secondary water treatment may be required for the process water (typically using activated carbon). Con: Strong chemical acids or ligands are frequently used for chemically enhanced soil washing and may pose safety hazard. Con: High. Due to being an ex situ process, whereby all material needs to be transported to and from a treatment plant, many on-site vehicle movements will be required. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Con: Significant. May required dedicated noise abatement. Cons: - Visually intrusive (Plant & stockpile). - May require extensive use of space and involve stockpiles (& can require separation lagoons). - Dust (& odour). Con: High. Often uneconomic to mobilise for small volumes on site. Excavation and ex situ management costs. Pro: Given sufficient volumes can work out economically per treated unit volume. Con: Significant. Requires constant monitoring, adjustment and feedstock control.

Safety Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

Pro: With sufficient volumes to treat and a pragmatic view on residually contaminated volumes, soil washing can achieve quick and significant throughput of treated soils. Cons: - Efficacy is strongly dependent upon soil type and the nature of the contamination so laboratory treatment trials are usually necessary. - Concentrated material will require secondary treatment or waste disposal.

65

Table 2.20: Ex Situ Stabilisation / Solidification

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Soil Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal/food chain) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood storage Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Con: - Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. - Significant greenhouse gas emissions associated with the cementitous binder production. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Con: Risk of liberating particulates typically dust from batching plant. Con: Volatile contaminants may be released by stabilisation / solidification processes. Emissions containment is a common mitigation measure. Con: Soil treatment only method. Dewatering is a common first stage.

Water

Air

Ecology

Con: Low. Ex situ treatments generally require some form of run-off control to mitigate particulates in suspension prior to drainage/water discharge. Cons: - Strongly impacts pH (and Eh) of encapsulated soil. - May impact pH of surrounding ground or destination of emplaced blocks. Cons: - Introduction of reagents (binder) as part of the stabilisation process. - Does not destroy or remove the contaminants Pro: Improvements from a materials handling / geotechnical properties perspective. Con: Physical encapsulation from solidification modifies the soils physical status from that of soil to becoming a consolidated mass/block. Con: Eliminated Con: Eliminated Con: Eliminated. Completely sealed.

Intrusiveness Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Resource use and waste Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Con: Binders typically consist of: Cementitious materials; Organophilic clays; or Thermoplastic materials. Con: Power required typically by generation unit. Con: Water source required. Con: Creates cement blocks / drums for disposal. Con: Chemical reagents used may pose safety hazard. Con: Moderate High. Due to being an ex situ process, many on-site vehicle movements are likely. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Con: Moderate Con: Moderate. Plant and stockpiles necessary, although relatively short-lived.

Neighbourh oods & Regions

Safety

Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change).

Direct Costs

Con: Moderate. Batching plant required. Pro: Relatively quick process (weeks to months for curing). Cons: - Long-term performance concerns have been raised due to the relatively little longterm leachate data available. - More extreme climatic conditions brought about by climate change could increase the weathering process (& therefore leachability) of the final stabilised product.

Outcome success

66

Table 2.21: Ex Situ Thermal Treatment (Thermal Desorption / Incineration)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Cons: CO2 generation significantly through stack emissions. - Stringent emissions process control required. - CO2 from heat/electricity generation could be significant. Cons: - Significantly through stack emissions. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significantly through the gaseous thermal process outputs and also from the input and output soil product. - Possibility of PICs (Products of Incomplete Combustion) and metals in untreated emissions. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significantly though the gaseous thermal process outputs and also from the input and output soil product. - Stringent emissions process control required. - With respect to volatile emission management it should be noted that significant volatilisation is likely during excavation and materials handling.

Air Water

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Con: Low High. All water burned off during the treatment process. Nevertheless the fine friable by-product particulates would need careful management if re-deposited, to avoid high suspended fines within its run-off. Con: Rendered inert. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: All physical properties completely altered as the organic structure of the soil is destroyed. Con: All biological properties eliminated as organics volatilise. Con: Treated materials have very different properties from input materials. Rehabilitation suitable for vegetation is possible, but may require an extensive programme of aftercare.

Intrusiv eness

Ecology

Soil

Safety

Resource utilisation (e.g. metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Neighbour hoods & Regions

Con: Reactive materials used for air emissions treatment process. Con: Very significant power requirement. Con: Perhaps only for dust suppression. Con: Less effective for fine-grained materials, which may still require further treatment/disposal. Pro: None Con: High. Due to being an ex situ process, whereby all material needs to be transported to and from an (on-site) treatment plant. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Con: Significant. May required dedicated noise abatement. Cons: - Visually intrusive. - May require extensive use of space for footprint and site requirements. - Dust (& odour). - Can elicit community resistance. Con: High. Often uneconomic to mobilise for small volumes on site. Excavation and ex situ management costs. Pro: Given sufficiently high volumes, can work out cost-effectively per treated unit volume particularly for recalcitrant organic contaminants. Con: Very significant energy costs. Also high maintenance in terms of personnel on site. Pro: Generally very effective for all organic contaminants. Con: Less effective for fine-grained materials, which may still require further treatment/disposal. Pros: - Can achieve quick and significant throughput of treated soils. Can sometimes be the only process available for most challenging and recalcitrant compounds. - Generally a comprehensive option when used with appropriate contaminants. Cons: - Efficacy is strongly dependent upon soil type and the nature of the contamination so pilot trials are usually necessary. - May require secondary treatment or waste disposal.

Resourc e& waste Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability w.r.t. changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

67

Table 2.22: Ex Situ Venting (inc Bioventing, Soil Vapour Extraction)

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal/food chain) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk Intrusiveness Impacts (Pros +/ Cons -) Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant. Con: Impacts if using petrol/diesel generator to power pumps/plant.

Air

Cons: - Soil Venting and SVE actively encourage volatilisation of VOCs. Creation of negative pressure through vacuum pump and vapour treatment may mitigate. - Off-gassing particularly liable when bioventing through air injection without air extraction.

Water

Con: Low. Ex situ treatments generally require some form of run-off control to mitigate particulates in suspension prior to drainage/water discharge. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: All physical properties altered from in situ state through excavation and venting process. Pro: Nutrients can be added to aid the bioventing process.

Ecology

Soil

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards

Resource use and waste

Con: Granular activated carbon required within the vapour treatment vessels. Con: Electricity required Con: Granular activated carbon for vapour treatment, within vessels, to be recycled/disposed of. Pro: None Con: Moderate High. Due to being an ex situ process, many on-site vehicle movements are likely. Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Con: Moderate. Cons: - Moderate but relatively short-lived. Headworks and associated pipework. - May require extensive use of space and involve stockpiles. - Dust (& odour) Cons: - Low Moderate - Excavation and ex situ management costs. Pro: Regular monitoring required. Pro: Within its operational performance range, a relatively robust process with remediation outcomes of extraction, dispersal or destruction. Pro: Within its operational performance range, a relatively robust process with remediation outcomes of extraction, dispersal or destruction. Cons: - Air flow dependent and a heterogeneous matrix are ideal for even coverage. - Can be enhanced through re-working soil (improve effective permeability) or thermal enhancement.

Safety Neighbour hoods & Regions Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks

Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

68

Table 2.23: Ex Situ Vitrification

Definition Criteria Greenhouse gases (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O) Acid rain contributing compounds (i.e. NOx, SOx, NH3) Particulates and aerosols inc. bioaerosols (i.e. PM1/2.5/10) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Impacts (Pros + / Cons -) Cons: - CO2 is produced from the heat/electricity generation process. Can be significant. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Can produce NOx, SOx emissions. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significantly through the gaseous thermal process outputs. - Stringent emissions process control required. Cons: - Significant volatiles can be generated in the high temperature process. - Stringent emissions process control required. - With respect of volatile emission management, it should be noted that significant volatilisation is likely during excavation and materials handling. Con: Soil/solids treatment technique only.

Air Water

Ecology

Dissolved phase contaminants Nutrients pH / redox Particulates Chemical state (e.g. Eh/pH, buffering capacity, soil carbon) Accumulated chemicals (contamination) Physical status (e.g. bulk density, water holding capacity, sealing) Biological state (nutrients, soil fertility) Biodiversity (plant/animal) e.g. on protected or invasive species Ecosystem functionality (e.g. soil sealing or soil fertility) Changes in flood risk

Con: Rendered inert. Pro: Intended for the remediation of target compounds. Con: All physical status properties are destroyed as the soil is glassified. Con: All biological properties are destroyed as the soil is glassified. Con: Soil destroyed into glassified product rendered inert for disposal.

Intrusiveness

Soil

Resource utilisation (aggregates, metals) Energy use Water abstraction Waste disposal (residual off-site treatment necessary, discharge licence) Chemical exposure hazards Vehicle movements Excavation and drilling Noise Aesthetic impact

Resource use and waste

Con: Reactive materials for emissions process treatment. Con: Very significant power requirement. Con: Perhaps only for dust suppression. Con: Glassified end product will require disposal. Pro: None Con: Moderate Con: High due to excavation requirement of ex situ process. Dependent on volume of excavation. Con: Moderate Cons: - Visually intrusive. - May require extensive use of space for thermal processor and stockpiles. - Dust (& odour). - Could be contentious, perhaps scale-dependent. Cons: - High. Often uneconomic to mobilise for small volumes. - Excavation and ex situ management costs. Cons: - Very significant energy costs. Also high maintenance in terms of skilled personnel operation on site. - Unless used on the most highly toxic (preferably non-combustible) contaminants, this method would be viewed as both disproportionately energy intensive and expensive. Pro: Generally very effective and robust destruction of appropriate contaminants with stable end-product. Pro: Generally a comprehensive option when used with appropriate contaminants. Con: The technique still requires strict limits on certain input components to successfully achieve an end product with low leachability.

Neighbour hoods & Regions Direct Costs Life Span / Project Risks

Safety

Plant/mobilisation + installation costs Operation & maintenance costs, including sampling, verification and personnel time (duration dependent) Robustness/Durability, with respect to changing conditions (i.e. climate change). Outcome success

69

3. 3.1

A COST ASSESSMENT OF REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES Introduction

This section of the report focuses on typical costs of remediation techniques and refers to information sources published within the last 10 years, in addition to up-to-date information obtained from a survey of UK remediation practitioners, comprising technology vendors and environmental consultants. A literature search identified that there is limited information available on remediation costs. It is felt that the main reason for this is because remediation costs are strongly site-specific and dependent upon the details of a number of different aspects such as: geological, hydrogeological and chemical data (e.g. contaminant type and concentration) provided from the site investigation at an individual site. Remediation costs are also strongly influenced by how stringent the remedial targets are. Remedial targets are the maximum permissible concentrations that can safely be left in the soil or groundwater for certain contaminants which have been agreed with the regulator and are usually dependent upon intended land use. Differences in remedial targets affect the remediation duration and therefore costs. A hypothetical example is detailed below to demonstrate the complex nature of site remediation and the difficulty of making direct cost comparison. Hypothetical Remedial Costs Case Study Taking a situation with two identical sites (in terms of geology, hydrogeology, contaminant types and their concentrations), both adopted dual phase extraction for their remedial solution, but Site 1 had half the remedial targets of Site 2, it is likely that the remediation on Site 1 would need to run for far longer than that on Site 2. In fact, due to many additional sub-surface chemical processes at the site (such as sorption and diffusion) the contaminant removal rate would be even harder to predict. Therefore at Site 1 the duration of the remediation could not be accurately measured and conceivably could take two, four or ten times longer to achieve than at Site 2. It is also possible that after a long period the remedial target cannot be achieved with this single remediation technique alone and switching to another remediation technique may be necessary. This example illustrates how sensitivity to a single variable such as a remedial target could have a large impact on remediation timescales and hence cost. However, as truly identical sites only exist hypothetically there are multiple variables which will also affect remedial performance and time taken to remediate a site, such as differing geology, hydrogeology, contaminant species and concentrations. With the uniquely complex sub-surface and remedial selection being reliant upon point source information taken from site investigation sample points, predicting remediation technology efficacy can be difficult. As stated in the foreword of English Partnerships Best Practice Note 27, Contamination and Dereliction Remediation Costs (2008), up to date and comprehensive information is essential, to reduce the risk of grossly underestimating the costs of remediation. In this regard nothing can compete with a recent and well executed site investigation that has been designed with full regard for the land use history of the site. Remediation costs are therefore not something which can generically be provided with any degree of certainty or reliability as they should be costed on a site by site basis. Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that a broad appreciation of remediation costs is desirable at the first, speculative stage of looking at potential remedial options. As with the stages of phased risk assessment, the level of information required (in this case remediation costs) is built up as additional knowledge is obtained. Initial assessment may involve looking at generic costs. A likely site development involving soil and groundwater remediation may require detailed costing for a few favoured techniques, whilst other remediation projects may necessitate a fully specified site characterisation and a costed bill of quantities.

70

Costs can be broken down into different categories but typically these would include: mobilisation / initialisation; operation and maintenance; and monitoring and analysis. Mobilisation/initialisation costs are commonly considerable for ex situ processes using a treatment plant (e.g. soil washing), but would also be the case for significantly engineered remedial solutions such as a large-scale permeable reactive barrier and some in situ processes. Drilling of the treatment/monitoring borehole network may also be included in this first category. Operation and maintenance costs also vary depending upon how aggressive/passive the treatment method is. For example a passive treatment permeable reactive barrier would generally have low operation and maintenance costs, whereas a chemical injection solution may not. Operation and maintenance costs are strongly time dependent and for some processes could be considerable if the treatment duration unexpectedly increased. The anticipated time of different remedial techniques is outlined in Sections 1.2 and 1.3. Monitoring and analysis costs are usually the smallest component but there are again exceptions such as in the case of monitored natural attenuation. Sources of Information For the reasons discussed above, references to remediation costs for the UK have been sparse over recent years. Early UK reference to remediation technology costs are contained within the 1995-1996 CIRIA series: Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land (Volumes I-XII), with the most relevant publications within this series listed within the references. More recently this issue is thoroughly addressed in Contamination and Dereliction Remediation Costs: Best Practice Note 27 (English Partnerships, 2008), albeit generically based on land-use types (transformation from different classifications of site to end-use type). The guidance uses costs based on a notional development site using a notional remediation scheme, therefore not providing remediation technology specific indicative costs. Spon's Civil Engineering and Highway Works Price Book, 2010 (Davis Langdon, 2010) provides useful contextual information about remediation costs, although this report has benefitted from borrowing the generic level information from the detailed Davis Langdon Instruction Manual: Production of Remediation Cost and Risk Management Reports (2009). Generic unit cost ranges for different remediation technologies were also available in the original 2002 version of Contaminated Land Management: Ready Reference (Nathanail et al, 2002); however, these costs are not revised in the 2007 update version. Finally, cost information and any notes on key factors or dependencies from the various CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project Report series have been reviewed in the compilation of this report. This section of the report is structured as follows: Section 3.2 provides a description of the Remediation Technique Questionnaire conducted as part of this project and the cost information that was sought from survey respondents. Section 3.3 describes how the cost data were analysed and interpreted. It presents the cost data using tables and graphs for each remediation technique. Section 3.4 provides a summary of the results and a brief discussion of the key points.

3.2

Remediation Technique Questionnaire

One of the objectives of this research project was to design two questionnaires to survey (i) technology providers and (ii) environmental consultants. During the design process, it was decided that a single questionnaire would be appropriate as some environmental consultants also provide remediation technology solutions. The Remediation Technique Questionnaire was sent to a group of 24 contaminated land organisations, comprising 14 technology vendors and 10 environmental consultants in March 2010. 18 organisations (11 technology vendors and 7 consultants) kindly shared their informed views on several aspects of remediation practices in the UK, which included costs (see Question 3 below). Contributing organisations are listed within the Acknowledgements section of this report. The information provided is felt to be representative of the industry as a whole based on the size and experience of the companies that contributed.

71

Question 3 from the Remediation Technique Questionnaire What are the typical broad range costs of using the techniques (e.g. 25-55/m3)? It is understood that costs are very site-specific, but that typical values can still be useful. Please use current (2010) values and provide a range for <5,000 m3 of treated material (smaller site) and a range for >5,000 m3 treated material (larger site). Cost estimates should not include desk study, site investigation, waste disposal, but should include mobilisation/demobilisation and monitoring. The full questionnaire is presented in Appendix 2 and a wider discussion of its results is given in Section 4. Many remediation technologies, particularly those relying on large plant assembly, have strongly dependent economies of scale. Specifically, initial outlay of plant mobilisation is the dominant aspect of many technologies when compared to the operation and maintenance costs. Consequently, remediation dealing with relatively small volumes of soil will provide average costs significantly higher than those which treat far larger volumes of material. For this reason, remediation costs were requested for two volume bands, using the cut-off value of 5000 m3, suggested by a remediation practitioner, to provide a better insight into how remedial costs can become more cost-effective for larger volumes.

3.3

Data Analysis and Presentation of the Results

The cost data from the survey were provided in the form of cost ranges for each technique, for example 30-50 per m3 of treated material, and therefore where data were received from several respondents for a single technique it was in the form of several cost ranges. This fact determined the way that the data were analysed and how they have been presented in Figures 3.1-3.19 later in this section. The following paragraphs explain how the data have been processed in more detail: Number of survey responses the statistical data are based upon Total Range Median or Mean Cost Values Cost Guide Cost Variance Davis Langdon (DL) Cost Range

Number of Survey Responses Several respondents questioned did not have experience of all of the remediation techniques given in the questionnaire and therefore did not provide cost estimates. The number of positive responses from which the statistics are based is shown in the top-left cell of each of the cost tables displayed in Figures 3.1-3.19. Total Range The total range values are simply the minimum and maximum cost values provided by all respondents for each remediation technique. These two values give an indication of the overall variability possible in the data. This statistic provides the most truthful range but is less useful in constraining costs to a most likely range. Median / Mean Cost Values Depending on the number of responses received for each technique, either median or mean values were calculated from the survey minimum (minimum median/mean) and maximum (maximum median/mean) values to provide a more typical and constrained cost range. Due to the large variability in the surveyed data (which include one or two outliers) it is considered that median values would provide the best estimates of costs, as influence from irregular outliers is removed. However, when fewer responses were provided (adjudged to be 3 or 4 responses) the mean values are

72

considered the more useful and representative statistic2. Where fewer than 3 responses are received then no graphs have been presented. Cost Guide In order to assist with interpretation of the survey data, a simple cost guide was developed to provide generalised cost bands for each of the remediation techniques. This was achieved by categorising the mid-point of the Median/Mean Cost Value Range (described above) into one of four cost bands, each denoted by a number of symbols, shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Cost guide: Cost band range categories Cost Band (/m3) Symbol 0 25 25 - 60 60 - 100 >100 Variability Guide Similar to the cost guide, a variability guide was developed to provide generalised cost-variability bands for each of the remediation techniques. Variability bands demonstrate how well the cost data is constrained, and therefore the degree of confidence there is in the costs provided. The standard deviation was calculated for the minimum and maximum values provided for each technique, to give a range of standard deviation and the mid-point of this range was compared against four variability bands, each denoted by a number of symbols, shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Variability band range categories Variability Band (Standard Deviation) 0 10 (Low, or well constrained) 10 - 40 40 - 80 >80 (High)

Symbol

Davis Langdon (DL) Cost Range Davis Langdon (2009) provides cost data for a number of the remediation techniques referred to in this report. Where this data is available it has been included for comparison. The Davis Langdon cost ranges within this reference are not directly available for the following remedial options: in situ enhanced bioremediation; monitored natural attenuation; permeable reactive barriers; ex situ chemical oxidation / reduction; ex situ venting; barrier, containment, cover systems; excavation; pump and treat; and landfill disposal. The results from the cost assessment are presented in Figures 3.1-3.9 for in situ techniques, Figures 3.10-3.15 for ex situ techniques, and Figures 3.16-3.19 for civil engineering-based methods. The data are presented separately for <5000 m3 and >5000 m3 treated material.

When working with five or less values to calculate representative statistics it was considered that error introduced by using the median value (to counter error introduced by highly variable values) becomes greater than that created from using a mean value, as the median mid-point used for a small, potentially extreme sample number is more likely to provide a skew.

73

<5,000 m3 (Responses:9) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 12 30 100 Max () 500 70 150

500

< 5,000 m
400 300 200 100 0 Total Range Median

DL Guide

>5,000 m3 (Responses:7) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 9 30 84 Max () 120 50 126

500

> 5,000 m
400 300 200 100 0 Total Range Median

DL Guide

Figure 3.1: Cost data for in situ chemical oxidation

250

< 5,000 m

<5,000 m3 (Responses:9) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide >5,000 m (Responses:6) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide
3

200

Min () 3 25

Max () 200 50

150 100 50 0 Total Range

250

Median

> 5,000 m

Min () 3 17

Max () 65 30

200 150 100 50 0

Figure 3.2: Cost data for in situ enhanced bioremediation

Total Range

Median

74

140

<5,000 m (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range 140 Mean

Min () 10 37 60

Max () 120 51 90

DL (extraction grouping)
3

>5,000 m3 (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 10 32 42 Max () 108 59 63

> 5,000 m
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range Mean

DL (extraction grouping)

Figure 3.3: Cost data for in situ flushing

<5,000 m3 (Responses:6) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 20 66 240 Max () 168 87 360

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range

< 5,000 m

Median

DL (Steam Injection)

>5,000 m3 (Responses:5) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 18 27 140 Max () 144 70 210

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range

> 5,000 m

Median

DL (Steam Injection)

Figure 3.4: Cost data for in situ thermal treatment

75

35

<5,000 m (Responses:6) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

30

< 5,000 m

Min () 5 9

Max () 30 14

25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Range Median 35

>5,000 m3 (Responses:5) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 4.5 5 Max () 17.5 15

> 5,000 m
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Range

Median

Figure 3.5: Cost data for monitored natural attenuation

200

>5,000 m3 (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 10 40
50

> 5,000 m

Max () 150 67

150

100

Insufficient Data
0 Total Range Mean

Figure 3.6: Cost data for permeable reactive barriers treating > 5,000 m3

76

<5,000 m3 (Responses:8) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 3 23 60 Max () 65 43 90

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Total Range 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Total Range

< 5,000 m

Median

DL (Extraction)

>5,000 m3 (Responses:5) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 3 10 42 Max () 45 30 63

> 5,000 m

Median

DL (Extraction)

Figure 3.7: Cost data for in situ sparging

<5,000 m (Responses:6) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

500

< 5,000 m

Min () 14 53 27

Max () 500 85 41

400 300 200 100 0 Total Range Median DL (S/S)

3

>5,000 m (Responses:4) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

500

> 5,000 m

Min () 12 37 23

Max () 100 61 34

400 300 200 100 0

Figure 3.8 Cost data for in situ solidification/stabilisation

Total Range

Mean

DL (S/S)

77

<5,000 m3 (Responses:9) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 3 30 60 Max () 400 50 90

450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range

< 5,000 m

Median

DL (Extraction)
3

>5,000 m (Responses:6) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

450 400

> 5,000 m

Min () 12 18 42

Max () 100 43 63

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Median DL (Extraction) 140 120

Figure 3.9 Cost data for in situ venting <5,000 m3 (Responses:11) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range (Biopiles) Davis Langdon Range (Windrows) Cost Guide Variability Guide >5,000 m3 (Responses:11) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range (Biopiles) Davis Langdon Range (Windrows) Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 9 20 17 8 Max () 65 30 26 12 Min () 12 30 21 14
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range Median DL (Biopiles) DL (Windows)

< 5,000 m

Max () 125 35 32 21

100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range Median DL (Biopiles) DL (Windows)

> 5,000 m

Figure 3.10: Cost data for ex situ biological treatment

78

250

<5,000 m (Responses:5) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
200

Min () 15 40

Max () 200 50

150 100 50 0 250 Total Range Median

>5,000 m (Responses:4) Total Range Mean Cost Guide Variability Guide

> 5,000 m

Min () 10 36

Max () 150 51

200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Mean 250

Figure 3.11: Cost data for ex situ chemical oxidation and reduction

<5,000 m (Responses:4) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
200

Min () 6 35 96

Max () 200 73 144

150 100 50 0 Total Range Mean DL (Soil Washing) 250

>5,000 m3 (Responses:5) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 6 24 70 Max () 60 33 105

> 5,000 m
200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Mean

DL (Soil Washing)

Figure 3.12: Cost data for soil washing & separation processes

79

160

<5,000 m3 (Responses:9) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 3 30 32 Max () 150 50 48

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range 160 140

< 5,000 m

Median
3

DL (Chemical Stabilisation)

>5,000 m3 (Responses:7) Total Range Median Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 3 24 20 Max () 75 40 30

> 5,000 m

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range Median DL (Chemical Stabilisation)

Figure 3.13: Cost data for ex situ stabilisation/solidification

300

<5,000 m (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
250

Min () 55 88 120

Max () 280 178 180

200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Mean DL (Low Temperature Thermal Desorption)

Insufficient Data

300

>5,000 m3 (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Davis Langdon Range Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 40 45 72 Max () 75 68 108

> 5,000 m
250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Mean

DL (Low Temperature Thermal Desorption)

Figure 3.14: Cost data for ex situ thermal treatment (low temperature thermal desorption)

80

120

<5,000 m (Responses:4) Total Range Mean Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
100

Min () 3 21

Max () 100 49

80 60 40 20 0 Total Range 120 Mean

>5,000 m (Responses:3) Total Range Mean Cost Guide Variability Guide

> 5,000 m
100

Min () 3 14

Max () 60 30

80 60 40 20 0

Figure 3.15: Cost data for ex situ venting

Total Range

Mean

140

<5,000 m2 (Responses:7) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 5 20 Max () 120 50

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

< 5,000 m

>5,000 m2 (Responses:6) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide Min () 5 20 Max () 70 60

Total Range 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Range

Median

> 5,000 m

Median

Figure 3.16: Cost data for barriers, containment, cover systems

81

600

<5,000 m (Responses:9) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
500

Min () 2 15

Max () 500 50

400 300 200 100 0 600 Total Range Median

>5,000 m (Responses:8) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

> 5,000 m
500

Min () 2 10

Max () 220 50

400 300 200 100 0

Figure 3.17: Cost data for excavation

Total Range

Median

450

< 5,000 m (Responses:12) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

400

< 5,000 m

Min () 30 45

Max () 400 250

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range Median 450

>5,000 m (Responses:11) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

Min () 30 65

Max () 300 250

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Total Range

> 5,000 m

Median

Figure 3.18: Cost data for landfill disposal

82

70

<5,000 m3 (Responses:6) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide

< 5,000 m
60

Min ()
7.5 20

Max ()
60 32.5

50 40 30 20 10 0 Total Range 60 Median

>5,000 m (Responses:6) Total Range Median Cost Guide Variability Guide
3

> 5000 m
50

Min () 1 5

Max () 55 18

40 30 20 10 0 Total Range Median

Figure 3.19: Cost data for pump and treat

Several techniques did not receive enough responses to warrant statistical analysis and are described briefly below. Only one technology vendor provided a cost for in situ electro-remediation of 8-45/m3 for <5,000 m3 and 8-30/m3 for >5,000 m3. There is little relevant cost data available in the literature and only two of the 18 respondents to the questionnaire had experience of using this technique, with only a single application of the technology in 2008 and 2009 (see Section 4.2). Phytoremediation is also relatively infrequently used as a remediation method as it has limited effectiveness for source removal. This is reflected by a lack of cost data amongst literature sources and only one cost received from the questionnaire from an environmental consultant of 20-50/m3 for <5,000 m3 and 5-10/m3 for >5,000 m3. Five practitioners had previous experience of phytoremediation, although there was only a single reported project in 2008 and 2009 (see Section 4.2). Vitrification is a rarely used stabilisation/destruction technique, which would only be economically and environmentally feasible in cases of the most severe contamination/risk. No surveyed respondents provided cost estimates for, or demonstrated experience in, this technique nor are UK cost references available in the literature.

3.4

Summary and Discussion

This section provides a summary of the cost data and a brief discussion of the significance of the results. Table 3.3 shows the remediation cost guide and variability bandings for each of the techniques. With variable data it is important not to over-analyse for trends which are not justified by the precision of the data grouping. This is a key reason for the simplification of the cost data into few band-range categories. It is also the reason for providing an index of variance for techniques so that a reader can also quickly assess the confidence they could have in applying the cost ratings provided. For

83

example, Table 3.3 shows that for up to 5000 m3, monitored natural attenuation has a relative cost rating of the symbol , but importantly it has the lowest variance rating indicated by the symbol . This demonstrates good confidence that the cost would be constrained to approximately around its identified cost range. Conversely for using in situ chemical oxidation for up to 5000 m3 the cost rating is but the variance is high with rating, perhaps indicating how the uncertainty regarding treatment times using relatively expensive chemical reagents translates into more cost uncertainty.

Table 3.3: Remediation technique cost & variability bandings Remediation Technique In Situ Remediation Technique In Situ Chemical Oxidation <5000m3 In Situ Chemical Oxidation >5000m3 In Situ Enhanced Bioremediation <5000m3 In Situ Enhanced Bioremediation >5000m3 In Situ Flushing <5000m3 In Situ Flushing >5000m3 In Situ Thermal Treatment <5000m3 In Situ Thermal Treatment >5000m3 Monitored Natural Attenuation <5000m3 Monitored Natural Attenuation >5000m3 Permeable Reactive Barriers >5000m3 In Situ Sparging <5000m3 In Situ Sparging >5000m3 In Situ Solidification/Stabilisation <5000m3 In Situ Solidification/Stabilisation >5000m3 In Situ Venting <5000m3 In Situ Venting >5000m3 Ex Situ Remediation Technique Ex Situ Biological Treatment <5000m3 Ex Situ Biological Treatment >5000m3 Ex Situ Chemical Oxidation & Reduction <5000m3 Ex Situ Chemical Oxidation & Reduction >5000m3 Soil Washing & Separation Processes <5000m3 Soil Washing & Separation Processes >5000m3 Ex Situ Stabilisation/ Solidification (S/S) <5000m3 Ex Situ Stabilisation/ Solidification (S/S) >5000m3 Ex Situ Thermal Treatment <5000m3 Ex Situ Thermal Treatment >5000m3 Ex Situ Venting <5000m3 Ex Situ Venting >5000m3 Civil Engineering Based Methods Barriers, Containment, Cover Systems <5000m3 Barriers, Containment, Cover Systems >5000m3 Excavation <5000m3 Excavation >5000m3 Pump & Treat <5000m3 Pump & Treat >5000m3 Landfill Disposal Landfill Disposal <5000m3 Landfill Disposal >5000m3

Cost Guide

Variability Band Insufficient data

84

Several inferences can be drawn from the results presented in Section 3.3, although no broad conclusions can be drawn that either in situ or ex situ treatment methods are either more costly or have more highly variable costs. For a number of technologies the costs decrease for volumes greater than 5000 m3, particularly for permeable reactive barriers, ex situ thermal desorption and soil washing. These technologies generally have considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs making them a considerably more cost-effective option where larger volumes are required. Another notable trend is that for eight of the remediation techniques (such as in situ chemical oxidation, in situ solidification stabilisation, in situ venting and in and ex situ thermal treatment) the variance decreases for volumes greater than 5000 m3. This trend is again perhaps expected as average costs per m3 should be better constrained for larger volumes where the considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs are averaged across larger volumes.

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4. 4.1

STATUS OF THE USE OF REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES IN THE UK Introduction

This section describes an assessment of the status of remediation techniques in the UK. A desk-based study was conducted using a number of different resources to collect data on the current and historic usage of each remedial technique. This was supplemented by responses to the Remediation Technique Questionnaire described in Section 3.2. In addition, the main drivers for technology selection are identified and the degree to which the remediation industry measures sustainability impacts is assessed. The section discusses potential future trends in the use of different remediation techniques. It also describes techniques that are under development and assesses their benefits in terms of costs or wider environmental impacts they could bring.

4.2

Current and Historic Usage of Remediation Techniques

In this section, data on the current and historic usage of remediation techniques in the UK are presented. Unfortunately, there is no single source which holds all the relevant information; therefore, a number of different sources were identified as having the potential to provide useful data. For example, industry surveys and questionnaires, technology reviews, contractor databases, technology demonstrations and regulator archives have all been considered. 4.2.1 Industry Surveys and Questionnaires

4.2.1.1 2010 Remediation Technique Questionnaire Current information on the use of remediation techniques in the UK was gathered from a Remediation Technique Questionnaire undertaken as part of this research (see Appendix 2). The questionnaire asked which techniques they had experience of using and how many times these techniques were applied during 2008 and 2009. These two years were selected to provide the most recent data and to avoid repetition with previous industry surveys conducted in 2005 and 2007. It should be noted that there may be some risk of double-counting of the application of a technique by an environmental consultant and technology vendor working on the same project, but trends in the data will still be able to be observed. Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 show the number of organisations that have demonstrated experience (through current provision, past experience or whether they had tendered and let contracts on) in using each remediation technique for in situ techniques, ex situ techniques and civil engineering-based methods. The figures illustrate a range of experience in remediation techniques. Figure 4.1 shows that most technology vendors have experience in most in situ techniques, with the exception of phytoremediation and electro-remediation which have only been provided by one and two technology vendors respectively, reflecting their status as emerging techniques as described by Nathanail et al (2007). There is a good spread of techniques offered by environmental consultants, although less than half have offered heating methods and flushing, and none have offered electro-remediation.

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Venting Stabilisation/solidification Sparging Phytoremediation Permeable reactive barriers Monitorednatural attenuation Heatingmethods Flushing Enhancedbioremediation Electroremediation Chemicaloxidationand reduction 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Technologyvendors Environmental consultants

No. oforganisations

Figure 4.1: Number of organisations that have demonstrated experience in using in situ remediation techniques. Figure 4.2 shows that of the ex situ techniques offered, biological treatment has been provided by 100% of technology vendors, stabilisation/solidification (by 90%) and chemical oxidation and reduction (by 64%). The majority of environmental consultants have offered biological treatment (86%), stabilisation/solidification (86%) and soil washing/separation processes (71%). Vitrification has not been offered by either a technology vendor or an environmental consultant.

Venting Thermal treatment Stabilis ation/s olidification Soil washing& separation processes Chemical oxidation and reduction Biological treatment 0 5 10 15 20 Technology vendors Environmental cons ultants

No.oforganis ations

Figure 4.2: Number of organisations that have demonstrated experience in using ex situ remediation techniques. Figure 4.3 shows that 86%-100% of all respondents use some form of civil-engineering-based techniques, and all respondents have used landfill disposal.

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Figure 4.3: Number of organisations that have demonstrated experience in using civil engineering-based techniques. The survey asked respondents to report how many times during 2008 and 2009 these techniques/methods were applied. This does not relate to the number of sites or projects, as more than one technique may have been used on a particular site or project. One technology vendor noted that as it continuously uses biological treatment at soil treatment centres, it could not provide an actual number of applications. Similarly, one technology vendor commented that it used excavation on virtually every project and was therefore too difficult to quantify. It should also be mentioned that the results do not take into account quantity of material treated, for example techniques being applied on large development sites, such as the Olympic Park site, only count as a single application even though they are treating very significant volumes of soil. Nevertheless, the results do provide an illustration of the relative usage of each technique. The total number of applications in 2008 was 2095, with 38.7% of these in situ, 4.1% ex situ, and 57.2% civil engineering-based. The 2009 values for comparison were 2455 total applications with a similar breakdown of 40.3%, 3.3%, 56.4%. These results may be misleading, because as mentioned above, the number of applications of a technique does not inform about the quantity of material being treated or the timescale of the remedial operation and does not include applications of ex situ techniques at soil treatment centres. However, it could be speculated that the reason for the low percentage of ex situ techniques was related to a reduction in land development faced by the construction industry during the economic downturn or that only high value, smaller sites were remediated which would favour the application of in situ techniques, which typically do not require a large land area for locating plant or a large volume of material to be treated to be cost effective. One technology vendor (denoted TVx) supplied information on the number of times a technique was applied far in excess of the other respondents; therefore this information has been plotted on a separate graph so that trends in the other data are not masked. The reason for the significant number of applications is that this organisation undertakes mainly small-scale projects on domestic and commercial properties, with the majority of these being in response to an emergency spill occurrence. Figure 4.4a shows the number of applications of in situ techniques undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and Figure 4.4b shows the comparable data for the single technology vendor, TVx. If an application spanned both years then it has been included in both. It can be seen from Figure 4.4a that the most commonly applied techniques are venting, chemical oxidation and reduction, and enhanced bioremediation, whereas the data for TVx show that flushing and permeable reactive barrier techniques were also frequently applied. Overall, there is a 22% increase in the number of applications comparing 2008 values to those of 2009 and more of these were undertaken by technology vendors compared with environmental consultants. One technology vendor 88

reported that monitored natural attenuation formed a part of the majority of its remediation strategies and was therefore too difficult to quantify.
Venting Stabilisation/solidification Sparging Phytoremediation Permeable reactive barriers Monitorednatural attenuation Heatingmethods Flushing Enhancedbioremediation Electroremediation Chemicaloxidationand reduction 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Technologyvendor (2008) Environmental consultant (2008) Technologyvendor (2009) Environmental consultant (2009)

No. ofprojects

Venting Stabilisation/solidification Sparging Phytoremediation Permeable reactive barriers Monitorednatural attenuation Heatingmethods Flushing Enhancedbioremediation Electroremediation Chemicaloxidationand reduction

Technologyvendor (2008) Technologyvendor (2009)

200

400

600

No. ofprojects

Figure 4.4: Number of applications of in situ techniques undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for a) 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and b) a single technology vendor (TVx). Figure 4.5a shows the number of applications of ex situ techniques undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and Figure 4.5b shows the comparable data for the single technology vendor, TVx. The data show that biological treatment using biopiling or bioreactors is by far the dominant ex situ technique. As mentioned previously, one technology vendor noted that it continuously uses biological treatment at soil treatment centres, and could not provide an actual number of applications.

89

Vitrification Venting Thermaltreatment Stabilisation/solidification Soilwashing &separation processes Chemicaloxidationand reduction Biologicaltreatment (e.g. biopiles, Technologyvendor (2008) Environmental consultant (2008) Technologyvendor (2009) Environmental consultant (2009)

10

20

30

40

50

No. ofprojects

Vitrification Venting Thermaltreatment Stabilisation/solidification Soilwashing &separation processes Chemicaloxidationand reduction Biologicaltreatment (e.g. biopiles, 0 20 40 60 Technologyvendor (2008) Technologyvendor (2009)

No. ofprojects

Figure 4.5: Number of applications of ex situ techniques undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for a) 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and b) a single technology vendor (TVx). Figure 4.6a shows the number of applications of civil engineering-based methods undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and Figure 4.6b shows the comparable data for the single technology vendor, TVx. Landfill disposal and excavation are the dominant methods for the majority of respondents although TVx also applied pump and treat at the same frequency as excavation (i.e. 300 applications per year). It should be noted that in Figure 4.6a the numbers reported for excavation and landfill disposal were mostly the same which is not unexpected. Where a respondent did provide values for landfill disposal without excavation, the data suggest that it is for disposal of residual material from one of the ex situ techniques they provided, such as soil washing or biological treatment.

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Pumpandtreat

Landfilldisposal Technologyvendor (2008) Excavation Barriers,containment, cover systems 0 50 100 150 200 250 Environmental consultant (2008) Technologyvendor (2009) Environmental consultant (2009)

No. ofprojects

Pumpandtreat Landfilldisposal Technologyvendor (2008) Excavation Barriers,containment, cover systems 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 No. ofprojects Technologyvendor (2009)

Figure 4.6: Number of applications of civil engineering-based methods undertaken in 2008 and 2009 for a) 10 technology vendors and 7 environmental consultants and b) a single technology vendor (TVx). Data were also collected on the experience of using passive methods for protecting a receptor, such as modifying exposure physically by land use restriction, or advising/enforcing behavioural changes, and 73% of technology vendors and 86% of environmental consultants reported they had used these approaches. In 2008, 18 applications of these methods were reported and 21 were recorded for 2009.

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4.2.1.2 Previous Industry Remediation Surveys In order to compare the historic usage of remediation techniques to more recent data it is useful to look at previous remediation surveys. In 2005 CL:AIRE conducted a contractor/consultant survey, collecting data from 2005, and in 2007 a contractor/client survey collected data from 2006 and 2007 (CL:AIRE, 2007). Both CL:AIRE surveys looked at usage of remediation techniques and the data supplied by contractors in these years can be compared to the answers provided by technology vendors to the questionnaire described in Section 4.2.1 for 2008 and 2009. It should be noted that only alternative techniques to excavation and landfill disposal were covered by the CL:AIRE 2005 and 2007 surveys. As there are significant differences in the actual number of projects reported in the surveys, the relative proportion of each technique has been used to compare the data. The categorisation of techniques has been amended to allow easier comparison between the different years. The data are presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Percentage usage of remediation techniques reported in CL:AIRE industry surveys for the period 2005-2009 (n=total number of projects reported). Remediation technique 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 General trend (n=134) (n=57) (n=62) (n=145) (n=153) In situ chemical addition / reaction / oxidation In situ bioremediation / compound injection In situ air sparging / venting / bioslurping Permeable reactive barriers In situ solidification / immobilisation Thermal treatment (in situ or ex situ) Ex situ biological treatment Ex situ soil washing / jet washing Ex situ stabilisation (cover layers or encapsulation) Pump & treat 7.5 16.8 15.0 2.8 3.7 0.0 14.0 6.5 13.1 20.6 10.5 12.3 19.3 1.8 5.3 5.3 15.8 8.8 7.0 14.0 9.7 12.9 16.1 3.2 8.1 4.8 16.1 8.1 6.5 14.5 13.1 13.1 26.9 0.7 1.4 6.9 16.6 1.4 5.5 14.5 17.0 15.0 30.1 0.7 0.0 8.5 10.5 2.0 3.9 12.4

Please note that some percentage totals do not equal 100 due to rounding.

The main trends that can be identified through visual assessment of Table 4.1 are the increase in the proportion of in situ techniques being used such as chemical addition/reaction/oxidation and air sparging/venting/bioslurping and the decrease in ex situ techniques such as soil washing and stabilisation. Pump and treat also exhibits a marked decrease. These trends are highlighted in Table 4.2 which shows the change in total in situ and ex situ (including pump and treat) techniques over the five year period. The numbers do not add up to 100%, apart from in 2005, due to the category of thermal treatment including both in situ and ex situ techniques. Table 4.2: Percentage of projects that involved in situ and ex situ techniques (including pump and treat) reported in CL:AIRE industry surveys for the period 2005-2009. Remediation type 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 In situ Ex situ (including pump & treat) 46 54 49 46 50 45 55 38 63 29

There are two earlier industry surveys, one reporting data from 1996-1999 (Environment Agency, 2000) and another reporting data from projects undertaken in 2001 (FIRSTFARADAY, 2003). The first study collated data on remedial activities from local 92

authorities, landowners, developers and other organisations relating to 367 sites. The survey revealed that, in general, most remedial activities involved: small sites (<5 ha); the redevelopment of former industrial sites (i.e. brownfield sites); the protection of human health (as opposed to the protection of groundwater or other receptors); civil engineering-based remediation techniques (mainly dig and dump); and the remediation of soil contamination (as opposed to gas or groundwater contamination). The later survey obtained information from local authorities, land owners and developers on remediation activities that commenced during 2001. It showed that civil engineering-based solutions were still the dominant technologies for dealing with contaminated land. Neither of these studies has been used for comparison purposes in this research as they did not use contractors or technology vendors to provide data and hence are not easily comparable to the more recent surveys described above. 4.2.2 Technology Reviews

From time to time, industry experts provide reviews of the status of remediation technologies through conference presentations and workshop training in order to impart knowledge rather than promote a specific technique. Some key points from these sources are described in Table 4.3 below: Table 4.3: Comments on the status of remediation technologies (CL:AIRE, 2009a, 2009b) Technology Comments Bioremediation Well-established, widely used in the UK. Further developments in application are needed to increase confidence and to expand the operating window. In situ chemical Widely specified, used and accepted in the UK, with a growing number oxidation of contractors undertaking many tens of projects per year (cf. Table 4.1). Areas for development include improving recovery or breakdown rate, minimise rebound and residual contamination and exploring the sustainability aspects (e.g. can heat be recovered?). In situ thermal Steam injection treatment In 2003, the first application of in situ thermal treatment in the UK was carried out with a steam injection pilot trial at Purfleet. Up to July 2009, there were 11 reported steam injection projects. Electrical conductive heating The first two projects were in 2006, one used electrical conductive heating at a former gasworks site in Teddington and the other involved Provectus Group which combined electrical conductive heating with soil vapour extraction at Harwell. In 2007, Arcadis, Reconsite and Cornelsen undertook an extended pilot trial using electrical conductive heating. Electrical resistive heating The first and, currently, only use of electrical resistance heating was by Terravac in 2007 using six-phase heating. Radio frequency heating Two projects have been undertaken in the UK, both by Ecologia, the first was on an industrial site in London in 2007 and the second was undertaken at a petrol filling station to treat hydrocarbon fuel contamination in 2008. Hot water injection In 2009 and 2010, Bilfinger Berger Environmental Ltd used a technique in which the water was heated above ground before being injected into the subsurface at two sites, one in London and the other in Manchester. 93

The system was designed to have a low carbon footprint and the project in London was carbon neural for the operational phase (Cartwright, personal communication, 2010). Tamdown Regeneration, Cornelsen and Reconsite are currently undertaking a technically challenging in situ thermal project for AECOM combining the technologies of conductive heating, steam injection, high vacuum multi-phase extraction, low vacuum soil vapour extraction and total fluids abstraction (Hulm, personal communication, 2010). Well established, 1st European granular iron PRB at Monkstown, Northern Ireland in 1995. Environment Agency Guidance published in 2002, although by July 2009 still only c12 constructed to date in UK. PRBs can now be designed with a range of media to treat a variety of contaminants. There is a much greater understanding of treatment processes and hydraulic performance as well as improved prediction and verification of long-term performance. Current and future initiatives include optimisation, combinations - such as with electrokinetics and thermal, emerging contaminants, scaling up from site to landscape and scaling down to see if there is a role for nanoparticles. Mature technology, based on mineral processing techniques. Very widely used in Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and USA. Soil washing technology limited mainly to mobile projects in the UK. To date soil washing projects have been carried out by: DEC, HBR, Land and Water, Norwest Holst, VHE. Centralised treatment systems are more common in Europe in which soils are brought to a centralised fixed facility. MNA is a well-established risk management technique. MNA evaluation is based on an iterative, lines of evidence approach. MNA may work as a stand-alone technique or as a treatment alongside engineered remediation and is often used as a polishing step at the end of a remediation scheme to manage any residual contamination. It can be used on different parts of a site or applied sequentially. Environment Agency Guidance was published in 2000. Mature technologies, very widely used in Netherlands, Germany and USA. Extensive use in the USA. Less so in the UK (very few reported projects). Environment Agency Guidance was published in 2004.

Permeable reactive barriers

Soil washing

Monitored natural attenuation

Air Sparging & Soil Vapour Extraction Stabilisation & Solidification 4.2.3

Contractor Databases

The Brownfield Briefing Remediation Solutions Guide, published biannually by Newzeye, contains a database of UK remediation contractors and their capabilities. This database can be used as an indicator of remediation technique usage by observing the number of contractors listed and also the techniques they offer in-house. Table 4.4 provides a comparison of the 2006 database to the latest version, published in October 2009 and shows the percentage of contractors that offer each remediation technique. It should be noted that the database relies upon the goodwill of each contractor to be accurate with the information they provide, but there are discrepancies between contractors offering a certain technique and actual applications of that technique. For example, 36 contractors offered soil washing in-house in 2009, yet according to Table 4.3 only five companies have carried out projects using this technique.

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Table 4.4: Percentage of contractors offering remediation techniques as published in Brownfield Briefing Remediation Solution Guide 2006 and 2009. Remediation technique % of contractors offering technique 2006 2009 (n=75) (n=91) Monitored natural attenuation 41 52 In situ bioremediation / injection 56 65 In situ air sparging / venting 59 54 Chemical addition / reaction 64 66 In situ heating / steam injection 15 32 Pump & treat (bioslurping) 71 63 Soil vapour extraction / dual vapour extraction 52 51 Permeable reactive barriers 49 49 In-ground barriers / mixing 43 46 Hydrofracture / injection 12 22 Soil washing / jet washing 36 40 Magnetic / chemical separation 16 18 Landfarming / biopiling 69 65 Bioreactors / sludge treatment 40 49 Thermal treatment plant 23 23 Stabilisation ex situ (cover layers) 59 59 Solidification / immobilisation 49 54 Vitrification 0 4 Incineration (off-site) 5 4 Phytoremediation 20 24 Electrolysis / electroremediation 5 10 Landfill 31 40 Table 4.4 shows that there were 75 contractors listed in 2006 and 91 in 2009, which could reflect a growth in the industry or just a more complete database. In terms of changes in the percentage of contractors offering a particular technique, it can be seen that the most marked increase is in in situ heating/steam injection, which has risen from 15% to 32% of contractors. Other increases are observed for monitored natural attenuation, in situ bioremediation/injection, hydrofracture/injection, electrolysis/electroremediation. The results also show that in 2009 there were four contractors offering vitrification compared to none in 2006. Pump & treat (bioslurping) shows the most significant decrease, from 71% to 63% of contractors, perhaps due to long term cost implications in its use and the availability of alternative solutions. 4.2.4 Technology Demonstrations

Using its project appraisal system, CL:AIRE has reported on a number of technology demonstration projects between 2001 and 2010 covering all the technologies listed below (Appendix 3 contains a full listing of these projects) : Thermal treatment (TDP1, TDP10, TDP23, TDP24, TDP26, TDP28) Permeable reactive barrier (TDP3, TDP5, TDP13, TDP17, TDP20, TDP21) Ex situ bioremediation (TDP4, TDP6, TDP12) Soil washing (TDP2) Ex situ stabilisation/solidification (TDP8) Air sparging (TDP9) Ex situ soil vapour extraction (TDP16) In situ bioremediation (TDP18) Chemical treatment (TDP30, TDP31) Site investigation & monitoring (TDP22, TDP29)

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Prior to 2004, of the 14 demonstration projects carried out, 10 were ex situ projects and 4 were in situ projects. Since 2004, 11 projects have been conducted, 2 were ex situ, 7 were in situ, and 2 were site investigation and monitoring based projects. There appears to be an obvious shift toward in situ techniques after 2004, but this is not necessarily a reflection in the industry usage of these techniques. It is more likely the fact that by this time ex situ techniques were more established and did not need to be demonstrated. There was, and is, more uncertainty associated with in situ techniques (as described in Section 1.2) hence a greater need to demonstrate that they can be successfully applied. 4.2.5 Regulator Archives

The Environment Agency holds public information on Environmental Permit deployments received (previously Mobile Treatment Licence, and Mobile Plant Licence), which describe deployment of a remediation technology by the permit holder. Since December 2009, the Environment Agency has been recording the type(s) of technology used in a spreadsheet and has recently begun to collate the information prior to this date. When this process has been completed it will be the most accurate indicator of the application of remediation techniques over time, as it will be based on actual applications and not on estimates from practitioners. As part of this research, CL:AIRE performed a public information request to look through the deployment information, but it was not possible to view the information at this time due to restrictions placed on the data. In 2009, the Environment Agency published Dealing with contaminated land in England and Wales which reported that between 2000-2007 excavation and off-site disposal had been used at 130 contaminated land sites and containment at over 60 sites but that no treatment technique, in situ or ex situ, had been used on more than 6 sites, which provides further evidence of the popularity of civil engineering-based methods.

4.3.

Drivers for Technique Selection

This section will consider the key drivers for technique selection based on responses received to the Remediation Technique Questionnaire undertaken by CL:AIRE as part of this research. The following drivers were provided for respondents to choose the three most important in their selection of remediation techniques. If an alternative driver was suggested then this was noted as well. Operational constraints (e.g. time, personnel); Effectiveness of technique in terms of reducing risk; Cost of implementation of technique; Availability of technique in UK; Potential for integration with other methods; Potential environmental impact (including local amenity); Regulatory permissions (e.g. licenses) required; Monitoring requirements; Post-treatment management requirements; Applicability to contaminants and media; Limitations of method (process or site specific); Technique development status; and Health & Safety implications.

Figures 4.7 and 4.8 illustrate the results. Interestingly, the same four most common drivers were listed by both technology vendors and environmental consultants: operational constraints, effectiveness of techniques in reducing risk, cost of implementation of technique and applicability to contaminants and media. Cost was the most commonly selected driver for technology vendors, whereas for environmental consultants it was effectiveness in terms of reducing risk. 96

1 1

1 6 Operationalconstraints (e.g.time, personnel); Effectivenessoftechnique intermsof reducingrisk; Costofimplementation oftechnique; Applicabilitytocontaminants and media; Limitations ofmethod (processor site specific); 7 Technique developmentstatus; Health&Safety implications;

Figure 4.7: Pie chart showing what technology vendors considered the most important drivers for remediation technique selection.

3 Operationalconstraints (e.g.time, personnel);

Effectivenessoftechnique intermsof reducingrisk; Costofimplementation oftechnique; Posttreatment management requirements; 6 Applicabilitytocontaminants and media; Limitations ofmethod (processor site specific); 5

Figure 4.8: Pie chart showing what environmental consultants considered the most important drivers for remediation technique selection. Other reasons, above those offered in the survey, that were also listed by respondents included: Reliability; technical ability to achieve remediation objectives (measured by key performance indicators during pilot test and bench-scale studies); practicability/feasibility; potential for adverse impact; regulatory acceptance; practicability of implementation at the site; capable of being verified; design and agreement of remedial objectives; sustainability; and cost-benefit. In addition, in responding to a question about future advancements in remediation technologies, several respondents commented that sustainable remediation is likely to be a driver for technology selection in the near future (see Section 4.5).

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4.4.

Status of Sustainability Measurement in Remediation

To assess the degree to which the remediation industry measures sustainability impacts, a question, Are sustainability impacts currently measured? was included in the questionnaire. A summary of the wide-ranging responses is provided below. From the responses received, it is clear that each organisation is at a different stage of development in terms of measuring sustainability. One technology vendor replied with a straightforward no, while another said they do not measure sustainability at the moment, but that they are starting to develop their own sustainability system, while three or four other respondents also stated they had internal measurement systems under development. Three companies are involved in the SuRF-UK initiative and are using the SuRF-UK sustainability assessment framework (SuRF-UK, 2010). Several respondents stated that a review of the sustainability of a proposed technique is undertaken at the remediation options appraisal stage. Others mentioned that they use the aspects of sustainability measurement contained within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ISO14000 and ISO14001 standards for environmental management systems3, the 18001 occupational health and safety management system and CEEQUAL, which is the assessment and awards scheme for improving sustainability in civil engineering and public realm projects4. Other organisations provided the environmental, social and economic parameters that they currently measure without going into any further detail about specific internal systems or externally available tools. Table 4.5 presents a compilation of all the sustainability parameters that were explicitly mentioned by respondents. It can be seen that some parameters, such as vehicle movements, fall under more than one sustainability criterion, depending on whether one is considering the environmental impacts or the financial impacts. Table 4.5: A compilation of sustainability parameters that were measured by respondents.
Sustainability criteria Environmental Parameters measured impacts to air, water, soil, ecology; use of natural resources, waste generation (e.g. effluent discharged), emissions, greenhouse gases, haulage distance, travel plans to offices, travel to site, recycling options of the materials used, energy consumption (diesel for generators, electrical for treatment plants), climate change, biodiversity, water consumption, dust monitoring, vehicle movements (road wear, road traffic accidents, emissions), carbon footprint health and safety impacts (accidents and near misses); neighbourhood impacts, aesthetics, justice, equity, noise, employment from local area, suppliers from local area, travel plans to offices, travel to site, dust monitoring, complaints direct and indirect economic costs, reputational damage, assets and liabilities, return on investment, economic development, energy use (cost of), waste generation (cost of), financial risk, accountability, cost/benefit assessment, assess proportion of works being done as part of repeat work (linked to reputation and industry standing), aggregate imported, aggregate recycled, miles travelled, water usage, lorry loads, increase in amenity value, removal of blight, land value

Social

Economic

The ISO 14000 family of standards addresses various aspects of environmental management. ISO 14001 is a management tool to help identify and control the environmental impact of its activities, products or services, to improve its environmental performance continually, and to implement a systematic approach to setting environmental objectives and targets, to achieving these and to demonstrating that they have been achieved (from ISO website www.iso.org).
4

CEEQUAL is the assessment and awards scheme for improving sustainability in civil engineering and public realm projects. It aims to deliver improved project specification, design and construction and to demonstrate the commitment of the civil engineering industry to environmental quality and social performance. The Scheme rigorously assesses performance across 12 areas of environmental and social concern (from CEEQUAL website www.ceequal.com).

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4.5.

Future Remediation Practices

This section looks at predicting future trends in the use of different remediation techniques. It also describes techniques that are under development and assess their benefits in terms of costs or wider environmental impacts they could bring. 4.5.1 Trends in Remediation Techniques

Responses from industry questionnaire The industry questionnaire that CL:AIRE conducted as part of this research project included a question asking for views on the future advancements in remediation technologies. Within the responses there were several common themes that were raised by a number of the technology vendors and environmental consultants. These have been summarised below. There was a strong view from 39% of respondents that in situ technologies will continue to increase in popularity. Particular mention was made of more aggressive methods, such as thermal treatment and chemical oxidation, and also enhanced bioremediation processes. However, there was a cautionary note that improvements can be made in terms of power efficiency and process design of thermal techniques and methods of delivery of treatment agent to the contamination for chemical oxidation and reduction. Finding ways to reduce costs was mentioned as applicable for both methods. Ways to improve the verification of treatment success was also considered an important area. 22% of respondents predicted an increased use in stabilisation/solidification, including deep soil mixing, half of which specify in situ applications, with the other half not specifying whether in situ or ex situ. A third of respondents thought that the industry already had the techniques that it needed, but that improving understanding and reliability of existing techniques is what is required. 22% of respondents considered that treatment trains and combinations of techniques will become increasingly important. Several respondents predicted a greater consideration of sustainability when evaluating remedial options which may lead to different solutions being used. Two respondents (one technology vendor and one environmental consultant) considered that nanotechnology could be a significant technology for the remediation of difficult/heterogeneous matrices. Other advancements that were raised included the need to see improvement in field screening technologies and the use of on-site decision management tools to assist in better remediation programme delivery and also the continued use of simple and relatively inexpensive techniques such as sparging and soil vapour extraction. One environmental consultant made the following statement about the role of risk mitigation, which can be linked to the use of more passive remediation options: The role of risk assessment and risk management will grow in importance i.e. risk mitigation and management instead of remediation, as cost and sustainability issues are considered more. An earlier assessment of a broader range of risk mitigation objectives and approaches that could be adopted, rather than deciding on an end point (i.e. development plan) and then fitting the remediation technology or strategy to it. Moving from technology based decision making to higher level strategic and policy level decision making. Of equal importance to the development of technology will be the consideration of whether the contamination does actually require human intervention, the degree of risk it actually poses and the costs and benefits of cleaning it up. Advances in plume and contamination characterisation (site investigation techniques) and an improvement in our understanding of contaminant fate in natural systems (microbial activity and contaminant breakdown and attenuation) as well as a consideration of whether contamination does actually pose a 99

significant risk will allow a more holistic and inclusive approach to the development of truly sustainable and economically viable risk mitigation strategies. Environmental Knowledge Transfer Network Workshop In 2008, the Environmental Knowledge Transfer Network5 held a technology roadmapping workshop on the topic of in situ land remediation technologies. Part of the roadmapping exercise was to identify processes and technologies that would most benefit from investment and a list of those that were identified is provided below: Surfactant flushing* Phytoremediation Oxygen diffusion* Edible oils* Air/ozone sparging* Ozone chemical oxidation* Topsoil amendment Electrokinetics Sonic tools Plasma technology Nitrification* Enhanced anaerobic degradation* Clever treatment trains* Nanotechnology*

The timeline given for development of these technologies was by 2015. It can be seen that some of the specific technologies or general remedial approaches (e.g. in situ methods) are the same as identified in the questionnaire responses described above (indicated by *). 4.5.2 Techniques Under Development

This section describes techniques that are currently under development, whether they are near-market or had only limited applications in the UK, focusing on projects that have been undertaken since 2006. Technology vendor-led CL:AIRE projects Monitoring recent CL:AIRE technology demonstration and research projects is a useful way of observing the development of new methods as many companies use CL:AIRE to demonstrate their technologies for the first time as it has an independent appraisal process. Three CL:AIRE technology demonstration projects are described below in which technology vendors have identified a problem on a site and have opted to use a novel technique to deal with the contaminants in question. CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project 26 - In situ soil and groundwater decontamination using electric resistive heating technology (six-phase heating) (from www.claire.co.uk) This project was conducted in 2007 by Terra Vac (UK) Ltd and describes the UKs first use of Six-Phase Heating (SPH), an in situ electrical resistive heating technology, to mitigate the risk posed by historic contamination of a former tools manufacturing site in Sheffield by source removal. After a programme of pre-notification to local residents and through the careful co-ordination of demolition and remediation, the works at the Sheffield site were shown to have achieved the requirements of regulators and client with negligible impact on the local environment / neighbourhood. Final costs for the project fell within budget and were demonstrated to be more controllable and not subject to fluctuation due to such external factors as landfill charges and fuel price

Now known as the Environmental Sustainability Knowledge Transfer Network

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increases, which could have significantly affected alternative options such as excavation and disposal. Despite increased costs associated with treatment of the greater than envisaged mass of contaminants removed, these were offset by the shortened remedial timeframe, and subsequently final project costs were in line with predicted costs. CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project 28 - In situ heating using radiofrequency (RF) coupled with soil vapour extraction/high vacuum dual phase extraction for the remediation of contaminated soil in the unsaturated zone (from www.claire.co.uk) This project was undertaken by Ecologia Environmental Solutions Ltd in 2008 at a former Total UK service station near Manston Airport, Kent. It aimed to assess the effectiveness and the commercial viability of combining Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) with In Situ Radio Frequency Heating (ISRFH) technology in order to remove volatile and semi-volatile organic contaminants from soil. ISRFH in Europe was initially developed by Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, a German research centre in Leipzig, who demonstrated the potential application of this technology in a limited field trial at a former petrol station. The project demonstrated that the perception that in situ heating is expensive and not sustainable is erroneous; heating of soil requires significant energy input, but soil also has the capacity to retain heat as it is a good insulator. In soils such as Chalk this heat can be retained for days/weeks. Therefore once a predetermined soil temperature has been achieved the operator can switch off the energy intensive ISRFH whilst continuing operation of the SVE at a much improved extraction rate thus significantly reducing the treatment time. The very significant reduction in programme timescales is the principal reason for the overall reduction in energy requirements. A preliminary cost assessment demonstrates the feasibility of this approach in soils with poor permeability where mass transfer of pore water and/or contaminants is minimal and where traditional SVE or high vacuum multiphase extraction have been proven to be less effective for removal of VOC contamination. The cost assessment also suggests that ISRFH is likely to be competitive when compared to traditional excavation and disposal to landfill when material is disposed of as hazardous waste. A key advantage of ISRFH is that heat delivery into the ground can be pinpointed by installing the electrodes at predefined depths. This allows efficient and targeted heating of source areas, often at depth, without the need to heat the entire soil profile. CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project 31 - Demonstration of the Arvia Process of adsorption coupled with electrochemical regeneration for the on-site destruction organic contaminants in groundwaters (from www.claire.co.uk) This project was conducted in 2010 by Arvia and Vertase FLI and the results are currently being written up into a report. Groundwater treatment to remove organic pollutants is often achieved using granular activated carbon (GAC) or other treatment processes followed by GAC. However GAC is both expensive and has significant environmental impact. Using the Arvia process significant cost and environmental benefits are anticipated. This project aims to quantify these potential benefits by evaluating the results achieved treating pumped groundwater containing a range of complex organics at a site under restoration for development by Vertase FLI. The conventional approach is to use high capacity adsorbents (e.g. activated carbons with high porosities and surface areas) that are excellent adsorbents, but require complex and costly regeneration. The Arvia process uses a novel, non porous, highly conducting material which can be rapidly and easily regenerated on-site within the Arvia unit and is an effective but low capacity adsorbent. Collaborative research and development projects It is often difficult to ascertain what new techniques are being developed by industry and the research community as there can be issues with confidentiality and intellectual property rights 101

which restrict the publicity of project information. In 2005, the Technology Strategy Board6 announced a Contaminated Land Remediation Technologies call for projects to encourage industry and researchers to collaborate on the advancement of novel techniques. Ten projects7 were funded; four of these focus on new remediation techniques, three are developing new methods for detecting and analysing contaminants, two are developing decision support tools and one project is producing a new type of gas monitoring device. A number of these projects have recently been completed and are starting to disseminate their results. Seven of these projects have involved CL:AIRE as partners in the projects for knowledge transfer and have chosen to put their projects through the CL:AIRE evaluation process for added profile. However, as these projects have yet to disseminate their results it is difficult to assess the potential benefits that they might bring to the remediation industry. Increased acceptability of on-site measurement by estimation and reduction of uncertainty (also approved as CL:AIRE Research Project 20) (from www.claire.co.uk) This project aimed to increase the acceptability of such measurements by developing novel decision making tools (DMT) which effectively estimate and minimise the uncertainty of onsite measurements. This project involved the following participants: Severn Trent Laboratories, National Grid Property Holdings, Corus UK and University of Sussex. The use of biologically enhanced charcoal for in situ remediation of contaminated land (also approved as CL:AIRE Research Project 21) (from www.claire.co.uk) This research project in still ongoing and aims to pilot and further develop biologically enhanced charcoal as a novel method for in situ risk reduction and remediation of contaminated land. The technology works by immobilising contaminants and encouraging the degradation of organics, thus breaking pollutant-receptor linkages. It addresses the problem of sites that are polluted with mixed pollutants such as heavy metals and hydrocarbons. To prove that the technology is effective in the field, an integrated approach consisting of field studies and microcosm studies is being carried out. Key field sites owned by the Ministry of Defence that are contaminated with mixtures of PAHs, oils, fuels and heavy metals will be used for both field studies and laboratory based investigations. The sites are managed by Aspire-Defence which is leading the practical implementation of the technology. Expertise available at the University of Surrey, Forest Research and University of Sheffield is being used to further develop the technology for contaminated land applications. This information will be used to support the further commercialisation of the technology. If proven to be successful in the field, the technology promises to be cost effective (and therefore viable for smaller sites), reliable (it is based on adsorption and enhanced natural attenuation) and sustainable. The technology is passive and requires low material, energy and maintenance inputs. Furthermore, the methodology can be interfaced with normal construction activities and time-constraints. The technology is for in situ treatment of soils which limits the social nuisance of lorry movements, dusts and noise; and the environmental risks of transferring contaminated materials for ex situ treatment or disposal to landfill. Contaminal (also approved as CL:AIRE Research Project 22) (from www.claire.co.uk) This technology uses a novel sampling technique that creates frozen plugs within a closed in situ soil column to which supercritical CO2 is then applied. It can be used for rapid, portable, non-invasive and in situ sampling and analysis of contaminants from land. Reductions in sampling time and cost are anticipated. This project involves the following participants: PJH Partnerships, Pera Innovation, Lankelma and The University of Birmingham. Improved ground gas risk prediction by continuous in-borehole gas monitoring (IRPIGM) (also approved as CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project 22) (from www.claire.co.uk) This project was completed in 2009 and was an industry/ university research collaboration between Salamander (Project Lead), Urban Vision and The University of Manchester.

In 2005, the Technology Strategy Board was an advisory body within the former UK Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), before becoming an independent body in July 2007. 7 See www.technologyprogramme.org.uk for full project descriptions
6

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The project involved the development of Gasclam, an in-borehole continuous gas monitor and offers distinct advantages over existing technologies based on spot sampling for assessing subsurface conditions and methodologies for modelling contaminant migration. Gasclam sits within the borehole and continuously monitors gas concentration, as well as other key environmental parameters, increasing the temporal resolution of data, reducing error, and allowing correlation with gas migration controls. Furthermore Gasclam allows the quantification of gas flux enabling borehole characterisation. Gasclam alone will allow a more comprehensive assessment of contaminants; furthermore, it can redefine optimal remediation strategies as the new monitoring ability of a responsible body can be traded with remediation expense and redevelopment potential. In combination with new methodology an improved model of gas migration and further optimisation of remediation strategies can be achieved. In this way it is expected that marginal areas may become viable for redevelopment, that existing redevelopment programmes could potentially be accelerated and that Gasclam be used as a tool to aid management of existing sites. Decision support tool for innovative in situ multi-contaminant groundwater remediation (also approved as CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project 25) (from www.claire.co.uk) An experimental facility was constructed at a former gasworks site to provide comparative trials of various in situ groundwater remediation techniques (IGRTs). Over a period of 2 years a series of field trials (National Grid Property Holdings & WorleyParsons) and laboratory research (Imperial College) was undertaken with the aim of enhancing the understanding of in situ groundwater remediation using chemical oxidants. One of the outputs from the project was a decision support tool to aid in the assessment of the suitability of in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) as a potential remediation option on a site by site basis the ISCO Technology Selection Tool. The tool is intended to aid in the assessment of the feasibility of ISCO as a potential option for the remediation of soil and groundwater contamination. It is expected to be used as part of the remediation options appraisal process, not to provide detailed remediation design information. Selection in terms of costs, timescale, performance and risk and provide major benefits to site owners through reduced remediation costs and to stakeholders by improved social and environmental conditions. ISCO remediation techniques and other advanced groundwater treatment technologies have a key role in the future development of UK groundwater remediation and waste disposal. The successful management of groundwater contamination plumes is often a critical factor in minimising contaminated source zone excavation and soil disposal to landfill; a crucial goal of the Landfill Directive. In addition, conventional pump-and-treat technologies for organic contaminants require considerable investment over substantial periods of time, effectively sterilising large areas of development sites with surface equipment, and are not always effective long term solutions. Consequently, there is a considerable need to develop reliable cost effective in situ groundwater remediation techniques. Soil Mix Remediation Technology (SMiRT) (also submitted as a CL:AIRE Research Project) (from http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/smirt/index.htm) This project aims to develop an innovative single soil mix technology (SMT) system for integrated remediation and ground improvement, with simultaneous delivery of wet and dry additives, and with advanced quality assurance system. The project is led by Bachy Soletanche with the University of Cambridge as the research partner, it also includes three engineering consultancies (Arcadis Geraghty & Miller, Arup, Merebrook Consulting), three trade associations (British Urban Regeneration Association, Mineral Products Association, UK Quality Ash Association) and four materials Suppliers (Amcol Minerals Europe, Richard Baker Harrison, Kentish Minerals, and Civil & Marine Ltd).

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Contaminated Land Assessment of Remediation by Electrical Tomography (CLARET) (from www.claretproject.org) The CLARET project aimed at proving a new contaminated land mapping technology electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). It has demonstrated detailed time-lapse spatial information to enable the user to visualise resolution geoelectrical monitoring. It has achieved advances in data processing and image recovery, to enable more accurate and higher concentration, transport and evolution of dissolved phase contaminants in a laboratory tank. It demonstrated the successful 4D ERT monitoring of the transport of a bulk non-aqueous phase contaminant. The cost-effectiveness of CLARET depends on the frequency and spatial density of manual sampling with which it is compared. It is clear from the tracer tests that CLARET has excellent prospects for mapping and monitoring contaminant concentration and evolution, especially prior to and during active remediation (e.g. with permeable reactive barriers). The project was undertaken by a consortium of industrial and academic partners: VHE Construction PLC, British Geological Survey, INTERKONSULT Ltd and South Kesteven District Council. Microwave Contaminated Land Remediation (from www.technologyprogramme.org.uk) This project aimed to develop a remediation system to promote the efficient recovery or destruction of highly recalcitrant hydrocarbon contamination utilising novel microwave based thermal desorption heating technologies. This project involved the following participants: Shanks Waste Management, Davis Decade Ltd, Global Energy Associations Ltd, International Moisture Analysers Ltd, Nelson Heat Transfer Ltd, Pera Innovation Ltd, TMD Technologies Ltd, and University of Nottingham RoChemOx (from www.technologyprogramme.org.uk) This project aims to develop a low cost, rapid, on-site, ex situ, low footprint, chemical oxidation treatment in a controlled process environment to destroy organic contaminants, specifically petroleum residues in contaminated soil. The main deliverable will be a scaled prototype chemical oxidation system which can treat 50kg of contaminated soil/hour. The project involves Shanks Group plc, Alpha Environmental Systems Ltd, Pera Innovation Ltd, Rockbourne Environmental Ltd. Development of a conductive polymer ''chemical fuse'' detection of hazardous materials (from www.technologyprogramme.org.uk) This project aims to produce both a single use (sacrificial), and re-useable ''chemical fuse'', capable of detecting the presence of a range of hydrocarbons in contaminated land environments. The project involves Andel Ltd, Intelligent Polymer Systems and Lancaster University. Research projects The UK Research Councils fund research projects that may include a contaminated land focus (typically Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)). Three of EPSRCs current projects on remediation techniques are summarised below, but until the research is completed and the results are published it is difficult to assess the benefits of the techniques that are being developed. Designing a trichloroethene source zone treatment based upon nano sized zero valent iron: Professor SA Leharne, University of Greenwich, ends in 2011 (from www.epsrc.ac.uk) This project is investigating how nano sized zero valent iron (nZVI) can be chemically modified and subsequently deployed to be used as emulsion stabilisers to facilitate the removal of chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents (CHSs) from aquifers. The widespread use of CHSs has provided countless opportunities for CHS entry into subsurface soils and rocks through a combination of spillage, leaking storage tanks and deliberate disposal. Contaminated aquifer restoration is therefore a necessary aspect of sustainable water consumption. Iron can be used to degrade dissolved CHS molecules to 104

safer end-products through reductive dechlorination. However, the sustainable technical solution to aquifer restoration requires the removal of CHS dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL). Pumping may remove some DNAPL but not all. This is due to the fact that the forces generated by pumping are unable to overcome the capillary forces that trap CHS DNAPL in pore spaces. In these cases much of the CHS mass can be removed via emulsion formation. Emulsions are usually stabilised by surfactants but they can be stabilised by colloidal particles. The basic premise of this proposal is that iron nano-particles can be used as emulsion stabilisers. Such a treatment will provide an effective technical solution to CHS DNAPL contaminated aquifer restoration. The use of 'waste' Mn oxides as contaminated land remediation products: Dr K Johnson, Durham University, ends 2011 (from www.epsrc.ac.uk) This project is investigating the potential use of manganese (Mn) oxides as remediation products capable of treating the challenging 'cocktail' sites, where there are mixtures of metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Mn oxides occur naturally in soils and explain in part soil's natural ability to degrade and sequester contaminants. Mn oxides are powerful oxidising agents capable of both immobilising both metals and enhancing the degradation of POPs in situ. This project will investigate if this natural defence mechanism can be enhanced by adding extra Mn oxide and any positive and negative effects this has on the soil. Since Mn oxides also stimulate humification rates in soils there is the potential for enhancing carbon sequestration and improving general soil health. The use of spectroscopic analytical techniques will provide mechanistic information to assess the long term potential for Mn oxides to remediate contaminated land and therefore the role of natural Mn oxides in the soil. Regeneration Of Brownfield Using Sustainable Technologies (ROBUST): Dr Karen Johnson, Dr Clare Bambra) (from www.dur.ac.uk) This is a five year project between the School of Engineering and the Department of Geography bringing together engineers, health and social geographers, scientists, physicists and geochemists, to work with communities to regenerate their brownfield land. The sustainable technologies in ROBUST involve using 'waste' products from industry. These 'wastes' are actually valuable minerals which have excellent soil remediation properties; minerals such as manganese oxide are already naturally present in soil and form a large part of the soil's natural defence system against man-made pollution. These minerals will be added to the brownfield land and will help transform organic contaminants such as petrol into harmless byproducts and immobilise any metal contaminants within the ground. ROBUST will also develop a new piece of field equipment using far-infrared terahertz radiation for quicker and safer data collection on contaminants at brownfield sites. Unlike other forms of radiation (such as ultraviolet radiation) terahertz is very good at identifying contaminants without any interference effects from the background soil.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This section contains a discussion of the results obtained in this work and includes the main conclusions of the findings and suggestions for future work. It also presents the planned dissemination of the results. Sustainability assessment The contaminated land sector in the UK and elsewhere is looking at ways to improve remediation working practices, including how sustainability is measured and considered during remediation. This thinking includes how to rely less on excavation and removal techniques that involve disposing of large amounts of contaminated soil in landfills and to reuse material wherever possible, thus protecting the use of natural resources and protecting soil which is now such a valued resource. In this work, an assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts and benefits (i.e. the sustainability) of selected remediation techniques was carried out. This was undertaken by evaluating which sustainability indicators could be used at a technology specific level, and using them to qualitatively assess each selected remediation technique. If required, the assessment could be used to undertake a semi-quantitative assessment using scoring systems and impact weightings. The UK Sustainable Remediation Forum (SuRF-UK) framework document (SuRF-UK, 2010) provides a mechanism for practitioners to undertake sustainability assessments using an agreed methodology. The research in this project complements the work being conducted by SuRF-UK and will be useful for SuRFUKs Phase 2 work, which is documenting case studies using the proposed headline indicators to ascertain whether the indicators are robust or need amending when used in a practical situation and through a series of workshops is demonstrating how the framework document can be used to encourage its use. Responses to the Remediation Technique Questionnaire undertaken as part of this work suggest that the industry is still in its infancy with regard to measuring sustainability. There appears to be a mixed interpretation of the term sustainability. Although some practitioners have, or have started to develop, their own sustainability measurement systems and others are using the SuRF-UK sustainability assessment framework (SuRF-UK, 2010), there were several more that did not have anything in place. Cost assessment Information on the typical costs of remediation techniques was compiled using information gained through the industry questionnaire. A literature search identified that there is limited research which addresses the issue of remediation costs. The main reason for this would appear to be because remediation costs are strongly site-specific with variability of geological, hydrogeological and chemical factors having a large impact. Remediation costs are also strongly influenced by how stringent the remedial targets are and differences in remedial targets can affect the remediation duration and therefore impact costs. No broad conclusions can be drawn that either in situ or ex situ treatment methods are more costly or have more variable costs. It was observed that costs generally decrease for higher volumes of material treated 3 (>5000 m ), particularly for permeable reactive barriers, ex situ thermal desorption and soil washing. This is a trend that may be expected as these technologies generally have considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs making them a considerably more cost-effective option where larger volumes of material require treatment. Another notable trend is that for a number of remediation techniques the variance in costs decreases for volumes greater than 5000 m3. This trend is again perhaps is to be expected as average costs per m3 should be better constrained for larger volumes where the considerable mobilisation/initialisation costs are averaged across larger volumes. Status of remediation techniques Data collected on the current and historic usage of each remedial technique in the UK, supplemented by the industry questionnaire, showed that over the last 5 years there has been an increase in the proportion of in situ techniques being used such as chemical addition/reaction/oxidation and air sparging/venting/bioslurping and a decrease in ex situ techniques such as soil washing and stabilisation/solidification. This was supported by the questionnaire in which the percentage of ex situ applications in 2008 and 2009 were only 4.1% and 3.3% respectively of the total number of applications. This contrasted with the corresponding in situ values of 38.7% and 40.3%, with the remainder in each case being made up of civil engineering-based methods. These results may be misleading, because as mentioned in Section 4.2.1, the number of applications of a technique does not inform about the quantity of material being treated or the 106

timescale of the remedial operation. For example, techniques being applied on large development sites, such as the Olympic Park site, only count as a single application even though they are treating very significant volumes of soil over a period of many months. However, it could be speculated that the reason for the low percentage of ex situ techniques in the industry survey was related to a reduction in large-scale land development projects faced by the construction industry during the economic downturn, which typically favour ex situ techniques more In terms of looking ahead to the future, there was a strong view from 39% of respondents that in situ technologies will continue to increase in popularity. Particular mention was made of more aggressive methods, such as thermal treatment and chemical oxidation, and also enhanced bioremediation processes. Some of the weaknesses of the type of questionnaire that was used in this research are that the information provided is unverified, some of it is based upon opinion and some is limited by the effort that respondents are willing to put in to provide it. In order to get a better idea of the status of the remediation industry it would be worthwhile to make use of the records that are kept by the Environment Agency. The Environment Agency holds public information on environmental permit deployments received, describing every deployment of a remediation technology by the permit holder. Since December 2009, the Environment Agency has been recording the type(s) of technology used in a spreadsheet and has recently begun to collate the information prior to this date. When this process has been completed it will be the most accurate indicator of the application of remediation techniques over time, as it will be based on actual applications and not on estimates from practitioners. As part of this research, CL:AIRE performed a public information request to look through the deployment information, but it was not possible to view the information at this time due to restrictions placed on the data. It has been suggested that this data may be made available in the near future which would be of great interest to the remediation industry. The research also assessed the use of less impactful, passive ways of dealing with risks on contaminated land, rather than using heavy engineering solutions. For example, land use restrictions might be applied to ensure a site is not used for a sensitive activity. Data were collected on the experience of using passive methods for protecting a receptor, such as modifying exposure physically by land use restriction (e.g. fencing, signage), or advising/enforcing behavioural changes, and 73% of technology vendors and 86% of environmental consultants reported they had used these approaches. In 2008, 18 applications of these methods were reported and 21 were recorded for 2009, which is only about 1% of the total applications reported. There may be ways that practitioners can be made more aware of the benefits of these types of activities, perhaps through guidance or best practice publications. This would help industry to identify all the options rather than resorting to a default remediation solution which may be very expensive and have high environmental and social impacts. With regard to future trends in technologies, one environmental consultant made the considered point that: The role of risk assessment and risk management will grow in importance i.e. risk mitigation and management instead of remediation, as cost and sustainability issues are considered more. Of equal importance to the development of technology will be the consideration of whether the contamination does actually require human intervention, the degree of risk it actually poses and the costs and benefits of cleaning it up. Advances in plume and contamination characterisation (site investigation techniques) and an improvement in our understanding of contaminant fate in natural systems (microbial activity and contaminant breakdown and attenuation) as well as a consideration of whether contamination does actually pose a significant risk will allow a more holistic and inclusive approach to the development of truly sustainable and economically viable risk mitigation strategies. In the review of techniques that are currently under development, whether they are near-market or had only limited applications in the UK, it was noted that a number of the collaborative research and development and applied research projects were still ongoing and had yet to disseminate their results. Therefore, it is difficult to assess the potential benefits that they might bring to the remediation industry at this stage. However, it would be of interest to the remediation industry to review these projects when they are complete in order to establish what further work needs to be done to bring them into use, if they have demonstrated potential in being a remedial solution of the future.

Knowledge transfer and dissemination Notification of the project findings, via the final report, will be through CL:AIREs contacts with the following networks to ensure an effective communication and reporting process is achieved: Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists (AGS); 107

Brownfield Briefing; Environmental Data Interactive Exchange (edie); Environmental Data Services (ENDS); Environmental Industries Commission (EIC); Environmental Protection UK (EP-UK); Environmental Sustainability Knowledge Transfer Network; EUGRIS portal for soil and groundwater management in Europe; Local Authority e-forum "Contaminated Land Strategies"; Soil and Groundwater Technology Association (SAGTA); and USEPA's Tech-Direct dissemination service.

The results will be also be disseminated at conferences, workshops and events hosted by CL:AIRE, and via other industry speaking engagements.

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REFERENCES
Bardos, P., 2010. Initial Sustainability Appraisal of C-CURE Products: Summary for May 19th 2010 CCURE Dissemination Meeting Prepared for the University of Surrey. British Standards Institution. 1999. BS 5930: Code of Practice for Site Investigations. Brownfield Briefing. 2006. Remediation Solutions: A guide to remediation in the UK. Issue 4. Brownfield Briefing. 2009. Remediation Solutions: A guide to remediation in the UK. Issue 11. Center for Public Environmental Oversight website: http://www.cpeo.org/techtree/ttdescript/ssvit.htm. Accessed February 2010. Cartwright, J. 2010. Bilfinger Berger Environmental Ltd, personal communication. Chemex website www.chemex.co.uk. Accessed September 2010. Circeo, L.J., and Martin Jr, R.C., 2001. In situ plasma vitrification of buried wastes. In proceedings of the International Containment & Remediation Technology Conference and Exhibition, Orlando, Florida. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial treatment for contaminated land: Volume IV: Classification and selection of remedial methods. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial treatment for contaminated land. Volume V: Excavation and disposal. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land. measures. Volume VI: Containment and hydraulic

CIRIA. 1995. Remedial treatment for contaminated land: Volume VII: Ex-situ remedial methods for soils, sludges and sediments. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land. Volume VII: In-situ remedial methods for soils, sludges and sediments. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land. Volume VIII: Ex-situ remedial methods for contaminated groundwater and other liquids. CIRIA. 1995. Remedial treatment for contaminated land: Volume IX: In-situ methods of remediation. CIRIA. 2004. Selection of remedial treatments for contaminated land. A guide to good practice. C622. CL:AIRE. 2001. CL:AIRE view newsletter. Autumn Edition. CL:AIRE RB2. 2003. FIRS (Ferric Iron Remediation and Stabilisation): A Novel Electrokinetic Technique for Soil Remediation and Engineering. CL:AIRE TDP2. 2003. Remediation of Basford Gasworks using Soil Washing. CL:AIRE TDP1. 2004. Remediation Trial using Low Temperature Thermal Desorption to Treat Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soil. CL:AIRE TDP9. 2004. Design, Installation and Performance Assessment of an Air Sparge Curtain System. CL:AIRE TDP4. 2004. Slurry-phase Bioreactor Trial. CL:AIRE TB9. 2004. Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation: Part 1: Summary of the State of Practice Reports I-IV. CL:AIRE TDP6. 2004. Biopile Field Demonstration at the Avenue Coking Works. CL:AIRE TDP12. 2005. Bioremediation of the Coke Works and Former Colliery at Askern, Doncaster. 109

CL:AIRE TDP13. 2005. Passive Treatment of Severely Contaminated Colliery Spoil Leachate using a Permeable Reactive Barrier. CL:AIRE RB3. 2005. Project SIReN: The Site for Innovative Research into Monitored Natural Attenuation CL:AIRE GB1. 2005. Stabilisation/Solidification for the Treatment of Contaminated Soil CL:AIRE 2006. Case Study Bulletin 5. Remediation Trial at the Avenue Coking Works Using Stabilisation/Solidification and Accelerated Carbonation Technology. CL:AIRE TDP5. 2006. A Reducing and Alkalinity Producing System (RAPS) for Passive Treatment of Acidic, Aluminium-rich Mine Waters. CL:AIRE. 2007. UK Remediation Status Survey Summary. CL:AIRE SUB2. 2007. SUBR:IM Bulletin Uncovering the True Impacts of Remediation. CL:AIRE TDP16. 2007. Ex situ Soil Vapour Extraction to Remediate Chlorinated Hydrocarbons. CL:AIRE TB13. 2007. Understanding Soil Washing. CL:AIRE TDP26. 2008. In Situ Soil and Groundwater Decontamination Using Electric Resistive Heating Technology (Six-Phase Heating). CL:AIRE TDP17. 2008. A Biological Sequential Reactive Barrier (SEREBAR): Design, Installation and Performance at a Former Manufactured Gas Plant (FMGP) Site in South West England. CL:AIRE. 2008. The Definition of Waste: Development Industry Code of Practice. CL:AIRE. 2009a. Remediation Technology Training Programme 2009/2010 CL:AIRE. 2009b. 10th Anniversary Project Conference. July 2009. Barbican Centre, London. CL:AIRE TDP20. 2009.Design and Installation of a Permeable Reactive Barrier to Treat Carbon Disulphide Contaminated Groundwater CL:AIRE TDP28. 2009. In Situ Heating using Radiofrequency (RF) for the Remediation of Contaminated Soil in the Unsaturated Zone. Presented at the CL:AIRE 10th Anniversary Conference, London. CL:AIRE TDP24. 2010. Thermally Enhanced Soil Vapour Extraction to Remediate the Unsaturated Zone at the Western Storage Area, Harwell Davis Langdon. 2009. David Langdon Instruction Manual: Production of Remediation Cost and Risk Management (RCMC) Reports. Davis Langdon. 2010. Spon's Civil Engineering and Highway Works Price Book. English Partnerships. 2008. Contamination and Dereliction Remediation Costs: Best Practice Note 27. Environment Agency. 2000. Survey of remedial techniques for land contamination in England and Wales. R&D Technical Report P401. ISBN: 1-85705-385-0 Environment Agency. 2006. Guidance: Remediation Position Statements. Environment Agency. 2009. Dealing with contaminated land in England and Wales: A review of progress from 2000-2007 with Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act. Environment Agency. 2010. Verification of remediation of land contamination. Report: SC030114/R1. Environmental Knowledge Transfer Network. 2008. Business Case 9: In-Situ Land Remediation 110

FIRSTFARADAY. 2003. Research Report No. 1: Review of Remediation Practice in the UK during 2001. ISBN: 0-95330-907-X. Published by Land Quality Press FRTR (Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable). 2007. The Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide. Version 4.0. Website: www.frtr.gov/matrix2/ FRTR (Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable) Cost and Performance Case Studies Ex situ soil vapour extraction case study. 1993. http://costperformance.org/profile.cfm?ID=18&CaseID=18 Hulm, Q., 2010. Cornelsen Ltd, personal communication. Nathanail, J., Bardos, P., Nathanail, P., 2002. Contaminated Land Management: Ready Reference. Land Quality Press & EPP Publications. Nathanail, J., Bardos, P., Nathanail, P., 2007. Contaminated Land Management: Ready Reference. Land Quality Press & EPP Publications. Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) website: https://portal.navfac.navy.mil/portal/page/portal/navfac/navfac_ww_pp/navfac_nfesc_pp/environmental/erb/ vitr-exsitu. Accessed February 2010. Otten, V.J., Johnston, A.R., Law of Toxics. Presentation given at Workshop on Land Use & Global Warming Law http://llsels.org/landuseworkshop.html. Accessed August 2010. Princeton Chemistry and Environment website - Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater. 2003. http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2003/arsenic/index.htm. Accessed February 2010. SuRF-UK, 2009. A Review of Published Sustainability Indicator Sets: How applicable are they to contaminated land remediation indicator-set development? ISBN 978-1-905046-18-8. Available at www.claire.co.uk/surfuk SuRF-UK, 2010. A Framework for Assessing the Sustainability of Soil and Groundwater Remediation. ISBN: 978-1-905046-19-5. Available at www.claire.co.uk/surfuk Unified Facilities Criteria. 2006: Design: In Situ Thermal Remediation. UFC 3-280-05. Department of Defense, USA. USEPA. 2006. In Situ Treatment Technologies for Contaminated Soil. Engineering Forum Issue Paper. EPA 542/F-06/013. USEPA Mid-Atlantic Brownfields & Land Revitalization website, Accessed August 2010.

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Appendix 1: List of remediation techniques mentioned in Section 1 of the report

In situ techniques listed Air sparging Bioaugmentation Bioslurping Biosparging Biostimulation Bioventing Chemical fixation Chemical oxidation Chemical reduction Dual phase extraction Dual vapour extraction Electric current methods Electrical resistance heating Electro-chemical techniques Electro-kinetic techniques Electromagnetic heating Electro-migration Electro-remediation Enhanced bioremediation Enhanced natural attenuation Flushing Hot air injection In situ chemical oxidation In situ soil leaching In situ soil washing In situ vitrification Intrinsic remediation Microwave heating Monitored natural attenuation Multi-phase extraction Natural attenuation, Permeable reactive barriers Phytocontainment Phytodegradation Phytoextraction Phytoremediation Phytostabilisation Phytostimulation Phytovolatilisation Treatment Profile See Sparging See Enhanced bioremediation See Venting See Sparging See Enhanced bioremediation See Venting See Stabilisation/solidification See Chemical oxidation and reduction See Chemical oxidation and reduction See Venting See Venting See Electro-remediation See Heating See Electro-remediation See Electro-remediation See Heating See Electro-remediation See Electro-remediation See Enhanced bioremediation See Monitored Natural Attenuation See Flushing See Heating See Chemical oxidation and reduction See Flushing See Flushing See Vitrification See Monitored Natural Attenuation See Heating See Monitored Natural Attenuation See Venting See Monitored Natural Attenuation See Permeable Reactive Barriers See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation See Phytoremediation 112

Radiofrequency heating Reactive zones Soil flushing Soil vapour extraction Soil venting Solvent flushing Sparging Stabilisation/solidification Steam injection Thermal conductive heating Thermally-enhanced soil vapour extraction Treatment walls Venting Vitrification Ex situ techniques listed Abstraction Air stripping Barriers Biofiltration Biopiles Carbon adsorption Chemical extraction Chemical fixation Chemical leaching Chemical oxidation Chemically enhanced soil washing Composting Containment Cover systems Excavation Filters Incineration Ion exchange Landfarming Landfill disposal Membrane filtration Neutralisation Precipitation Pump and treat Reverse osmosis Slurry-phase bioreactors

See Heating See Permeable Reactive Barriers See Flushing See Venting See Venting See Flushing See Sparging See Stabilisation/solidification See Heating See Heating See Heating See Permeable reactive Barriers See Venting See Vitrification Treatment Profile See Civil Engineering-based methods See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Civil Engineering-based methods See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Bioremediation See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Soil washing and separation processes See Stabilisation/solidification See Soil washing and separation processes See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Soil washing and separation processes See Bioremediation See Civil Engineering-based methods See Civil Engineering-based methods See Civil Engineering-based methods See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Thermal treatment See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Bioremediation See Civil Engineering-based methods See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Civil Engineering-based methods See Water and gas/vapour treatment See Bioremediation 113

Soil vapour extraction Soil washing Stabilisation/solidification Thermal desorption Thermal treatment Venting Vitrification Windrow turning Civil engineering-based methods listed Abstraction Containment Cover systems Excavation Horizontal barriers Landfill Pump and treat Vertical barriers

See Venting See Soil washing and separation processes See Stabilisation/solidification See Thermal treatment See Thermal treatment See Venting See Vitrification See Bioremediation Treatment Profile

See Civil engineering-based methods

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Appendix 2: CL:AIRE Remediation Technique Questionnaire Defra Research Project: Contaminated Land Remediation

March 2010

Background to research project CL:AIRE is conducting a Defra-funded research project on contaminated land remediation in the UK. The overall aim of this research is to summarise the current understanding and utilisation of different contaminated land remediation techniques, to identify likely future factors influencing their selection and to set out the relative economic, environmental and social costs and benefits (i.e. the sustainability) of each technique. One aspect of the work is to gather information from a select group of technology providers and environmental consultants. By engaging with the contaminated land community through this questionnaire, it will be possible to ascertain what currently drives technique selection, the barriers to their uptake and likely future trends. This information will be of benefit to both Defra and industry as a whole as it will give an indication of the state of the industry as it recovers from the recent downturn. Notes on Questionnaire We are seeking responses from 24 of the UKs leading remediation technology providers and environmental consultants. There are restrictions on the number of organisations we can contact, and as such you have been selected as one of the key players. You have the option for your company to be acknowledged in the final Defra report, which will be made widely available through the CL:AIRE dissemination network. Responses from each organisation will be amalgamated so that individual responses will remain anonymous. Q1. What techniques do you currently provide or have offered in the past, or have tendered and let contracts on (in the UK)? Please mark those techniques in the table below with a cross (X). Please also indicate if you have used nontechnical or passive options to protect a receptor by modifying its exposure. How many times have you applied these techniques/methods in each of the past two years? Please enter the number of projects. For landfill disposal, please include the projects where this was the only method AND those projects where it formed part of the remediation solution. What are the typical broad range costs of using the techniques (e.g. 25-55/m3)? It is understood that costs are very site-specific, but that typical values can still be useful. Please use current (2010) values and provide a range for <5,000m3 of treated material (smaller site) and a range for >5,000m3 treated material (larger site). Cost estimates should not include desk study, site investigation, waste disposal, but should include mobilisation/demobilisation and monitoring. What do you perceive as the key drivers for technique selection? Please select from the list of options, or provide your own drivers. For each of the techniques you have listed in Question 1, what do you consider the main restrictions / hindrances to their wider usage? You may also answer this question for techniques that you have not listed in Question 1, but may consider offering in future if certain restrictions are removed. Please choose from the list of options given or provide your own reasons. Do you measure sustainability (social, environmental, economic) impacts? If so, please provide more details. What are your views on future advancements in technologies? Please provide your opinion if you think any techniques will increase in use over the next year or two. And for any technique which is still under development, suggest what further work needs to be done to bring it into use and whether it brings any added benefits in terms of sustainability impacts.

Q2.

Q3.

Q4. Q5.

Q6. Q7.

Please add comments or notes if you wish to expand on or clarify any of your answers. I would be very grateful if you can respond to the questions and return them within three weeks - by Friday March 26th. If you have any queries please respond to this email ([email protected]) or call me on 0207 258 5321.

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Name: Organisation: Contact Telephone Number: Do you want your organisation to be acknowledged in the final report to Defra? Yes or No Q1. Techniques you have offered, or still offer (use X) Remediation Techniques In Situ Techniques Chemical oxidation and reduction Electro-remediation Enhanced bioremediation Flushing Heating methods Monitored natural attenuation Permeable reactive barriers Phytoremediation Sparging Stabilisation/solidification Venting (e.g. soil vapour extraction, bioventing) Ex Situ Techniques Biological treatment (e.g. biopiles, bioreactors) Chemical oxidation and reduction Soil washing & separation processes Stabilisation/solidification Thermal treatment Venting Vitrification Civil Engineering-based Methods Barriers, containment, cover systems Excavation Landfill disposal Pump and treat Passive Methods for Protecting a Receptor Modifying exposure by advising/enforcing behavioural changes (e.g. preventing site access, restricting land use, changing site layout) Q2. Number of projects undertaken for each technique per year 2008 2009 Q3. Approximate remediation costs (2010 values) <5000m3 >5000m3

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Q4. What do you perceive as the key drivers for technique selection? Please select three from the list of options, or provide your own drivers. Operational constraints (e.g. time, personnel); Effectiveness of technique in terms of reducing risk; Cost of implementation of technique; Availability of technique in UK; Potential for integration with other methods; Potential environmental impact (Incl local amenity); Regulatory permissions (e.g. licenses) required; Monitoring requirements; Post-treatment management requirements; Applicability to contaminants and media; Limitations of method (process or site specific); Technique development status; Health & Safety implications; Other, please provide details

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Q5. For each of the techniques you have listed in Question 1, what do you consider the main restrictions/hindrances to their wider usage? You may also answer this question for techniques that you have not listed in Question 1, but may consider offering in future if certain restrictions are removed Remediation Techniques In Situ Techniques Chemical oxidation and reduction Electro-remediation Enhanced bioremediation Flushing Heating methods Monitored natural attenuation Permeable reactive barriers Phytoremediation Sparging Stabilisation/solidification Venting (e.g. soil vapour extraction, bioventing) Ex Situ Techniques Biological treatment (e.g. biopiles, bioreactors) Chemical oxidation and reduction Soil washing & separation processes Stabilisation/solidification Thermal treatment Venting Vitrification Civil Engineering-based Methods Barriers, containment, cover systems Excavation Landfill disposal Pump and treat Passive Methods for Protecting a Receptor Modifying exposure by advising/enforcing behavioural changes (e.g. preventing site access, restricting land use, changing site layout)

For example, A lack of general understanding; Financial reasons; Lack of confidence in effectiveness; A lack of necessity; A lack of specific expertise; Political reasons; Other, please provide your own reasons

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Q6. Do you currently measure sustainability (social, environmental, economic) impacts? Yes/No If yes, what parameters do you measure? For example, Environment (e.g. impacts to air, water, soil, ecology; use of natural resources / wastes generation) Social (e.g. health and safety impacts; neighbourhood impacts) Economic (e.g. direct and indirect economic costs; reputational damage)

Q7. What are your views on future advancements in technologies?

Many thanks for taking the time to complete these questions.

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Appendix 3: CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Projects TDP no.

TDP 1: TDP 2: TDP 3: TDP 4: TDP 5: TDP 6: TDP 8: TDP 9: TDP 10: TDP 11: TDP 12: TDP 13: TDP 16: TDP 17: TDP 18:

Project Title and Project Operator Remediation Trial Using Low Temperature Thermal Desorption to Treat Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soil - British Aerospace Systems Remediation of Basford Gasworks Using Soil Washing National Grid Property/VHE Design, Installation and Performance Assessment of a Zero Valent Iron Permeable Reactive Barrier in Monkstown, Northern Ireland- Nortel Networks/Golder Associates/Queen's University Belfast/Keller Ground Engineering Ltd Slurry-Phase Bioreactor Trial - Parsons Brinckerhoff/National Grid Property A Reducing and Alkalinity Producing System (RAPS) for Passive Treatment of Acidic, Aluminium Rich Leachates from Mine Spoils - University of Newcastle/Durham County Council Bioremediation Trial at The Avenue - DEC NV/Jacobs/East Midlands Development Agency/Homes and Communities Agency Field Demonstration of Accelerated Carbonation Technology (ACT) at The Avenue Jacobs/East Midlands Development Agency/ Homes and Communities Agency Use of an Air Sparge Treatment Curtain to Remediate Groundwater at a Former Gas Works WorleyParsons/National Grid Property Thermal Remediation Trial at The Avenue - MEL Limited/Jacobs/East Midlands Development Agency/ Homes and Communities Agency) Soil Washing Remediation Trial at The Avenue - DEC NV/Jacobs/East Midlands Development Agency/ Homes and Communities Agency Bioremediation of the Coke Works and Former Colliery at Askern, Doncaster - Ecologia Environmental Solutions Ltd/Carillion Civil Engineering/Yorkshire Forward A Permeable Reactive Barrier for Remediation of Extremely Polluted Groundwater Associated with a Highly Pyritic Abandoned Colliery Spoil Heap - University of Newcastle upon Tyne and Northumberland County Council Remediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soils using Ex Situ Soil Vapour Extraction RemedX and ABB In Situ Bioremediation of Cyanide, PAHs and Heterocyclic Compounds using Engineered SEquenced REactive BARrier (SEREBAR) Techniques - Queen's University Belfast/National Grid Property/Parsons Brinckerhoff Source Area in situ BioREmediation (SABRE) Akzo Nobel/Archon Environmental/British Geological Survey/Celanese Acetate/Chevron/DuPont/ESI/ General Electric/Environment Agency/GeoSyntec/ Golder Associates/Honeywell/Scientifics/Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)/Shell Global Solutions/Terra Systems/University of Edinburgh/University of Sheffield/US Environmental Protection Agency Application of Controlled Release Electron Donors for Accelerated In Situ Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Solvents in a Deep Low Permeability Aquifer - Regenesis, Golder Associates Design, Installation and Performance Assessment of a Permeable Reactive Barrier (PRB) to Treat Carbon Disulphide Contaminated Groundwater at a Former Chemicals Site in Manchester - CEL International Ltd, ESI, Akzo Nobel Remediation of Agricultural Diffuse NITRAte Polluted Waters through the Implementation of a Permeable Reactive BARrier (NITRABAR) University of Oxford/Queens University Belfast/Environment Agency/Ecomesh Ltd (N. Ireland)/PGRW (Poland)/Zenenzo (Belgium)/APCO Ltd (Malta)/CL:AIRE Improved ground gas risk prediction by continuous in-borehole gas monitoring (IRP-IGM) - Salamander; Urban Vision; The University of Manchester Ex situ Treatment of Coal Tar Impacted Soil Using Low Temperature Thermal Desorption at the Former Gasworks, East Dock Street, Dundee - National Grid Property Holdings Ltd; White Young Green; Bilfinger Berger; I & H Brown Application of Thermally Enhanced Soil Vapour Extraction (TESVE) to remediate the unsaturated zone at the Western Storage Area (WSA), Harwell - UK AEA; Provectus Group; Nuclear Decommissioning Authority Decision Support Tool for Innovative In-Situ Multi-Contaminant Groundwater Remediation - WorleyParsons, National Grid Property, Environment Agency, Bradford City Council and Imperial College In situ Soil and Groundwater Decontamination of Former Stanley Tools Site near Sheffield using Electric Resistive Heating Technology (Six-Phase Heating) - Terra Vac (UK) Ltd; Taylor Wimpey Ltd In situ heating using radiofrequency (RF) coupled with soil vapour extraction/high vacuum dual phase extraction for the remediation of contaminated soil in the unsaturated zone - Ecologia Environmental Solutions Ltd; Total UK Ltd Low-cost rapid on-site quantification of oil-based contamination (ROSQUO) - National Grid, Cranfield University and WSP Remediation Remediation Field Trials for the Chromium-Contaminated Area at Shawfield, Glasgow - Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (Client) and URS Corporation Ltd (Consultant) Demonstration of the Arvia Process of adsorption coupled with electrochemical regeneration for the on-site destruction organic contaminants in groundwaters - Arvia Technology Ltd and VertaseFLI.

TDP 19: TDP 20:

TDP 21:

TDP 22: TDP 23: TDP 24: TDP 25: TDP 26: TDP 28: TDP 29: TDP 30: TDP 31:

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