PHONICS

Order to Teach Sounds

Stop Single

Continuous Combination

sh oo th ee wh er ing

ai

ea

ou ar

Long Vowels

Stop Combination

ch

st

ck

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Phonics
Children need to be able to identify the sound that individual letter and letter combinations make and to put those sounds together to make words. Phonics is a term used to represent the aspect of instruction that teaches the association of individual sounds with letters (also known as the alphabetic principle) and applying these letter-sound correspondences to whole word reading at more advanced stages (NICHD, 2000). As children gain practice in decoding words, this skill becomes more automatic; it is the foundation for reading fluency, another core area of reading that is discussed in another paper. Below we will discuss research from the National Reading Panel and more recent research regarding phonics assessment and intervention.

Summary of the National Reading Panel Findings There are many approaches to phonics instruction. In systematic phonics instruction, increasingly advanced phonics skills are directly and sequentially introduced using explicit instruction, practice, and feedback. The National Reading Panels (NRPs) meta-analysis supported systematic phonics instruction. Its effect size when compared to nonsystematic or no phonics instruction was moderate (effect size = .44; NICHD, 2000). Many subtypes exist within systematic phonics instruction, including programs that focus primarily on letter-sound correspondences or programs that focus on larger subparts of words (e.g., word families with common onsets or rimes). The NRPs meta-analysis found no statistically significant difference in the efficacy of different approaches to systematic phonics instruction. Phonics instruction can be effectively delivered in many formats, including individually, in a small group, or in a whole class setting (all effect sizes were moderate in the NRPs analysis). Finally, the NRP found that phonics instruction was effective when implemented with students as young as kindergarten as well as young struggling readers. However, small effect sizes were found when phonics instruction was implemented with older struggling readers.

Summary of Current Research There is considerable research evidence that support specific evidence-based curricula that target phonics skills. Various evidence-based phonics interventions, described below, have accumulated additional evidence in the past decade. Meta-analyses following the NRPs review have reviewed and recalculated the NRPs findings (Camilli, Wolfe, & Smith, 2006; Hammill & Swanson, 2006), and while the magnitude of the effect varies
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depending on the specific questions, the impact of systematic phonics instruction is consistently of practical significance (Steubing, Barth, Cirino, Francis, & Fletcher, 2008). Other recent meta-analyses have drawn important conclusions about phonics instruction. First, phonics skills are critical for developing word recognition and reading fluency (Snow & Juel, 2005). Second, explicit, systematic phonics instruction is necessary for most students (Shankweiler & Fowler, 2004), and it seems to work equally well with minority children (Jeynes, 2008).

Implications for Teaching Snow and Juel (2005) and Shankweiler and Fowler (2004) concluded that instruction in phonics is necessary for most children and absolutely critical for a subset of these students. These findings, combined with those of the NRPs findings, suggest that phonics instruction is a cornerstone of literacy instruction in kindergarten and 1st grade. Following is a description of two extensions of peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) that address phonics skills. Although PALS is only one instructional program of the many available, the recent research supporting PALS provides additional support for the efficacy of systematic, explicit approaches to phonics instruction.

Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS). PALS is an intervention that is implemented in peer dyads and was originally developed to enhance reading fluency and comprehension skills among students in grades 2 through 6 (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1997). Extensions of PALS have been developed to address more basic reading skills while working in peer dyads: Kindergarten PALS (K-PALS) and FirstGrade PALS (Fuchs et al., 2001). Both K-PALS and First-Grade PALS include systematic, explicit phonics instruction. (K-PALS also includes phonemic awareness activities, and First-Grade PALS also includes reading fluency activities.) K-PALS consists of two activities, one focused on a variety of phonemic awareness skills and one focused on phonics skills -- decoding PALS (Rafdal, McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2011). Within decoding PALS are four activities: what sound? what word? sound boxes, and reading sentences. Students first receive a short review as a whole class to introduce new letter sounds and new words and enhance the likelihood of success, then they complete the two activities in dyads with peers. What sound? is meant to teach letter sounds. In what word?, students read sight words. During sound boxes, students read decodable words featuring the sounds in the days lesson, first focusing on the individual letters and then focusing on saying the word quickly. Finally, the reading sentences activity includes short sentences of decodable words and sight words that have been

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practiced. In each activity, students take turns being the coach and the reader, and lessons are scripted so that the coach provides corrective feedback and praise in a consistent way. First-Grade PALS includes activities similar to those used in decoding PALS; First-Grade PALS also introduces a reading fluency component. A literature review conducted by McMaster, Fuchs, and Fuchs (2006) reviewed research on PALS and PALS extensions. Research on K-PALS suggests that the program may enhance early reading skills for kindergartners, including minority students, students living in poverty, and students with disabilities; this has been replicated in more recent research focused on students with disabilities (Rafdal et al., 2011). Additionally, K-PALS has been shown to enhance the phonemic awareness and letter sound knowledge of kindergarten English language learners (McMaster, Kung, Han, & Cao, 2008). First-Grade PALS has also been shown to lead to greater gains in phonics and fluency skills than students in a control group. PALS is one example of a curriculum that addresses phonics in a systematic, explicit way. Other curricula that use a systematic, explicit framework to deliver phonics instruction include Success for All, a comprehensive school reform model that focuses on literacy instruction from kindergarten to fifth grade (Borman, Slavin, Cheung, Chamberlain, Madden, & Chambers, 2007).

Implications for Assessment Assessment is a critical aspect of intervention. Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) of phonics such as nonsense word fluency (NWF) have been a frequent topic for research in the past 10 years as well. Nonsense word fluency (NWF) and letter-sound fluency (LSF) are two CBM measures that measure phonics skills. In LSF, the student identifies the sounds of isolated letters arranged in random order on a sheet of paper. In the past 10 years, LSF performance in kindergarten has been shown to predict later performance on oral reading fluency measures, although it accounted for slightly less variation in oral reading fluency than letter naming fluency (Stage, Sheppard, Davidson, & Browning, 2001). Relatedly, LSF performance is effective in identifying students who are struggling or will struggle in reading (Ritchey, 2008). In NWF, the student reads VC and CVC nonsense, or make-believe, words for one minute. NWF assesses a students ability to match a letter with its most common sound, and to some extent it also assesses a students ability to blend those sounds into a word. NWF measures have been used for screening (identifying students who may have early reading difficulties) or monitoring the progress of

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students who are receiving intervention in early reading skills. When monitoring the progress of students who are receiving intervention, NWF performance is measured frequently. With frequent measurements, both the absolute level of performance and students rate of growth are key indicators of intervention success. Recent studies have shown that the level of NWF performance is predictive of early reading performance for English Language Learners and native English speakers (Fein, et al., 2008; Vanderwood, Linklater, & Healy, 2008). Recent research has also established the importance of a students rate of progress in addition to his or her level of performance (Good, Baker, & Peyton, 2009). Other common assessments include measures of phonics, but these assessments have not been the focus of recent research. Most diagnostic reading assessments (e.g., Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing) measure phonics skills in some way. Many of these assessments have been used in recent research, but have not been the focus of recent research. Additionally, most standardized achievement tests include subtests measuring how efficiently and accurately students apply the alphabetic principle to words, typically nonsense words. An example is the Pseudoword Decoding subtest of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 4th edition. However, standardized achievement batteries typically provide an overall reading or early reading score. Using student scores on individual subtests is not recommended since these scores do not have adequate psychometric properties for decision-making.

Implications for Intervention Research on phonics intervention following the NRPs review has focused on systematic, explicit interventions, both commercialized and non-commercialized. The What Works Clearinghouse (www.ies.ed.gov/ncee.wwc/) is one resource that reviews the research base supporting interventions in a variety of areas, including beginning reading. The What Works Clearinghouse maintains a list of interventions and describes the evidence supporting them. Below is a review of a few of the phonics interventions that have been researched since the publication of the NRPs review: word boxes and word sorts, Reading Mastery, and Reading Recovery.

Word boxes and word sorts. Word boxes are a technique that helps children understand how sounds of individual letters make words. This technique has been used as part of intervention programs such as Reading Recovery (described below), but have also been used and researched in isolation. To conduct a word box intervention, a rectangle is divided into boxes according to the number of sounds, or phonemes, in a word or group of words. The instructor presents a word orally, then students then

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move tile letters or write letters into each box to make the word. Students practice sounding out the word and then blending the sounds together to say it fast. In a word sort, the instructor identifies a number of categories based on how a word sounds and chooses an exemplar of each category. Then, he or she gives the student a set of words; each word fits into one of the categories. The student sorts the words, and the instructor gives feedback. Used as a package and individually, word boxes and word sorts have been shown to enhance word identification and spelling in single case and case study research (Joseph, 2002; Joseph & Orlins, 2005).

Reading Mastery. Reading Mastery is a curriculum that delivers systematic, explicit phonics instruction to students who are struggling with reading. Reading Mastery is the new name for the Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading (DISTAR); both are Direct Instruction programs. Direct Instruction has a number of features that are common across reading and math programs: explicit, systematic instruction; fast-paced instruction with many opportunities to respond and receive feedback; and frequent assessment. Within Reading Mastery, students who require support in phonics are grouped in small, ability-based groups to learn letter-sound correspondence and blending sounds to make words, then practice reading decodable words in connected text. Generally, the earlier students begin the program and the longer they continue, the larger the reading skill gains (Carlson & Francis, 2002). Research has shown that Reading Mastery is effective in enhancing the decoding skills of English language learners in addition to native English speakers (Gunn, Biglan, Smolkowski, & Ary, 2000; Gunn, Smolkowski, Biglan, Black, & Blair, 2005).

Reading Recovery. Reading Recovery is a supplemental reading intervention meant to accelerate the growth of reading and writing skills for the lowest-achieving group of first graders. Students receive daily, one-on-one 30-minute sessions from a trained Reading Recovery instructor. Each lesson includes a specific set of components, including word work, writing, and reading new and practiced books. Teachers document progress through a Running Record. Students who make sufficient progress are discontinued from the intervention, while students who do not are referred for assessment and/or other services. There is a considerable amount of research investigating Reading Recovery; much of this evidence has shown that Reading Recovery accelerates reading growth and that these gains are

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generally maintained. A recent meta-analysis confirmed these results, but acknowledged that a portion of the results could be attributed to regression to the mean (DAgostino & Murphy, 2004). Additionally, effect sizes are often inflated by inclusion of only students who successfully complete the program and excluding students who are referred to other services. Although Reading Recovery is evidence-based, it is rooted primarily in constructivist theory rather than in direct, explicit instruction. Therefore, it is antithetical to the NRPs findings that support direct, explicit instruction.

Conclusion Phonics is a skill that typically develops after the student is aware of the sounds, or phonemes, that make up words. Phonics skills include the knowledge that specific printed letters correspond to a certain sounds and the application of these letter-sound corresponding to reading printed words. As the student practices these associations, word recognition becomes more automatic. Fluent and automatic word recognition facilitates effortless reading and reading comprehension. Although many students will easily learn letter-sound correspondences and learn to apply them to print, many students will require extensive instruction and intervention as well as assessment to measure the effects of instruction and intervention. The NRPs review suggested that systematic, explicit phonics instruction is more effective than embedded, implicit methods. This finding has been reinforced in current research; additionally, the majority of instructional and intervention packages researched in the past 10 years use a systematic and explicit approach to phonics.

Resources http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ https://dibels.uoregon.edu/ http://www.fcrr.org/interventions/Interventions.shtm http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/pals/library/

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Borman, G. D, Slavin, R. E., Cheung, A. C. K., Chamberlain, A. M., Madden, N. A., & Chambers, B. (2007). Final reading outcomes of the national randomized field trial of Success for All. American Educational Research Journal, 44, 701-731. Camilli, G., Wolfe, P. M., & Smith, M. L. (2006). Meta-analysis and reading policy: Perspectives on teaching children to read. Elementary School Journal, 107, 27-37. Carlson, C. D., & Francis, D. J. (2002). Increasing the reading achievement of at-risk children through direct instruction: Evaluation of the Rodeo Institute for Excellence (RITE). Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 7, 141-166. DAgostino, J. V., & Murphy, J. A. (2004). A meta-analysis of Reading Recovery in United States schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 23-38. Fein, H., Baker, S. F., Smolkowski, K., Smith, J. L. M., Kameenui, E. J., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Using nonsense word fluency to predict reading proficiency in kindergarten through second grade for English learners and native English speakers. School Psychology Review, 37, 391-408. Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Simmons, D. C. (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making classrooms more responsive to diversity. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174-206. Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Thompson, A., Svenson, E., Yen, L., Al Otaiba, S., Yang, N., McMaster, K. N., Prentice, K., Kazdan, S., & Saenz, L. (2001). Peer-assisted learning strategies in reading: Extensions for kindergarten, first grade, and high school. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 15-21. Good, R. H., Baker, S. K., & Peyton, J. A. (2009). Making sense of nonsense word fluency: Determining adequate progress in early first-grade reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25, 33-56. Gunn, B., Biglan, A., Smolkowski, K., & Ary, D. (2000). The efficacy of supplemental instruction in decoding skills for Hispanic and non-Hispanic students in early elementary school. Journal of Special Education, 34, 90-103. Gunn, B., Smolkowski, K., Biglan, A., Black, C., & Blair, J. (2005). Fostering the development of reading skill through supplemental instruction: Results for Hispanic and non-Hispanic students. Journal of Special Education, 39, 66-85. Hammill, D. D., & Swanson, H. L. (2006). The National Reading Panels meta-analysis of phonics instruction: Another point of view. Elementary School Journal, 107, 17-26. Jeynes, W. H. (2008). A meta-analysis of the relationship between phonics instruction and minority elementary school student academic achievement. Education and Urban Society, 40, 151-166.

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Joseph, L. M. (2002). Helping children link sound to print: Phonics procedures for small-group or wholeclass settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 217-221. Joseph, L. M., & Orlins, A. (2005). Multiple uses of a word study technique. Reading Improvement, 42, 73-79. McMaster, K. L., Kung, S., Han, I., & Cao, M. (2008). Peer-assisted learning strategies: A Tier 1 approach to promoting English learners response to intervention. Exceptional Children, 74, 196214. National Institute of Child Heath and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: an evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Rafdal, B. H., McMaster, K. L., McConnell, S. R., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2011). The effectiveness of kindergarten peer-assisted learning strategies for students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 77, 299-316. Ritchey, K. D. (2008). Assessing letter sound knowledge: A comparison of letter sound fluency and nonsense word fluency. Exceptional Children, 74, 487-506. Shankweiler D., & Fowler, A. E. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing, 17, 483-515. Snow, C. E., & Juel, C. (2005). Teaching children to read: What do we know about how to do it? In M.J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. Blackwell. Stage, S. A., Sheppard, J., Davidson, M. M., & Browning, M. M. (2001). Predication of first-graders growth in oral reading fluency using kindergarten letter fluency. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 225-237. Steubing, K. K., Barth, A. E., Cirino, P. T., Francis, D. J., & Fletcher, J. M. (2008). A response to recent reanalyses of the National Reading Panel report: Effects of systematic phonics instruction are practically significant. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 123-134. Vanderwood, M. L., Linklater, D., & Healy, K. (2008). Predictive accuracy of nonsense word fluency for English language learners. School Psychology Review, 37, 5-17. 501-520). Oxford, UK:

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics (letter sounds)- Acquisition

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Acquisition) Level: Emergent

Brief description: This intervention involves teaching letter sounds by explicit instruction and matching pictures with initial sounds. Objective: Students will accurately demonstrate letter/sound correspondence. For Use When: Students have demonstrated phonemic awareness, but have not mastered letter/sound correspondence. The student should be able to identify initial sounds. For example, the student should be able to tell you that the word cat begins with the /k/ sound, but does not know what letter makes that sound. Materials: Lower case letter cards (one for each target letter), picture cards (at least four pictures for each target letter), spinner divided in four with one letter in each section (three known and one unknown). Connecting with Daily Core Instruction: 1. When the class is studying a particular letter/sound, include that letter as a target letter during the intervention. 2. Pictures used can be words the student is working with during class time. For example, if the class is studying transportation, include pictures of a plane, bus, car, train, etc. 2. Pictures can be things the student has seen before in a read aloud or guided reading book. If the class is familiar with a particular alphabet book, you can use pictures that represent the words used in that alphabet book, for example.

Procedure: 1. Assess the students knowledge of letter sounds using a letter-sound assessment that uses lower-case letters in random order. 2. Select a target letter to teach the student. It is best to start by teaching continuous sounds (a, e, i, o, u, f, l, m, n, r, s, v, z are continuous sounds), before moving on to stop sounds (b, c (pronounced as /k/), d, g, h, j, k, p, q, t, w, x, y are stop sounds). Be sure to include at least one

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consonant in the first three letters taught. Also be careful not to teach similar sounds consecutively (eg. m and n, or b and d). It is best to use all lower case letters at this point. 3. Hold up the target letter and say, This letter is ___ and it makes the ___ sound. What sound does ___ make? A correct reply is followed with Good, ___ makes the ___ sound. Start Step 3 again if the student does not make a correct reply within 2 seconds. 4. Give the student three picture cards, one of which pictures something that starts with the target letter. Say, This is a picture of a ____________. This is a _____________, and this is a ____________. Which one of these things starts with the letter _____ (target letter)? If correct, say, Good. ___________ starts with the letter ____ because it starts with the _____ sound. If incorrect, say, No, ____________ does not start with the _____ sound, so it doesnt start with the letter _____. _______________starts with the _____ sound, so it does start with the letter ____. So, which one starts with the letter _____? Good. 5. Have the student think of another word that starts with the target letter. If the student cannot think of a word, give an example of another familiar object that starts with the word. Then ask the student again to try to think of a word that begins with the letter. Continue to provide support as needed. 6. Choose three other letters the student already knows. Remind the student of these letters and sounds. What letter is this? Good, and what sound does it make? Good, ___ makes the ___ sound. 7. Divide a spinner into four parts, and label each part with one letter (three known letters and the target letter). Put the pictures on the table face up. Have the student name each picture to make sure he knows the words. Discard pictures he does not know. 8. MODEL (I DO): Spin the spinner and say the letter and the sound that it lands on. That letter is _____ and it makes the ______ sound. Im going to look for a picture that starts with the ______ sound. Here. ________________ starts with the _____ sound. Take the picture and put it next to you. 9. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Lets try one together. You can spin the spinner. Good. What letter is that? Good, that letter is _______. (Or, No, that letter is ______. What letter is that? Good.) What sound does it make? Good, _____ makes the _____ sound. (Or, No, _______ makes the ______ sound. What sound does it make? Good.) You can keep that picture next to you.

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10. Do another word together if necessary. Good. Lets try another one. Follow the prompts in Step 9 again. 11. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Continue to play the game with the student, taking turns. The student must say the letter and sound every time he spins, as well as the name of the picture. This should not be a silent activity! On your turns, continue to think aloud. If the spinner lands on a letter for which there are no more picture cards, the player must pass. If the student makes a mistake, provide corrective feedback. Otherwise, assist only when needed. Continue until all the cards are gone. The winner is the one with the most picture cards at the end.

What if I dont see progress: 1. Be sure to choose pictures with which the student is familiar. 2. Work on only continuous letters sounds until the student has mastered these. 3. Model more words. 4. Be certain that errors are corrected immediately, and that correct responses receive positive feedback. 5. Be sure to say the letter name and sound as often as you can during this intervention.

What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Be explicit about stating what constitutes good behavior. Review what it means to be a good listener. Review what it means to play a game nicely with someone else. 2. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to the parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase.

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References: Blackman, B. Ball, E., Black, S. & Tangel, D. (2001). Road to the code. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Company. Joseph, L. M. (2000). Developing first graders' phonemic awareness, word identification, and spelling: A comparison of two contemporary phonic instructional approaches. Reading Research and Instruction, 39, 160-169.

For more information: Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. R., & Johnston, F. (2003). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Burns, M. K., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2012). Advanced RTI applications: Intervention design and implementation. New York: Guilford. Taylor, Barbara M. (2010) Early Intervention in Reading: Catching readers grade 1. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics (letter sounds)- Proficiency

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Proficiency) Level: Emergent

Brief description: This intervention allows students to improve their letter/sound correspondence skills by matching initial sounds to letters in a fun board game format. Objective: Students will accurately demonstrate letter/sound correspondence. They will build fluency and proficiency identifying the initial sound in a word, and matching the sound to the corresponding letter. For Use When: Students have learned a high accuracy of letters and sounds, but need more practice in order to become fluent and proficient. Materials: Path type game board in which each square is labeled with a lower case letter you want the student to practice (you can use 3-6 letters at a time, and the board should have approximately 25 spaces), picture cards corresponding to the target letters, game pieces (can use bottle caps or colored discs), target letters on cards.

Connecting with Daily Core Instruction: 1. When the class is studying a particular letter/sound, include that letter as one of the target letters during the intervention. 2. Pictures used can be words the student is working with during class time. For example, if the class is studying transportation, include pictures of a plane, bus, car, train, etc. 3. Pictures can be things the student has seen before in a read aloud or guided reading book. If the class uses a particular alphabet book, you can use pictures that represent the words used in that alphabet book.

Procedure: 1. Assess the students letter sound knowledge. Choose 3-6 letter sounds the student knows, but still needs to practice in order to obtain fluency. Write these letters in random order, one in each square of a path game board. Place a stack of picture cards depicting things that begin with the target letters by the board.
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2. Tell the student you are going to play a game to practice letters and sounds. 3. MODEL (I DO): Say, Im going to choose the top card from the stack. This is a picture of a ________________(ex. dog). ___________________(dog) starts with the _____ (/d/) sound, so I know it starts with the letter ______(d). Im going to look for the first ______ (d) on the path on the board. Here it is! Im going to move my game piece to this square. Ill keep this card next to me. Now its your turn. 4. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Say, Take the top card from the stack. Good. What is that picture? Good, thats a _______________. (Or, if incorrect, say, No, thats a ______________. What is that? Good.) What sound do you hear at the beginning of the word ___________? Good. (Or, if incorrect, say, No, _______________ starts with the _____ sound. What sound does ______________ start with? Good.) So, can you find the letter that makes that sound on the game board? Good. _______________ starts with the letter ______. Move your game piece to that square. You can keep that card next to you. Good, my turn. 5. Model another turn, following Step 3 again. 6. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Say, Okay, your turn. Go ahead and take the top card from the stack and tell me what it is and what sound it starts with. Help the student as necessary. Continue to play, taking turns. On your turn, always model thinking aloud, and encourage the student to do the same on his/her turn. Play continues until someone makes it to the last square on the path. You can make the last square a must have ____ (ex. t) or _____ (ex. m) to win if you want to make it last longer. 7. Conclude the lesson by doing a quick word sort. Put letter cards with the target letters on the table in front of the student so that he can see all the letters. Have the student sort the cards he kept during the game under the appropriate letter (according to initial sound). He should be able to do this with at least 80% accuracy. If not, this intervention continues using the letters he has trouble with.

What if I dont see progress: 1. Be sure to choose pictures with which the student is familiar. 2. Work on only continuous letters sounds until the student has mastered these. 3. Review the letters and sounds prior to playing the game.

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4. Model more words. 5. Be certain that errors are corrected immediately, and that correct responses receive positive feedback. 6. Be sure to say the letter name and sound as often as you can during this intervention. What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Be explicit about stating what constitutes good behavior. Review what it means to play a game nicely with someone else. 3. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to the parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase. References: Blackman, B. Ball, E., Black, S. & Tangel, D. (2001). Road to the code. Baltimore, MD: Publishing Company. Joseph, L. M. (2000). Developing first graders' phonemic awareness, word identification, and spelling: A comparison of two contemporary phonic instructional approaches. Reading Research and Instruction, 39, 160-169. For more information: Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. R., & Johnston, F. (2003). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Burns, M. K., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2012). Advanced RTI applications: Intervention design and implementation. New York: Guilford. Taylor, B. M. (2010) Early Intervention in Reading: Catching readers grade 1. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Paul H. Brooks

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics (letter sounds) Acquisition

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Acquisition) Level: Beginning

Brief description: This intervention involves teaching letter sounds by placing letters in boxes where the sound is heard. Objective: Students will accurately demonstrate letter/sound correspondence. For Use When: Students have demonstrated phonemic awareness, but have not mastered letter sounds. The student should be able to identify initial and ending sounds. For example, the student should be able to tell you that the word top begins with the /t/ sound, but does not know what letter makes that sound. Materials: Magnetic lower-case letters, small portable whiteboards, dry-erase marker and eraser, prepared words for the lesson. Connecting with Daily Core Instruction: 1. When the class is studying a particular letter/sound, include that letter as a target letter during the intervention. 2. Words may be taken from a book the student is working with during regular class time (either from a read-aloud book, or from a guided reading or independent reading book). If possible, you can show the student the book and explicitly remind him that he read/heard these words in this book, and read the word in context during the intervention.

Procedure: 1. Assess the students knowledge of letter sounds using the attached sheet (?) (or any lettersound assessment that uses lower-case letters in random order). 2. If the student knows five or more letter sounds, skip to Step 6. 3. If the student does not know at least five letter sounds, select five target letters to teach the student. It is best to start teaching continuous sounds (a, e, i, o, u, f, l, m, n, r, s, v, z are continuous sounds), before moving on to stop sounds (b, c (pronounced as k), d, g, h, j, k, p, q, t, w, x, y are stop sounds). Be sure to include at least one consonant in the first five letters taught.

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Also be careful not to teach similar sounds consecutively (eg. m and n, or b and d). It is best to use all lower case letters at this point. 4. The first five letters are taught with explicit instruction. Hold up your first target letter and say, This letter is ___ and it makes the ___ sound. What sound does ___ make? A correct reply is followed with Good, ___ makes the ___ sound. Start Step 4 again if the student does not make a correct reply within 2 seconds. 5. Have the student think of a word that starts with the sound. Spell the word with magnetic letters as he says it. If the student cannot think of a word, give an example of a familiar object that starts with the word. Then ask the student again to try to think of a word that begins with the letter. Continue to provide support as needed. 6. After the student has mastered five letters, you can begin to teach the remaining letter sounds with boxes. Select five target letters to teach the student. Remember, it is best to start teaching continuous sounds (a, e, i, o, u, f, l, m, n, r, s, v, z are continuous sounds), before moving on to stop sounds (b, c (pronounced as k), d, g, h, j, k, p, q, t, w, x, y are stop sounds). Do not teach similar sounds consecutively (eg. m and n, or b and d). It is still best to use all lower-case letters at this point. 7. Choose one of the five target letters to start (you will teach one letter at a time). Prepare five words that contain the target letter plus two letters that have already been taught. You should begin with three-letter words that follow the CVC pattern and have regular short vowel sounds. (For example, if the target letter is t, you might choose the words tan, sat, top, pat, and tap if the student already knew the letters a, o, p, s and n.) 8. Draw boxes like the one shown below on a small portable whiteboard.

9. MODEL (I DO): Say the first word (start with a word that has the target letter in the initial position). Then say, I hear the ___, ___, and ____ sounds in the word ____. The (target) sound comes first. Then hold up the target letter and say, The letter is ___ and it makes the ___ sound. What sound does ___ make? A correct reply is followed with Good, ___ makes the

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___ sound. Start over again if the student does not make a correct reply within 2 seconds. Be sure to make the appropriate sound without adding sounds. For example, t is not pronounced tuh and d is not pronounced duh. 10. Say, I hear the (target)___ sound first, so I am going to put the letter ___ in the first box. I hear the ____ sound second, so Ill put the ____ letter here. Finally, I hear the ____ sound last, so Ill put the _____ letter at the end. Remember, the second and third sounds are letters that the student has already learned. 11. Say each sound individually while pointing at the letters. Then blend the sounds together to read the whole word. 12. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Say, Now lets do another word together. Say the second word (this should be another word that starts with the target letter and includes two letters that the student has already learned). Then ask, What sounds do you hear in ____? (Wait for the student to say the sounds). Then say, The letters that make those sounds are ____, ____, and ____. Hold up each magnetic letter as you say them. Give the student the letters and ask her to say the sounds one at a time while putting the letters in the corresponding open boxes. Have the student read the word when finished. Provide immediate feedback and verbal reinforcement if correct, or immediately correct if incorrect and return to Step 9. 13. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Once the student successfully completes the task with guidance, give her independent practice by saying three more words with the target and learned sounds, giving her the letters that correspond to the sounds and having her place them in the boxes. You might want to have the first independent practice word be one that has the target letter in the initial position. However, do not always have the target sound be first, because then the student might simply learn to put the target letter first without considering its sound. Provide explicit feedback as you go.

What if I dont see progress: 1. Work on only two phoneme words or words with only continuous letters sounds until the student has mastered these. 2. Model more words.

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3. Be certain that errors are corrected immediately, and that correct responses receive positive feedback. 4. Be sure to pair the letter sound with the visual representation of the letter as often as you can during this intervention.

What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to the parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase.

References: Blackman, B. Ball, E., Black, S. & Tangel, D. (2001). Road to the code. Baltimore, MD: Publishing Company. Joseph, L. M. (2000). Developing first graders' phonemic awareness, word identification, and spelling: A comparison of two contemporary phonic instructional approaches. Reading Research and Instruction, 39, 160-169. For more information: Burns, M. K., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2012). Advanced RTI applications: Intervention design and implementation. New York: Guilford. Taylor, B. M. (2010) Early Intervention in Reading: Catching readers grade 1. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Paul H. Brooks

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics Proficiency

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Proficiency) Level: Beginning

Brief description: This intervention allows students to improve their decoding skills by using letters and sounds to create words through word-building activities. This intervention directs attention to each grapheme position within a word by building words that differ by one grapheme. A grapheme is the letter or letters that represent one phoneme. For example, the grapheme ph is represented by the phoneme /f/ in the word graph. Objective: Students will accurately put letters together to make words. They will build fluency and proficiency with letters and sounds to improve decoding skills. For Use When: Students have learned a high accuracy of sounds, but need additional practice in putting the sounds together to make words. Materials: Small lower case letter cards, target words on flashcards, sentence written on sentence strip. Connecting with Daily Core Instruction: 1. Whenever possible, use words the student is studying during the word work portion of his regular classroom day. 2. Consider taking words from a book with which the student is familiar.

Procedure: 1. At the beginning of each lesson, present the student with several letter cards. 2. MODEL (I DO): Be sure the letters are facing the student (that is, he should see the letters right side up in front of him). Point to the letters as you say their names and say, I have some letters in front of me. They are ____, _____, _______, _____, and _____ (ex. t, s, a, o, p). Point to the letters as you say their sounds and say, I know their sounds are _____, ______, ____, ______, and ______ (ex. /t/, /s/, /a/, /o/, and /p/). Now Im going to use some of those letters to make the word _________ (sat). I hear three sounds in the word _________. The first sound I hear in the word __________ (sat) is _____ (/s/), so Im going to put the letter _____ (s) first. The next sound I hear is ______ (/a/), so Im going to put the letter _____(a) next. The last sound I hear
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in ____________(sat) is _____ (/t/), so Im going to put the _____ (t) last. Lets check. Say each sound and then blend the sounds together to say the word. _____(/s/), ______(/a/), ______ (/t/), ____________ (sat). 3. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Instruct the child to take away a certain letter and replace it with another. Say, Now lets try it together. You have some letters in front of you. What letters do you have? Good. Now tell me what sounds they make. Good. Correct errors immediately. 4. Instruct the student to replace one letter from your word to make a new word. Can you take away the _____ (t) from my word and put a ______ (p) in its place? Good. Can you read the new word? Good, that word is ___________ (sap). Or, if incorrect, say, That word is _____________. What word is it? Good. Support the student as necessary. 5. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Ask the student to take away a letter in a different position in the word, and to replace it with another letter. Now take away ____ and put ____ in its place. (eg. take away the s and replace it with a t). Always ask the student to read the new word. What word do you have now? (tap). Correct errors immediately. Right, that word is ___________ (if correct). Or, if incorrect, That word is ____________. What word is it? 6. Continue with the word building activities, providing support as necessary. As the lesson progresses, instructions will focus the childs attention on different positions in the word. This is done by holding the other letters from the previous word constant. Do not change the same letter placement two consecutive times (e.g., sat and then hat). The following is an example of a word chain, with the new grapheme in a different placement each time: sat, sap, tap, top, tot, pot, pat, sat, spat, pats, past, pat, pot, pop, top, stop. 7. After completing a Word Building sequence, administer a flashcard assessment of all the words used during the activity. The student should be able to read correctly at least 80% of the words he built during the lesson. 8. If not, Word Building activities continue using the same words. 9. Conclude the lesson with a sentence reading activity that contains a high proportion of words that have just been decoded. Using the example above, a sentence could read, Can a sap tap on top pop and stop? Often the sentence will not make sense, and after the child successfully reads the sentence, the tutor and child engage in a playful discussion about what the sentence could mean.

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What if I dont see progress: 1. Practice more saying the sounds individually before blending them together to form words. 3. Focus first on only changing the initial letter position (sat, hat, mat. etc.) before moving on to changing the ending sound and then the medial vowel. (?) 4. Focus on CVC words only, before moving on to include words with consonant blends (sp, st, br, fl, etc.). What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the childs teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to a parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase. References: Beck, I. (1989). Reading today and tomorrow: Teachers editions for grades 1 and 2. Austin, TX: Holt.

Beck, I. & Hamilton, R. (2000). Beginning reading module. Washington DC: American Federation of Teachers. McCandliss, B., Beck, I.L., Sandak R., & Perfetti, C. (2003). Focusing attention on decoding skills for children with poor reading skills: Design and preliminary tests of the word building intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 75-104.

For more information: Cunningham, P. and Hall, D. (2008). Making Words First Grade: 100 Hands-On Lessons for Phonemic Awareness, Phonics and Spelling. Pearson.

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics- Acquisition

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Acquisition) Level: Transitional

Brief description: This intervention involves teaching more advanced phonics skills, such as long vowels, vowel patterns, and inflected endings through word writing and passage reading. Objective: Students will accurately demonstrate the targeted phonics skill. For Use When: Students have demonstrated phonemic awareness and letter/sound correspondence, but have not mastered more advanced phonics skills, such as long vowels. Materials: Small portable whiteboards, dry-erase marker and eraser, prepared words for the lesson, prepared passage to read, pencil and paper (or student word study notebook). Connecting with Daily Core Instruction: 1. Check with the teacher about what Word Work mini-lesson the class is focusing on that week. Always align the class work with the intervention work as much as possible, while instructing at the students developmental level. 2. Connect the targeted skill with books the student is reading in class, and/or writing he is doing.

Procedure: 1. Assess the students developmental spelling stage using a developmental spelling inventory, such as that provided in Words Their Way. If the student still struggles with consonants, short vowels, or digraphs, return to the Beginning stage intervention for phonics, and use that format to teach the student at his developmental level. If the student is a transitional level speller (Within Word Pattern stage), this is a good intervention to use. 2. Start with a skill the student is using but confusing. This would be the first column where the student made one or more errors. Choose a phonics skill from this column to start with. The example here is for a student who has not mastered CVCe words (silent e). 3. MODEL (I DO): First teach the new skill with explicit instruction. Example: Say, Sometimes when I want to write a word with a long vowel sound, Im not sure how to do it. One way to write a word with a long vowel sound in the middle is to add an e to the end of the word. The e is called a silent e because it doesnt make any sound in the word. The silent e
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changes the sound of the middle vowel from short to long. For example, if I have the word mad (write the word on the whiteboard), and I add a silent e to the end of the word (write the e on the end of the word), the word becomes made. Instead of the short vowel sound /a/, the a now sounds like the long a sound /a/. Lets try another one. If I have the word not (write the word on the whiteboard), and I add a silent e to the end (add an e to the end), the word becomes note. Instead of the short vowel sound /o/, the o now sounds like the long o sound, /o/. So, what happens when we add a silent e to the end of a word? Good, when we add a silent e, the other vowel in the word changes from short to long. 4. So, when you hear a long vowel sound in a word, it could be that the word has a silent e at the end. One way to write a word with a long vowel sound is to add a silent e. Lets write the word home. When I hear the word home, I hear three sounds: /h/, /o/, /m/. I hear the long o sound in the middle, so Im going to try writing this word with a silent e at the end to see if it looks right. If not, Ill have to think about other ways I know to spell the long o sound. I know how to write /h/, thats easy (write h). I know the middle sound sounds like an o, so Ill try that (write the o), and then I hear an /m/ sound at the end (write the m). But h-o-m spells hom, so Ill try adding a silent e to the end to make the o say /o/ (long sound) (add an e to the end of the word). h-o-m-e. home. Yes, that looks right. 5. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Now lets try it together. Lets write the word side. How many sounds do you hear in side? Good. (Or, if incorrect response, say, I hear 3 sounds: /s/, /i/, /d/. What sounds do you hear? Good). Do you hear a long vowel sound or a short vowel sound in the middle of the word? Good, side has a long vowel sound. What is one way to write a word with a long vowel sound? Good, adding a silent e. (Or, if incorrect, say, Adding a silent e is one way to write a word with a long vowel sound. What is one way to write a word with a long vowel sound? Good.) Lets try that, and if it doesnt look right, well try something else. What sound do you hear first? Good /s/. Write the letter that makes that sound. (Student writes the s on his whiteboard.) What vowel do you think goes in the middle? Good, i. Write the i". (Student writes the i"). And what sound do you hear at the end? Good, /d/. Write the letter that makes that sound. (Student writes the d). Good. Now lets read the word to see if were done. What does it say now? (Student reads the word). Yes, it says sid. We want to write side. What can we do to make the short i" into a long i"?

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Good, lets try adding a silent e. (Student writes the silent e). Now what does it say? (Student reads the word). Good, it says side. Does that look right? Good. 6. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Say, Now you try. I want you to write the word cane on your whiteboard, and as you do, tell me the steps you are thinking about. Start with telling me how many sounds you hear. Help the student express the steps he is taking as necessary. 7. Say, Good, lets try a few more. Write the word _____________. Give the student at least one word with each vowel sound. Some possible silent e words to use are: ate, hate, state, name, shape, Pete, five, slide, side, bite, cube, cute, use. 8. Prepare a passage of 5 or 6 sentences at the students general reading level containing at least four instances of the targeted phonics skill. (Example passage: Hello, my name is Scott. I am nine years old. I have a pet dog called Pete. He is really cute and he does not bite. One day he ate a whole plate of cake! My mom was really mad. She gave him a time-out.) 9. Give the student a copy of the passage. Have the student read the passage out loud. Say, Now lets read this passage, and then well look for the words that have a silent e. Listen to the student read. Provide assistance as necessary. Make note of words the student struggles with. 10. Have the student read the passage again. Provide assistance as necessary. Good job. Lets read it one more time. 11. Ask the student to circle or underline the words in the passage that have the target phonics pattern. Say, Good. Now can you underline the words that have the silent e pattern weve been working on? 12. Discuss the words the student underlined. Reinforce with Yes, that word has a long vowel sound and a silent e. Otherwise, say, No, that word doesnt have a silent e. Then discuss the reason why that word does not follow the pattern. Also, if the student failed to identify a word that contained the target pattern, point it out. Be sure to also discuss any words that do not follow the pattern (You shouldnt put too many of these in the passage, but one or two is okay. In this example, one would be an oddball word.) 13. If there is time, have the student write the silent e words from the passage in his word study notebook. 14. Once the student has successfully acquired the targeted phonics skill, you will want to move on to the next logical skill. In this example, once the student can successfully spell words with a silent e, you would introduce other ways of writing long vowel sounds. For example, next you could introduce ai as a way to spell the long a sound. Once the student has mastered silent

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e and ai, you can do a word sort where the student sorts words into these two categories (eg. rain vs. cake). See the Tier 3 Phonics intervention for Proficiency for Word Sort protocol.

What if I dont see progress: 1. Model more words before moving on to guided practice. 2. Spend more time (more sessions) on each skill before moving on. 3. Be sure to correct errors immediately, and to provide positive feedback for correct responses. 4. Be sure to connect with real reading and writing.

What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to the parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase.

References: Joseph, L. M. (2000). Developing first graders phonemic awareness, word identification, and spelling: A comparison of two contemporary phonic instructional approaches. Literacy Research and Instruction, 39, 160-169. Joseph, L. M. (2002). Helping children link sound to print: Phonics procedures for small-group or wholeclass settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 217- 221.

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For more information: Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. R., & Johnston, F. (2003). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Burns, M. K., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2012). Advanced RTI applications: Intervention design and implementation. New York: Guilford. Florida State University Learning Systems Institute. Florida Center for Reading Research. Grades 2-3 Student Center Activities. Revised June, 2007. Retrieved from http://www.fcrr.org/curriculum/SCAindex.shtm

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Tier 2 Intervention Protocol Phonics- Proficiency

Big Five Reading Target: Phonics (Proficiency) Level: Transitional

Brief Description: This intervention focuses on increasing students decoding skills by analyzing words. It involves having the student sort word cards into three groups according to a graphophonemic component such as a letter combination. This intervention can also use the Words Their Way series (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2010), but here we present a more generic sequence to practice decoding skills. Objective: The student will improve decoding skills through word analysis. For Use When: The student can complete the task accurately, but requires additional practice to build proficiency and fluency. The student should know the letter sounds being practiced, as well as the other sounds that make up the words. Materials: Words written on cards, three target sounds or letter combinations with 6 examples of each, paper and pencil (or student word study notebook). Connecting With Daily Core Instruction: 1. The target sounds or letter combinations should be connected with the Word Work instruction being delivered in the classroom whenever possible. 2. The target sounds or letter combinations should connect with words the student will encounter when reading. 3. It is ideal to connect the target words with vocabulary instruction as well (make sure the student understands each word and how to use it in context).

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Procedure: 1. Identify three target sounds or letter combinations the student needs to practice, and find six words that uniquely contain each target sound. 2. Write all 18 words on cards. 3. Select one example of each of the target sounds and place the card on a table in a row (anarchy, democracy, and punctuate). 4. Read each card to the student and point to the target sounds. For example, point to anarchy, read the word, point to archy and say This part sounds like arkee. Please say arkee as in anarchy. Good, anarchy. Correct and repeat as needed. 5. MODEL (I DO): Model the task first by completing a second row directly beneath the top row. For example, hold up the word hierarchy and say, This is ______________ (hierarchy). Does it look more like ______________ (anarchy), ________________ (democracy), or _____________ (punctuate)? I think that it looks most like __________ (anarchy) because it __________ (ends) in ___________ (archy). This word is ______________ (autocracy), does it look more like ______________ (anarchy), ______________ (democracy), or ______________ (punctuate)? I think it looks most like ______________ (democracy) because it ______________ (ends) in ______________ (cracy). This word is ______________ (situate). Does it look most like ______________ (anarchy), ______________ (democracy), or ______________ (punctuate)? I think it looks most like ______________ (punctuate) because it ______________ (ends) in ______________ (tuate). Be sure to say the sounds rather than the letter names while pointing to the letters. 6. GUIDED PRACTICE (WE DO): Give the student three cards with one example of each sound/letter combination (e.g., monarchy, theocracy, and habituate) and ask her to put them into the appropriate column based on the words at the top. Give feedback after each one. Yes, ______________ sounds like ___________ because they both ____________ (end) in ____________. Or, if incorrect, ____________ sounds like ____________ because they both __________ (end) in _____________. What do they both ________ (end) with? Good. 7. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (YOU DO): Give the student the remaining nine cards and ask her to sort them into the three columns. 8. Give feedback after she has sorted the nine cards.
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9. Ask her to read each column to you and to verbalize the common feature. Read this column to me. Good. Why did you put those words together? Good. Help the student to identify the common feature as needed. 10. The student should be able to read correctly at least 80% of the words she sorted during the lesson. If not, continue sorting activities with these words. 11. Ask the student to write a sentence using as many of the words from the sort as she can. Read the sentence together and talk about its meaning.

What if I dont see progress: 1. Model more words before asking the student to work independently. 2. Practice the same words in multiple sessions until the student is successful. 3. Be sure the student understands the words and can use them in a sentence before engaging in the sort. What if there are behavior problems: 1. Remind the student that this activity will make him/her a better reader. 2. Provide clear expectations for behavior. Give the student points or stars for good behavior each day. Talk with the teacher about these points adding up to more free time, a positive note home to the parent, a small prize, etc. You may need to start with smaller units of time at first (positive behavior for five minutes), and then gradually increase.

References: Joseph, L. M. (2000). Developing first graders phonemic awareness, word identification, and spelling: A comparison of two contemporary phonic instructional approaches. Literacy Research and Instruction, 39, 160-169.

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Joseph, L. M. (2002). Helping children link sound to print: Phonics procedures for small-group or wholeclass settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 217- 221. For more information: Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. R., & Johnston, F. (2003). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Burns, M. K., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2012). Advanced RTI applications: Intervention design and implementation. New York: Guilford.

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