Land Hunqer and Deforestation: A Case Study of The Cardamom Hills in Kerala P. Sivanandan D. Narayana K. Narayanan Nair
Land Hunqer and Deforestation: A Case Study of The Cardamom Hills in Kerala P. Sivanandan D. Narayana K. Narayanan Nair
212-
air
socicti~c, ioyclrdloso
stage of
development.
Evergroen f o r e s t i s one such p r o c e s s which i n f l u e n c e s t h e l o c a l cljmate generally making them m i l d e r and h e l p s t o ensure a continuous flow
ef clean water.
of human i n t e r v e n t i o n
give us i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e socio-economic and polf t i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t have bean operating i n t h e f o r e s t eco system during t h e Post-Independence
r o d
It i s important t o n o t e t h a t t h e r a t e of d e f o r e s t a t i o n h a s been
tions in t h e S t a t e .
65%
The following t a b l e
Forest location
P e r c e n t a g e of F o r e s t s t o t o t a l . P e r c e n t a g e d i i f f e r e n c * g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a of t h e d i s t . i n depletiion
1905 1965 1973
. 1905-1965
22.04
19650'73
i. The C a r d a m m H i l l s
( I d u k k i ~i strict)
87.08
65.04
33.40
31.64
21.78
12.23
27.77
i v , Other P a r t s of t h e
CC-4.-
27.20
V.
44.07
27.71
17-06
16.36
110.65
Source: Srikumar Chattopadhyaya .meforestation i n P a r t s of Western Ghats Reqion erala la) I n d i a . C e n t r e f o r E a r t h S c i e n c e S t u d i e s , Trivandrum 1984.
The l a r g e s c a l e c o n v e r s i o n of f o r z s t l a n d s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s : h a s n d t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e micro-environment and t h e r e b y a f f e c t i n g t h e h e a l t h of Cardamom, which i s t h e h i g h e s t f o r e i g n exchange e a r n e r among t h e s p i c e s , b u t a l s c l e d t o heavy s i l t a t i o n i n many of t h e h y d a l p r o j e c t s l o c a t e d i n t h e region. This paper i s organised i n t h r e e sections.
The f i r s t s e c t i o n tracer
t h e c o u r s e of development of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n i n K e r a l a from t h e s t a t u s of a wild f o r e s t produce t o t h a t of a commercial c r o p c u l t i v a t e d under p r i v a t e tenure. B r i t i s h period. The p e r i o d c o v e r e d s t r e t c h e s u p t o t h e end of the
Mthough t h e p o l i c y
dele-
The product
g a t h e r e d was t r a n s p o r t e d t o the p o r t of Alleppey where it was s o r t e d , g r a d e d and e v e n t u a l l y auctioned. During ' t h e e a r l y phase of procuring vroild cardamom f o r monopoly t r a d e t h e government employed t r i b a l labour f o r c o l l e c t i o n and curing.
2!/
A s t h e t r a d e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h i s c r o p improved i n c o u r s e of time, t h e
government began t o i n c r e a s e i t s c o n t r o l by deploying a detachment of
5/ and
o f cardamom and f o r e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e c o l l e c t i o n and t h e tra1l.l s p o r t a t i o n of t h e produce t o t h e marketing c e n t r e s . Since land revcnue and t h e t a x on a g r i c u l t u r a l produce c o n s t i t u t e d i n t h o s e days t h e most important source of income f o r t h o s t a t e , t h e government p o l i c y had g r e a t l y emphasised, t h e need f o r encouraging commercia'l c Q l t i v a t i o n of t h e most'remunerativc c r o p s , h i c h n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e d cardamom. The v a r i o u s land revenue and t l l o t m e n t r u l e s framed
Tea, Coffee and Cardamom p l a n t a t i o n s grew up i n t h e Western Ghat region w i t h land a v a i l a b l e a t very l i b e r a l t o m s . In o r d e r t o s u s t a i n t h e
pr6-
d u c t i o n of cardamom f o r the s t a t e ' s monopoly t r a d e i n t h o e a r l i e r phase, t h e government a l s o o f f e r e d s p e c i a l g r a n t s of l a n d f o r s e t t l m c n t purp o s e and f i n a n c i a l h e l p t o cardamom growers. However, under t h e rules
p a s s e d i n 1913, no land was t o be. assigned f o r c u l t i v a t i o n within 50 y a r d s from t h o r i v e r bank nor on t h e c r e s t of t h e h i l l s , t o t h e e x t a n t o f a q u a r t e r mile on each s i d e .
The f o r e s t s were f u r t h e r p r o t e c t e d by
r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e g r a z i n g of c a t t l e ; t h e a r e a s such a s p l a n t a t i o n s
Zl
n e system
t i o n basis
WAS
I
- either the
Britieh (usually h e i r s of c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s o r m i s s i o n a r i e s ) o r c u l t i v a t o r ~from t h e Madurai Df strict of t h o Madras Presidency (mostly from Gundulur, Atmbum, Thevaram, Cambay and o t h e r neiqhbouring Tamil V i l l a g e s
and m a l l towns?
cultural o p e r ~ t i o n son a r e g u l a r b a s i s .
nmopoly trade.
(production p r i c e ) a t t h e r a t e of 8 rupocs 6 annas and 9 p a i s e p e r thulama of 20 e n g l i s h pounds of d r y ccrdamom and between 1841 and 1869, this r a t e was f u r t h e r roduco by 11 annas per thulam.
1870, a change. was mcds i n t h c system of payment:
In t h e y e a r
t h e r y o t l s claim was
entitled t o a share ( a t t h e r a t e of Y3rd between 1870 and 1887 and batween 1887 and 1896 of t h e average p r i c s of each v a r i e t y ) of t h e
market value of t h e i r produce l e s s t h e loan amount and supervision
The c r o p being very s e n s i t j v e t o weather c o n d i t i o n s and i t s p r i c e very s e n s i t i v e t o e x p o r t demand, wide f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e t o t a l o u t p u t of cardamom and i t s u n i t p r i c e were very common: Under such con-
p r i c e of t h e produce began t o move on a course of steady d e c l i n e , and a buyers1 market developed, t h e f i x e d share of 2/5th of t h e v a l u e accruing t o t h e growers ceased t o g i v e them any i n c e n t i v e f o r i n c r e a s i n g production. Moreover, t h e government found i t impossible t o ensure a s a t i s -
f a c t o r y system of procurement, a s i t u a t i o n which f u r t h e r accen'tuated t h e f e e l i n g of u n c e r t a i n t y among t h e growers a s w e l l a s t h e government. T h i s u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e cardamom t h e r e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n t h e S t a t c p o l i c y ; namely, a b o l i t i o n of State'monop o l y of t r a d e i n cardamom i n 1896 ( i n t h e kannielam t r a c t ,
12/ t h e
monopoly
was l i f t e d only i n 1907) and t h e beginning of an e r a of a c t i v e governmental encouragement and suppol't t o p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e i n c u l t i v a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s i n g prpduction. With t h e a b o l i t i o n of S t a t e monopoly, t r a d i n g i n cardamom had passed i n i t i a l l y t o t h e c o n t r o l of a group of t r a d e r s c a l l e d Nattukotta Chetties. They purchased a l l t h e ~ a k a r a e l a & cardamom from t h e ryots.
I
13/
I n t h e cardamom h i l l s , t h e number of t r a d e r s i n c r e a s e d from 183 (118 of them were c h e t t i e s ) i n 1891 t o 277 a f t e r a decade.
A s i n t h e c a s e of
They
Cityx on account of t h e
lrrge quantity of cardamom t r a d e i n t h a t c e n t r e . Rapid expansion of a r e a under cardamom p l a n t a t i o n was t h e re8ul.t rf r deliberate p o l i c y of the s t a t e followed during t h e e a r l y decades ef the present century.
A system o f t a x a t a uniform assessment r a t e
Apart from
the Makaraelam d i v i sion and 9,435 a c r e were r e g i s t o r e d f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . . Since then both t h e a r e a under cardamom and t h e nmber of p a t t a s incroraed s i g n i f i c a n t l y 15/ . For i n s t a n c e by 1$04-05, t h e t o t a l a r e a under assesment was r e p o r t e d t o be 13,693 a c r e s , d i s t r i b u t e d mong 1103 prttao; by 1908-09 t h e a r e a and t h e number of p a t t a s i n c r e a s e d t o 19,422 and 1515 r e s p e c t i v e l y . This scheme was f u r t h e r r e v i s e d and a s s i ,
l!v
During t h e e a r l y p e r i o d of expansion of area under cardamom s very l i b e r a l and t h e r e was no c o i l i n g on cultivation, the r u l ~ were tho extent of a s i n g l e holding. However, by an e x e c u t i v e o r d e r during
i n t h e High Ranges f o r assignment of land f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n , While framing t h e r u l e s f o r assignment and a l l o t m e n t of f o r e s t land for cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n t h e government had from t h e . v e r y beginning introduced p r o v i s i o n s fox t h e p r o t e c t i o n of the f o r e s t Growth. For instance
t h e r u l e s of 1896, 1899, 1900 and 1913, s t i p u l a t e d t h a t only under. growth and such o t h e r t r e e s a s it was necessary t o f e l l f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom could be c l e a r e d and e l s o t h e holding could n o t be clea'red f o r t h e purpose o f c u l t i v a t i n g c r o p s o t h e r than cardamom.
How-
resumption of h o l d i n g s f o r c o n t r a v e n t i o n of any of t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e r u l e s o r any o t h e r r u l e s which may be passed from time t o time. Immigration of both c u l t i v a t o r s and l a b o u r e r s h a s remained a r e g u l a r phenomenon i n t h e High Ranges Division e v e r s i n c e t h e beginning o f t h e 20th century. Apart from t h e l a r g e c c i p i t a l i s t c u l t i v a t o r s who
12/
i n population
w i t h i n this period being i n t h e decade 1921-31 caused by t h e expansion o f a r e a under c r o p s l i k e tcB, c o f f e e , rubber and cardamom, Most of the
9
'
i Rcnges, ~ h
duration of lease and t h e r i g h t over o t h e r f o r e s t produce, ospoIn 1942, i n the c o n t e x t of grow tlore. food campaigri,
c i a l l y tree growth.
reaffirmed,
fn
The
the trces on, the l a n d s s o assigned and lezsed o u t and also over the
land and t r e e s i n t h e teat of tho asmi.
Such d u a l c o n t r o l of t h e carda-
a r e a u n d e r p r i v a t e c u l - t i v a t i o n w a s , a b o u t "r5 thousand a c r e s .
1
By t h e l a t e
a c r e :!!as a b o ~ \ t 20 kg p e r a c r e ; t h i s i n c r e a s e d t o 35 kg
Such improvement i n p r o d u c t i v i t y must h a v e been
1 .
by the l a t e ' t h i r t i e s ,
i
t h e r e s u l t o f t h e development o f t h i s c r o p from t h e s t a t u s of a w i l d f o r e s t produce t o t h a t of e c r o p c b l t i v e t e d under p r i v a t e t e n u r e ; and t h e s i g n i f i - c a n t improvements made i n t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n c l u d i n g weeding, t i l l a g e mu1,tching and c u r i n g of t h e c a p s u l e . I n s h o r t t h e p o l i c y f o l l o w e d by t h e government a s w e l l a s t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e g r o w e r s t o w a r d s c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom i n t h e 'High Ranges d u r i n g t h e a a r l y d e c a d e s -of - 2 0 t h :-antury were mu+u;crll y achieved w i t h l e a s t disturbance t o exological balance.
T h i s growth-
However, t h e p r o c e s s
For i n s t a n c e ,
far cennnercial c u l t i v a t i o n had been t h e main i n c d n t f v e f o r t h e e a r l y imnijrants, t h e new immigrants mostly r e s o r t e d t o encxoachment and
tirn.
f i f t i e s , when t h e p o l i c y of t h e government emphasf sed p r o v i s i o n o f cultivable land i n t h e a r a b i e f o r e s t r e g i o n s of t h e s t a t e t o land-hungry peasants md land l e s s lebourers. During t h e ' f i f t i e s v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s
were i n existence, such a s t h e High Range Rec 1ama t i o n scheme f o r providi n y wasta lends f o r c u l t i v a t i o n and t h e s e were r u l e s f o r t h e a l l o t m e n t
rf land i n various high land v i l l a g e s under t h e Kuthauamattam l e a s e rules ( a t t h e rate of 5 acres p e r family i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e )reduction .of food crops).
Attracted by these opporlunities, hordes of land grabbers rushed up and cleared v a s t a r e a s i n t h e cardamom H i l l Reserv
Most
o f the pioneer occupants sold out t h e i r lands f o r p r o f i t t o new comes and moved f o r f r e s h encroachments i n t h e more i n t e r i o r f o r e s t areas.
In
Reserve were t o be declared non-revertible and s e t a p a r t f o r assignm'ent t o t h e occupants. These a l l o t e e s , had a l s o i n f a c t appropriated more ?he inflow
s p u r t of encroachment took place between 1958-1960, when about l,5O, 000 a c r e s of f o r e s t land was encroached a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve. ''sixties The process of encroachment continued during t h e Though we have no q u a n t i t a t i v e data to
a s s e s s t h e e x t e n t of such encroachments during t h e recent past, an account of t h e various a g i t a t i o n s on t h e i s s u e and t h e proceedings of t h e government during t h i s period c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t massive unauthb r i s e d occupation of f o r e s t lands have taken place a t various locations i n t h e region. There a r e two important f a c t o r s t h a t contributed t o t h e growth of l a r g e scale encroachment on t h e f o r e s t area: ( a ) inefficiency of
t h e administrative s e t up t o prevent encroachment and (b) t h e government policy of l e g i t i m i s i n g encroachment already made on. land not s u i t a b l e f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n .
A s mentioned e a r l i e r , during t h e pre-indepen-
changed i n 1950. and t h e c o n t r o l over a l l f o r e s t land w a s vested @ t h the revenue, departrnant, t h e f o r e s t department r a t a i n i n g . contyok?hver
.
In
. ? . ,
,1957, . .-
n o t suited f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n . , .
23/
But t h e rules of
assignment of f o r e s t land on t h e Cardamom Wills Reserve permitted leg& l i s a t i o n of encroachment only f o r land occupied with t h e s p e c i f i c purp6# o f growing cardamom. Because of t h e increased demand f o r land, govern-,
ment revised t h e r u l e s of assignment of cardamom lands i n 1959 and f i x e d a 21i acre l i m i t on t h e maximum extent of land which an individual could t a k e on lease. I n 1961, by another amendment, t h e government
increased the l e a s e period from 7 yoars t o 20 years; t h i s amendment made t h e possession of land i n the name of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n more easy. Thus, i n t h e wake of l a r g e scale occupation in t h e Cardaniom Hflls Reserve, cvon aroas not s u i t a b l e f o r r a i s i n g cardamom happened t o be encroached upon i n t h e name of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n , not with a view to growing cardamom, b u t t o take advantage of t h e 25 acre l i m i t and g e t as much f o r e s t area a s possible. Many of t h e o r i g i n a l encroachers, who
to
1-
with t h e help of middlemen they sold t h e i r land piece-meal t o landless persons e l i g i b l e f o r aseignmont of land under t h o Kerala Land Assignment Rules.
&,The
sac.tions, along with t h e r e g u l a r i s a t i o n of enroachment i n t o o t h e r arable f o r e s t land rrhicti took place und8r severe economh and p o l i t i c a l pressure
a t v a r i o u s stages.
l a r i s a t i o n of oncroachments over t h e q l a s t three,'decados by examining systematically the various d e l i b e r a t i o n s within the s t a t e government on
rehabilitation of t h e e v i c t e d .
A summary s t a t e m e n t of t h e r e s u l t s o f
( a ) tendency on Be p a r t
date.
r lenient a t t i t u d e t w a r d s encrcachments, a p o l i c y t h a t h a s i n e f f e c t
rhym e r reason.
able
2 8
'statement
the
of t h e various d e l i b e r a t i o n s of the Government and Enquiry Commissions on m a t t e r of encroachment of f o r e s t land, e v i c t i o n of occupants and the p r o v i s i o n s f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the e v i c t e e s
1.
- ------I -
--l-----b---------------
Obbectives~&liberati~n~~ct conternelated ion A l l encroachment on f o r e s t land a f t e r 1-4-7957 w u l d be s e r i o u s l y d e a l t w i t h and encroachment w i l l n o t be considered f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d t o l a n d l e s s poor.
I -
?.
T h e - o b j e c t i v e was t o i d e n t i f y t h e l a n d l e s s c u l t i v a t o r s who had been u n d e r possession of f o r e s t land and had developed t h e same b e f o r e t h e d a t e o f s t a y of e v i c t i o n v i z . 26-4-1957. In t h e c a s e of e v i c t i o n of such p e r s o n s provision was made t o g i v e a l t e r n a t i v e l a n d f o r occupation, The c h i e f conservgtor of f o r e s t was informed t h a t n o e v i c t i o n based on t h e previous revertible/non-revertible (1955) c1assi.f i c a t i o n of f o r e s t d e p a r t ment from t a k i n g a c t i o n a g a i n s t encroachment a f t e r 1-4-1957.. Many p e o p l e g o t i n t o t h e Reserve o f Ayyappan C o i l a r e a and f o r c e d t o p a s s o f f a s e n t r a n t s p r i o r t o 1-4-1957. The department e v i c t e d a f e w f a m i l i e s b u t t h e High Land Karshakasangham s t a r t e d a g i t a t i o n and t h i s l e d b t h e formation of a n o t h e r Cornmi s sion.
y . -369 - f a m i l i e s i n t h o above a r e a claimed t h a t t h e y had occupied t h e p l o t s on t h e f o r e s t before 1-4-1957 znd t h a t t h e y a r e e v i c t e d i l l e g a l l y . On e n q u i r y t h e claim of o n l y 50 f a r z i l l e s were conceded and t h e zest were r e j e c t e d .
3.
I.
I.
- - Conference of M i n i s t e r s i n
J u l y 196C.
The d e l i b e r a t i o n suggestad t h a t a l l encroachments subsequent t o October 1959 should be' summarily e v i c t e d and a s r e g a r d s encroachments p r i o r t o October 1959 t h e Government w i l l i s s u e i n s t r u c t i o n l a t e r .
Allowkg e v i c t i o n of oncroachero i n t h e western r e g i o n of ~araamomH i l l s Reserves. This a r e a comprised of about 70,000 a c r e s . ?he t o t a l number of households t o be e v i c t e d were enumerated as 6,955 and t h e e f f e c t i v e c u l t i v a t i o n a s 29,bbO acres. I h e e v i c t i o n t h a t commenced i n May 1961 was stopped when 8~000 a c r e s had been c l e a r e d of encroachment. A f r e s h enumeration was made according t o . which
0 4 Y
' 4 . 3 :
4
3 0 kA
3 0
m q Ec n Q , s r :
cL-3
0
c4J
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W t F C O c : s.4u.l C
k.3 dClkQ,
k'P
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aor r o r
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Impact on t h e Eco-system
Tho r a p i d growth, of encroechment of f o r e s t l a n d s while c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the expansion of a r e a under c u l t i v a t i o n , h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h o f o l l o * n & changes i n t h e cropping p r a c t i c e s a s well a s t h e micro-envir. onment i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve:
(a) The migrant farmers adopted a cropping p a t t e r n n o t condu-
c i v e t o t h e f o r e s t eco-system.
t h e mid and low-land a r e a s of t h e s t a t e came i n search of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d f o r l i v e l i h o o d , and they introduced c v a r i e t y of w b s i s t a n c e crop0 l i k e r i c e , coconut, t a p i o c a , and o t h o r c r o p s l i k e pepper and rubber i n t h e High Ranges.
.
t h e cropping p a t t e r n i n t h e Cardamom H i l l
(b)
A t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s , t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of many of t h e s e
c r o p s r e q u i r e d d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r e e g r o r r t k i n t h o deciduous f o r e s t areas.
4
t i v a t o r s t o i n d u l g e f r e e l y i n such a c t i v i t y .
Even i f cases. were booked agai!: st i l l i c i t f e l l f c a of t r e e s no evictian of the occupants could t a k e p l a c e i n t h e a r e a and t h e c u l t i v a t o r s could conbnue t h e i r o p e r a t i o n l e a d i n g t o f u r t h e r d e s t r u c t 5on of t h e
tree growth.
Pra-
21/
Aa a consequence of l a r g e e c a i e d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n t h e Cardambm
28/
The g r a v i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n
,
of f o r e s t i n . Vellathooval and P a l l i v a s a l v i l l a g e s i n Devicolam Taluk and i n Kalkoonthal, Rajakad and Konnathady v i l l a g e s cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n h a s almost disappeared. Conversions have occurred i n almost a l l ae/ o t h e r cardamom v i l l a g o s a1 so, b u t i n i s o l a t e d pocketsw. The s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r complicated by t h e r e c u r r e n t p e s t and d i s e a s e a t t a c k s i n r e c e n t y e a r s and t h e u n s c i e n t i f i c c u l t i v a t i o n
. .
p r a c t i c e s followed.
... etc.,
which a r e widely p r a c t i s e d , a r e
proved t o be very harmful t o t h e growth of cardamom p l a n t . 'They lead t o heavy moisture d e p l e t i o n , poor n u t r i e n t absorption and high degree of s o i l erosion i n t h e region. I n f a c t , it woullPseem t h a t major
unchecked.
It i s . f u r t h e r a b e t t e d by t h e r a p i d l y r i s i n g p r i c e of t h e
m f deforestation t o t h e p r i v a t e c u l t i v a t o r s .
The v a r i o u s development
complex r e a l i t y f a c i n g u s i n t h e form of high d e n s i t y of population, lack of any source of l i v e l i h o o d o t h e r than lend which g e t s r e f l e c t e d
We
Raj, P.G.K.
~ a n i k a r ,P . R . G .
Nair
However, we e r e s o l e l y
Notes and References Cardamom H i l l s r e g i o n form a p o r t i o n of t h a Western Ghat i n Kerala, covering t h e geo r a p h i c n l a r e a s of Udubanchola, Peemedu and Devicolam t a l u k s i n dukki D i s t r i c t . This i s t h e only region i n Kerala f o r which h i s t o r i c a l documents of t h e development of Cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n f o r a p e r i o d of over hundred y e a r s a r e a v a i l able.
Thavalams were p l a c e s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s where t h e harvested Cardsmom was brought f o r d r y i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n purpose under t h e S t a t e monopoly c o n t r o l .
1077,
21
The a r e a under Cardamoa i n t h e Devicolam, Udumbanchola and Peermedu Taluk i n t h e i d i k k i d i s t r i c t are known a s t h e Makaraelam t r a c t . This t r a c t i n c l . ~ d e s t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve which i s co-terminus with t h e 12 Revenue v i l l a g e s of Udumbanchola Taluk, t h e P e r i y a r Reserve ( t h e P e r i y a r Peerumedu and Ealappara v i l l a g e s i n Pzermedu t a l u k s ) and the P a l l i v a s a l unreserved".
Ramakrishnan, o p , c i t
'lear
Area (1 000 ~ c r e s ) P r o d u c t i v i t y
acre
Saurce:
2#.
~011ewingthe example of t h e European p l a r i t e r s , t h e other smaller changes t i n t h e techniques grewers a l s o brought o u t ~ t g n i f i c a ~ ef curing czrddrnom; while it was e a r l i s r d r i e d i n sun l i g h t . Tho use o f c u r i n g chambers f o r b e t t a r d r y t n g became widespread by t h e twenties and t h i r t i e s ' . These t e c h n i c a l changes r e s u l ted i n s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n t h e q u a l i t y of t h e t r i e d c a p s d e by r e t a i n i n g i t s gree c o l o u r .
T.P.
K.V.
21.
22.
23.
T . ? . Viswanathan o~.cit,
25.
26.
27.
- 1971.
P.K. Zaharia "Need f o r Mulching i n Cardamom C u l t u r e n . Report of t h e Proceedinus of t h e National Symposium on P l a n t a t i o n Crops. CPCRI. Kasargod 1976
28.
The impact of t h e s e on t h e f o r e s t eco-system may be understood from t h e environment i n which cardamom i s c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e Wcstern Ghats. The p l a n t p r e f e r s a warm humid atmosphere and a tcmperaturo ranging between 50 t o 95' F, t h r i v i n g b e s t i n shade provided by t h e l o f t y t r e e s . The p l a n t i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o wind and grows w 2 l l only f n s l o p e s of h i l l s o r p l a i n l a n d s l y i n g a g a i n s t t h e normal d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind. The crop a l s o r e q u i r e s p l e n t i f u l supply of hume m d f a i r l y d i s t r i b u t e d rainf a l l over 60 inches. Depending on t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e microenvironment i n which t h ? c r o p i s grown, i t s p r o d u c t i v i t y a l s o d i f f e r s significantly.
A n o t e p r ~ p a r e d2 t t h e c o l l e c t o r a t e , Idukki, f o r p e r u s a l 'of t h e M i n i s t e r , A Brief H i s t o r y of & m i n i s t r a t i o n of Cardamom l a n d s i n Idukki D i s t r i c t , Chapter V 1978.
29.
30.
In a f o r e s t l i t t l e i s l o s t u n t i l t h e timber i s destroyed. It i s estimated t h a t an h e c t a r e of cardamom p l a n t a t i o n g e t s an average of 5 t o 8 tonnes, of l e a f from l e a f shedding adding g of P and 75-120 Kg of K. Vegetation 50-80 k g of N, 12-20 K f u r t h e r improves i t and t h e n u t r i e n t removal by cardamom i s very low. N u t r i e n t removal on account of h a r v e s t i n g 100 Kg of cardamom i s only N-1 .28 kg, P -0.28 Kg, and K -3.84 Kg.