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Land Hunqer and Deforestation: A Case Study of The Cardamom Hills in Kerala P. Sivanandan D. Narayana K. Narayanan Nair

This paper attempts at investigating a case of human intervention with the evergreen forests in the High Ranges of Kerala, in particular the Cardamom Hills Reserve which has been heavily denuded and put under crops unsuitable for the area.

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Thomas J Mathew
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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
608 views25 pages

Land Hunqer and Deforestation: A Case Study of The Cardamom Hills in Kerala P. Sivanandan D. Narayana K. Narayanan Nair

This paper attempts at investigating a case of human intervention with the evergreen forests in the High Ranges of Kerala, in particular the Cardamom Hills Reserve which has been heavily denuded and put under crops unsuitable for the area.

Uploaded by

Thomas J Mathew
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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-.%zYcing Paper .No.

212-

Land Hunqer and Deforestation: A Case Study of t h e Cardamom H i l l s i n Kerala


P. Sivb.~endan D. Narayana
K. Narayanan

air

Introduction Earential e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a r e t h o s e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e governed, supported o r s t r o n g l y ncdcrated by ecosys';ens and a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r


feed production, h e a l t h and o t h e r a s p e c t s of human s u r v i v a l and surtainable devalopment. for crll

The maintenance of such p r o c e s s e s end systems i s v i t a l UI


tlrs3.r

socicti~c, ioyclrdloso

stage of

development.

Evergroen f o r e s t i s one such p r o c e s s which i n f l u e n c e s t h e l o c a l cljmate generally making them m i l d e r and h e l p s t o ensure a continuous flow
ef clean water.

Some forests are p a r t i c u l a r l y important because t h e y

protect s o i l cover on s i t e and p r o t e c t a r e a s down 'stream from e x c e s s i v e


floods and Q t h e r harmful e f f e c t s .
Thit Taper a t t e z p t s at jn:~. ? t i g a t i n g a ca;a

of human i n t e r v e n t i o n

with the evergreen f o r e s t s i n t h e High Ranges of Kerala, i n p a r t i c u l a r the cardadorn H i l l s Reserv$'

which h a s been h e a v i l y d8nudated a d p u t


A c a s e study of t h i s r e g i o n w i l l

under crops u n s u i t a b l e fcr t h e iirea.

give us i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e socio-economic and polf t i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t have bean operating i n t h e f o r e s t eco system during t h e Post-Independence

r o d

It i s important t o n o t e t h a t t h e r a t e of d e f o r e s t a t i o n h a s been

a t a much highor r a t e i n t h e cardamom H i l l s i n Kerala than i n o t h e r loca-

tions in t h e S t a t e .

For i n s t a n c e , 87% of t h i s region (fdukki d i s t r i c t )

was covered by f o r e s t i n 1905; by 1965 t h e proportion came down t o

65%

and it again sharply d e c l i n e d t o 33,4% by 1973.

The following t a b l e

v i v i d l y brings out t h i s t r e n d and a l s o makes sharp c o n t r i s t with t h e

dapletion r a t e s i n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s i n t h e High Ranges.

T a b l e 1 : Extent o f F o r e s t DE.;)letion i n t h e Western G h a t s of, K e r a l a

Forest location

P e r c e n t a g e of F o r e s t s t o t o t a l . P e r c e n t a g e d i i f f e r e n c * g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a of t h e d i s t . i n depletiion
1905 1965 1973

. 1905-1965
22.04

19650'73

i. The C a r d a m m H i l l s
( I d u k k i ~i strict)

87.08

65.04

33.40

31.64

ii. The Wnad F o r e s t 44.55 {Kozhikode. 'cannanore-d i s t r i c t s )

21.78

12.23

27.77

iii. The Southern Hiqh (Uui 1on 53.78 -Lands . Trivandrum d i s t r i c t s )

i v , Other P a r t s of t h e
CC-4.-

27.20

V.

Total f o r the State

44.07

27.71

17-06

16.36

110.65

Source: Srikumar Chattopadhyaya .meforestation i n P a r t s of Western Ghats Reqion erala la) I n d i a . C e n t r e f o r E a r t h S c i e n c e S t u d i e s , Trivandrum 1984.

The l a r g e s c a l e c o n v e r s i o n of f o r z s t l a n d s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s : h a s n d t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e micro-environment and t h e r e b y a f f e c t i n g t h e h e a l t h of Cardamom, which i s t h e h i g h e s t f o r e i g n exchange e a r n e r among t h e s p i c e s , b u t a l s c l e d t o heavy s i l t a t i o n i n many of t h e h y d a l p r o j e c t s l o c a t e d i n t h e region. This paper i s organised i n t h r e e sections.
The f i r s t s e c t i o n tracer

t h e c o u r s e of development of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n i n K e r a l a from t h e s t a t u s of a wild f o r e s t produce t o t h a t of a commercial c r o p c u l t i v a t e d under p r i v a t e tenure. B r i t i s h period. The p e r i o d c o v e r e d s t r e t c h e s u p t o t h e end of the

I n t h e second s e c t i o n t h e development t h a t took place

luring the post-independence period i s discussed.

Mthough t h e p o l i c y

fmWamd by t h e S t a t e 'for a l l o c a t i n g f o r e s t land f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n

hring t h e post-independence per3.od was t o a g r e a t e x t a n t a continuation

mf the e a r l i e r one, t h e n a t u r e of a c q u i s i t i o n and t h e p o l i c y of r e g u l a r i 88tlon

were e n t i r e l y d i f f o r o n t and highly influenced by p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s .

In t h e f i n a l section t h e impact of deforestation on t h e eco-system i s

diuusaed and it stresses t h a t t h e degradation t h a t followed h a s ha:


terious e f f e c t s both on cardamom and t h e s o i l cover.

dele-

Growth of Cardamom C u l t i v a t i o n i n Travancor3

The High Range Division of Travancore i s believed t o have been t h e


original homa of cardamom, though ~ u b s e q u e n t l yt h e spice has come t o be lumrisntly grovm..in many o t h e r p e r t s of t h e t r o p i c a l world a s well.
Canlaman Hills which c o n s t i t u t d a major p o r t i o n of t h e High Range d i v i -

tien, account f o r about 85 p e r c e n t of t h e a r e a and 30 p e r cent of t h e

prkduction of cardamom i n Kerala.


Thc early commercial policy follo!ved by Travancore under monarchy
was

one of perpetuation of s t a t e monopoly of t r a d e i n almost a'll comodi-

t i e s o f ~ o m e r c i a li m p o r t a n c g U n t i l t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r of the 19th c mtury, government used t o c o l l e c t cardamom f o r mercantile purposes from


wild growth a s well a s from r y o t s l p l a n t a t i o n s . . A f t e r the f i r s t geogra-

phical survey conducted by Lieutenants Ward and Conner (181?-20)., t h e


State reinforced i n i t i a l l y by appointing a conservator of f o r e s t s and then

in 1823 by the c r e a t i o n of a s p e c i a l cardamom department.

The product

g a t h e r e d was t r a n s p o r t e d t o the p o r t of Alleppey where it was s o r t e d , g r a d e d and e v e n t u a l l y auctioned. During ' t h e e a r l y phase of procuring vroild cardamom f o r monopoly t r a d e t h e government employed t r i b a l labour f o r c o l l e c t i o n and curing.

2!/

A s t h e t r a d e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h i s c r o p improved i n c o u r s e of time, t h e
government began t o i n c r e a s e i t s c o n t r o l by deploying a detachment of

i t s i n f a n t r y ( t h e Nayat I3rigade) and p o s t i n g l a r g e numbers of watchmen


a t v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n and around t h e cardamom growing r e g i o n t o watch the. Thavalams

5/ and

t h e s t a t e ' s f r o n t i e r s , w i t h a view t o p r w e n t smuggling

o f cardamom and f o r e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e c o l l e c t i o n and t h e tra1l.l s p o r t a t i o n of t h e produce t o t h e marketing c e n t r e s . Since land revcnue and t h e t a x on a g r i c u l t u r a l produce c o n s t i t u t e d i n t h o s e days t h e most important source of income f o r t h o s t a t e , t h e government p o l i c y had g r e a t l y emphasised, t h e need f o r encouraging commercia'l c Q l t i v a t i o n of t h e most'remunerativc c r o p s , h i c h n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e d cardamom. The v a r i o u s land revenue and t l l o t m e n t r u l e s framed

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t m e n 1860 and 1925 were e s s e n t i a l l y meant t o a t t r a c d more people i n t o t h e procc ss of expansion of c o m c r c i a l a g r i c u l t u r

Tea, Coffee and Cardamom p l a n t a t i o n s grew up i n t h e Western Ghat region w i t h land a v a i l a b l e a t very l i b e r a l t o m s . In o r d e r t o s u s t a i n t h e

pr6-

d u c t i o n of cardamom f o r the s t a t e ' s monopoly t r a d e i n t h o e a r l i e r phase, t h e government a l s o o f f e r e d s p e c i a l g r a n t s of l a n d f o r s e t t l m c n t purp o s e and f i n a n c i a l h e l p t o cardamom growers. However, under t h e rules

p a s s e d i n 1913, no land was t o be. assigned f o r c u l t i v a t i o n within 50 y a r d s from t h o r i v e r bank nor on t h e c r e s t of t h e h i l l s , t o t h e e x t a n t o f a q u a r t e r mile on each s i d e .
The f o r e s t s were f u r t h e r p r o t e c t e d by

r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e g r a z i n g of c a t t l e ; t h e a r e a s such a s p l a n t a t i o n s

less than 15 y e a r s o l d and n a t u r a l f o r e s t s under 20 y e a r s o l d were proh i b i t c d f o r grazing, i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e young.

Zl

n e system
t i o n basis
WAS
I

of c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom i n t h i s region on a planta-

i n i t i a t e d by persons from o u t s i d e Kerala

- either the

Britieh (usually h e i r s of c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s o r m i s s i o n a r i e s ) o r c u l t i v a t o r ~from t h e Madurai Df strict of t h o Madras Presidency (mostly from Gundulur, Atmbum, Thevaram, Cambay and o t h e r neiqhbouring Tamil V i l l a g e s
and m a l l towns?

The Tamil growers r e c r u i t e d p l e n t e t i o n workers from

a l l over t h e Madurai d i s t r i c t t o perform annual a g r i c u l t u r a l o p e r a t i o n s

i n t h e cardamom s t a t e s , t h e European p l a n t e r s , on t h e o t h e r hand, kept


jangs of' c o o l i e s permanently i n t h e i r e s t a t e s t o c a r r y o u t v a r i o u s a g r i -

cultural o p e r ~ t i o n son a r e g u l a r b a s i s .

2/ Among t h e growers, t h e Etlropean

planters and t h e c h z t t i c s of Tamil Nadu owned a o s t of t h e area under


t h o crop.

The terms o f f e r e d by t h e S t a t e f o r t h e procurement of cardarnam


were, however, n o t favourable t o t h e growers d u r i n g t h e period of t h e

nmopoly trade.

~ e t w e e n1823 end 1841, t h o r y o t s were given a k u d i v i l a l

(production p r i c e ) a t t h e r a t e of 8 rupocs 6 annas and 9 p a i s e p e r thulama of 20 e n g l i s h pounds of d r y ccrdamom and between 1841 and 1869, this r a t e was f u r t h e r roduco by 11 annas per thulam.
1870, a change. was mcds i n t h c system of payment:

In t h e y e a r

t h e r y o t l s claim was

calculated a s a s h a r e of t h e average r a t e of auction p r i c e a t Alleppey.


Under the system, t h o r y o t s rvceivod a loan o r advance from the superin-

tondent of cardamom H i l l s a t t h o commencement of each season f o r weeding


and harvestin9 o p e r a t i o n s ; a f t e r t h o s a l e of t h s i r produce, they weru

entitled t o a share ( a t t h e r a t e of Y3rd between 1870 and 1887 and batween 1887 and 1896 of t h e average p r i c s of each v a r i e t y ) of t h e
market value of t h e i r produce l e s s t h e loan amount and supervision

charges'and a f u r t h e r -deduction of 10 p e r c e n t of t h o t o t a l amount lieu of ground r e n t .

The c r o p being very s e n s i t j v e t o weather c o n d i t i o n s and i t s p r i c e very s e n s i t i v e t o e x p o r t demand, wide f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e t o t a l o u t p u t of cardamom and i t s u n i t p r i c e were very common: Under such con-

d i t i o n s of u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e government found it u n p r o f i t a b l e t o continue t h e system of rconopoly procurement and t r a d e i n cardamom.


A s the u ni t

p r i c e of t h e produce began t o move on a course of steady d e c l i n e , and a buyers1 market developed, t h e f i x e d share of 2/5th of t h e v a l u e accruing t o t h e growers ceased t o g i v e them any i n c e n t i v e f o r i n c r e a s i n g production. Moreover, t h e government found i t impossible t o ensure a s a t i s -

f a c t o r y system of procurement, a s i t u a t i o n which f u r t h e r accen'tuated t h e f e e l i n g of u n c e r t a i n t y among t h e growers a s w e l l a s t h e government. T h i s u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e cardamom t h e r e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n t h e S t a t c p o l i c y ; namely, a b o l i t i o n of State'monop o l y of t r a d e i n cardamom i n 1896 ( i n t h e kannielam t r a c t ,

12/ t h e

monopoly

was l i f t e d only i n 1907) and t h e beginning of an e r a of a c t i v e governmental encouragement and suppol't t o p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e i n c u l t i v a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s i n g prpduction. With t h e a b o l i t i o n of S t a t e monopoly, t r a d i n g i n cardamom had passed i n i t i a l l y t o t h e c o n t r o l of a group of t r a d e r s c a l l e d Nattukotta Chetties. They purchased a l l t h e ~ a k a r a e l a & cardamom from t h e ryots.
I

13/

I n t h e cardamom h i l l s , t h e number of t r a d e r s i n c r e a s e d from 183 (118 of them were c h e t t i e s ) i n 1891 t o 277 a f t e r a decade.
A s i n t h e c a s e of

growers, t h e s e t r a d e r s a l s o came from t h o nearby Tamil region. controlled large e s t a t e s i n the ~

They

i Ranges ~ h and handled most of t h e

cardamom produced i n t h e P a l a n i H i l l s of t h e Madras Presidency and i n t h e Travancore region. M t h proponderence of t h e Tamil T r r d e r s , t h e

marketing c e n t r e s h i f t e d from Alleppey ( i n Travancore) t o Bodinaikanur

( i n the Madras presidency).

Tho small town of Eodinaikanur, s i t u a t e d

in the eastern o u t s k i r t s of t h e High ~ a n g e s , i n Madurai d i s t r i c t ,


a s m e d rvbsequently t h e s t a t u s of Wardarnom

Cityx on account of t h e

lrrge quantity of cardamom t r a d e i n t h a t c e n t r e . Rapid expansion of a r e a under cardamom p l a n t a t i o n was t h e re8ul.t rf r deliberate p o l i c y of the s t a t e followed during t h e e a r l y decades ef the present century.
A system o f t a x a t a uniform assessment r a t e

ef 6r.6Y4 per a c r e was t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n .

Apart from

this t h e government a l s o introduced a scheme of a s s i g n i n g cardamom lands t o prospective c u l t i v a t o r s on payment of t h a r a v i l a (land v a l u e )


and tho issue of p a t t a .

A t t h e beginning, 655 p a t t a s were i s s u e d i n

the Makaraelam d i v i sion and 9,435 a c r e were r e g i s t o r e d f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . . Since then both t h e a r e a under cardamom and t h e nmber of p a t t a s incroraed s i g n i f i c a n t l y 15/ . For i n s t a n c e by 1$04-05, t h e t o t a l a r e a under assesment was r e p o r t e d t o be 13,693 a c r e s , d i s t r i b u t e d mong 1103 prttao; by 1908-09 t h e a r e a and t h e number of p a t t a s i n c r e a s e d t o 19,422 and 1515 r e s p e c t i v e l y . This scheme was f u r t h e r r e v i s e d and a s s i ,

yment continued under tho r e v i s e d r u l e s of 1935, 1937, 1939 and 1942.


. l5/f i e r a t e which was i n i t i a l l y b

pc!r acro was subsequently r e v i s e d

tr h2!S &d b.85 p e r acro i n t h e c a s e of nolmal r e g i s t r y and t o i?a..125


per acre f o r l a n d s a n t e r e d upon with o u t permission f o r cardamom c u l t i vati en.

l!v

During t h e e a r l y p e r i o d of expansion of area under cardamom s very l i b e r a l and t h e r e was no c o i l i n g on cultivation, the r u l ~ were tho extent of a s i n g l e holding. However, by an e x e c u t i v e o r d e r during

1940, it was s t i p u l a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t time t h a t a s i n g l e a p p l i c a n t may

be given land only up t o 60 a c r e s .

Such an o r d e r was deemed necessary

en account,. of t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand from a h o s t of immigrant c u l t i v a t o r s .

i n t h e High Ranges f o r assignment of land f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n , While framing t h e r u l e s f o r assignment and a l l o t m e n t of f o r e s t land for cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n t h e government had from t h e . v e r y beginning introduced p r o v i s i o n s fox t h e p r o t e c t i o n of the f o r e s t Growth. For instance

t h e r u l e s of 1896, 1899, 1900 and 1913, s t i p u l a t e d t h a t only under. growth and such o t h e r t r e e s a s it was necessary t o f e l l f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom could be c l e a r e d and e l s o t h e holding could n o t be clea'red f o r t h e purpose o f c u l t i v a t i n g c r o p s o t h e r than cardamom.

How-

e v e r , t h e r y o t s . were p e r m i t t e d t o u t i l i s e t h s t r e e s l e f t a s shade for growing pepper.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of t h e cardamom H i l l s had a l s o the

a u t h o r i t y t o Permit c u l t i v a t i o n of such o t h e r c r o p s which would n o t i n t e x fere .with t h e growth of cardamom.

The r u l e s f i n a l l y provided f o r the

resumption of h o l d i n g s f o r c o n t r a v e n t i o n of any of t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e r u l e s o r any o t h e r r u l e s which may be passed from time t o time. Immigration of both c u l t i v a t o r s and l a b o u r e r s h a s remained a r e g u l a r phenomenon i n t h e High Ranges Division e v e r s i n c e t h e beginning o f t h e 20th century. Apart from t h e l a r g e c c i p i t a l i s t c u l t i v a t o r s who

wore a t t r a c t e d by reinvestment p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n high valued p l a n t a t i o n


c r o p s , a l a r g e number of .small and medi'um farmers and l a b o u r e r s a l s o .. came from the low wage. & a s of t h e e a r l y famil d i s t r i c t s and from -the h i g h - l a n d v a l u e a r e a s of t h e mid-an&&rcland2.egions ,During the. .period 991 1' - t o 1951,im@p p e r c k t a g e *crease was the h i g h e s t i n t h e ~ of Tcavancore.

12/

i n population

i Range ~ $ 'Division, t h e h i g h e s t r a t e of increese

w i t h i n this period being i n t h e decade 1921-31 caused by t h e expansion o f a r e a under c r o p s l i k e tcB, c o f f e e , rubber and cardamom, Most of the

e a r l y immigrants have come t o t h e r e g i o n a s e s t a t e c o o l i e s a'nd a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of them acquired f o r e s t l a n d s f o r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e course of s e v e r a l decades.

9
'

Because of t h e mounting pri. ssure on l a n d i n t h e ~

i Rcnges, ~ h

jrvernment introduced a s e r f ds of rules and p ~ o c e d u r e .s~ t i p u l a t i n g prohibition of r e g i s t r y of land, r e s t r i c t i o n on t h o e x t e n t of l a n d posseSUB,

duration of lease and t h e r i g h t over o t h e r f o r e s t produce, ospoIn 1942, i n the c o n t e x t of grow tlore. food campaigri,

c i a l l y tree growth.

the gavornment f u r t h e r p r o h i b i t e d a l l rcgistbies of government land, and


instead provided f o r t h e g r a n t of land o r lease f o r p e r i o d s ranging from
3 t@ 7 years,

w This communique was a p p l i c a b l e t o cardamom l a n d s a l s o .

In 1944, m d e r t h e Kuthaua~pslttam l c a s c ruls, t h e l e a s e period was r a i s e d


t e 26 years and t h e i n d i v i d u a l c e i l i n g f i x e d e a r l i e r a t 60 acres was

reaffirmed,

Like i n tho cam of thc e a r l i e r r u l e s f o r t h e allotmont of f o r e s t


laid f a r - cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n , tho p o l i c i e s followed during the intcr-

war period and' l a t e r , a l s o had takon uxtrcme coro f o r p r s s o r v i n g t h e


tree growth and t h f ~o r e s t .
D e t a i l e d r u l e s and procedures were l a i d

dawn (under t h e cardamom Land Assignment ~ u l c s )for t h i s purpose,

fn

cases were i r r e g u l a r i t i c s were found, t h e 1ease was terminated and penal

action taken on t h e assignee,

Tho revenue m d f o r e s t departmen.ts were

given the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s t r i c t implementation of the r u l e s .


revenue department was

The

c o n t r o l over t h e land assigned and leased

auk for c u l t i v a t i o n , whilc t h e f o r c s t department r e t a i n e d c o n t r o l over

the trces on, the l a n d s s o assigned and lezsed o u t and also over the
land and t r e e s i n t h e teat of tho asmi.

Such d u a l c o n t r o l of t h e carda-

nm Hills', while h e l p i n g t h e revenue dspartment t o c o l l e c t t h o land


revenue and other t a x e s from t h e p l a n t e r s , also helped t h e f o r c s t depart- . ..

rent t o prevent encroachment by i n m i g r a n t s o f o t h e r land not, s u i t e d f o r


cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n .

The s t a t e p o l i c y of e n c o u r a g i n g t h e c u l t i v a t i o n -of cardamom t h r o u g h a s s i g n m e n t o f f o r e s t 1end r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t expansion i n t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e crop. Towards,the beginning of t h i s century, t h e


,

a r e a u n d e r p r i v a t e c u l - t i v a t i o n w a s , a b o u t "r5 thousand a c r e s .
1

By t h e l a t e

t h i r t i e s t t h e a r e a under cu1,tfvation i n c r e a i e d t o 56 thousand acres:. - t o o k . p l a c e :&ring t h e t w e n t i e s , when Around 1$?0 t h e e s t h a t k d ' r

The bulk of t h e expansion i n 2-a

p r i c e ' o f c ardaniom showed s t e e p u p w a d t r e?n c productivity


?e\r

a c r e :!!as a b o ~ \ t 20 kg p e r a c r e ; t h i s i n c r e a s e d t o 35 kg
Such improvement i n p r o d u c t i v i t y must h a v e been
1 .

by the l a t e ' t h i r t i e s ,
i

t h e r e s u l t o f t h e development o f t h i s c r o p from t h e s t a t u s of a w i l d f o r e s t produce t o t h a t of e c r o p c b l t i v e t e d under p r i v a t e t e n u r e ; and t h e s i g n i f i - c a n t improvements made i n t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n c l u d i n g weeding, t i l l a g e mu1,tching and c u r i n g of t h e c a p s u l e . I n s h o r t t h e p o l i c y f o l l o w e d by t h e government a s w e l l a s t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e g r o w e r s t o w a r d s c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom i n t h e 'High Ranges d u r i n g t h e a a r l y d e c a d e s -of - 2 0 t h :-antury were mu+u;crll y achieved w i t h l e a s t disturbance t o exological balance.

Encroachnlcnt and t h e F o l i t i c s of R e a u l a r i s a t i o n i n ' t h e P o s t Independence F e r i o d

The a r e a u n d e r cardamom h a s :inCreased c o n s i 2 e r a h l y d u r i n g t h e


post-independmce period. Though s i m i l a r expansion had t a k e n p l a c e

d u r i n g t h e e a r l y ' t w e n t i e s , t h e i n i t i a t i i v e a t t h a t time came m o s t l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e l i b e r a t e s t a t e p o l i c y of expanding commercial a g r i culture.


01 t h s o t h e r hand, d u r i n g the p o s t independence p e r i o d , on

rccrun~of demographic change a r 4 con sequent economic p r e s s u r e s , a

series of inroads i n t o t h e h i t h e r t o undisturbed h i n t e r l a n d s of the


Hestern m a t s have occured. ~istoricall th ~e cardamom H i 11s region had t h e h i g h e s t i n c f dence

ef pepul8tion growth r i g h t from t h e t u r n of t h e century.

T h i s growth-

i s rainly.afPected by immigration froM t h e nearby t a l u k s and t h e adjoining districts.

Nearly 75% of t h e migrant households ( i n 1961) came t o

the k g i o n within a s h o r t p e r i o d of 15 y e a r s s i n c e independence and ' t h e

rat* of inflow continued t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e a f t e r .

However, t h e p r o c e s s

ef landholding i n t h i s region during the p o s t independence p e r i o d i s


distinctly d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of the. e a = . l i e r .decades.
L

For i n s t a n c e ,

i f allotment*of c u l t i v a b l e wastes and f o r e s t shades a t favourable terms

far cennnercial c u l t i v a t i o n had been t h e main i n c d n t f v e f o r t h e e a r l y imnijrants, t h e new immigrants mostly r e s o r t e d t o encxoachment and

subsequent a g i t a t i o n f o r l e g a l i s a t i o n of occupancy ri.ght s.


There were only few i n s t a n c e s of small s c a l e encroachments i n , t h e

Cardmom H i l l Reserve during t h e t h i r t i e s arid f o u r t i e s which were


induced by the

rules of assignment of f o r e s t land f o r cardamom c u l t i v a -

tirn.

However, massive encroachments were r e p o r t e d only from the e a r l y

f i f t i e s , when t h e p o l i c y of t h e government emphasf sed p r o v i s i o n o f cultivable land i n t h e a r a b i e f o r e s t r e g i o n s of t h e s t a t e t o land-hungry peasants md land l e s s lebourers. During t h e ' f i f t i e s v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s

were i n existence, such a s t h e High Range Rec 1ama t i o n scheme f o r providi n y wasta lends f o r c u l t i v a t i o n and t h e s e were r u l e s f o r t h e a l l o t m e n t

rf land i n various high land v i l l a g e s under t h e Kuthauamattam l e a s e rules ( a t t h e rate of 5 acres p e r family i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e )reduction .of food crops).

Attracted by these opporlunities, hordes of land grabbers rushed up and cleared v a s t a r e a s i n t h e cardamom H i l l Reserv

Most

o f the pioneer occupants sold out t h e i r lands f o r p r o f i t t o new comes and moved f o r f r e s h encroachments i n t h e more i n t e r i o r f o r e s t areas.

I n t h i s manner by 1956, almost t h e e n t i r e eastern portion of t h o Car-'


damom H i l l s reserve came under some form of c u l t i v a t i o n o r other.
1955-56 about 35,000 a c r e s of occupied land i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s

In

Reserve were t o be declared non-revertible and s e t a p a r t f o r assignm'ent t o t h e occupants. These a l l o t e e s , had a l s o i n f a c t appropriated more ?he inflow

than what was l e g a l l y a l l o t t e d t o them by t h e government. of encroachers t o t h e f o r e s t l a n d s kept on growing.

The middlemen ahd


Another

t h e speculators a l s o played a c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e probess.

s p u r t of encroachment took place between 1958-1960, when about l,5O, 000 a c r e s of f o r e s t land was encroached a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve. ''sixties The process of encroachment continued during t h e Though we have no q u a n t i t a t i v e data to

and seventies period.

a s s e s s t h e e x t e n t of such encroachments during t h e recent past, an account of t h e various a g i t a t i o n s on t h e i s s u e and t h e proceedings of t h e government during t h i s period c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t massive unauthb r i s e d occupation of f o r e s t lands have taken place a t various locations i n t h e region. There a r e two important f a c t o r s t h a t contributed t o t h e growth of l a r g e scale encroachment on t h e f o r e s t area: ( a ) inefficiency of

t h e administrative s e t up t o prevent encroachment and (b) t h e government policy of l e g i t i m i s i n g encroachment already made on. land not s u i t a b l e f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n .
A s mentioned e a r l i e r , during t h e pre-indepen-

dence period t h e land assigned f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of cardamom had been

under t h e dqal . c o n t r o l ,of t h e revenue and f o r e s t departments,:. the-.


ferest dopartmen$ r e t a i n i n g c o n t r o l ~ , o v e t r h e o;ther non-assigned . land ..-, as well a s over, t h e t r e e growth i n ( t h o e n t i r e area.

lhis ~ u l o was,, , ' .

changed i n 1950. and t h e c o n t r o l over a l l f o r e s t land w a s vested @ t h the revenue, departrnant, t h e f o r e s t department r a t a i n i n g . contyok?hver
.

the treos . .. alone. . . . ,..:.


-.

In

. ? . ,

,1957, . .-

t y e a r l i e r sy,stom w a s s&nfor,ced.;f~r .at.yeprr.

After..1958, tha:,control,, eyer l a n d .and c o n - t r a lI o w r tree. growth-. WerQ,


w d n . vestold, wpa~a$ely. Y$ th ,.thg,, r w q w r find$ q r p 3 f . @ p q & ~ n $ s ;ir;e.mmt
. . gave t h e ' .eqpstsd?P$rtctively. .By.,an .amehdment i n 1970, ;, t&,..government-. . . , , . . , .

Rent tho control over t h e land l e a s e d o u t ( o r s u i t a b l ~ ' f o ~1easjngA ,

lying alongside t h e f o r e s t p r e s e r v a t i o n areas. n . .fZh.c illegal,.occuSuch. dyal c o n t r o l over t h e f o ~ e $ t , y e g t ~madc


pation of f o r e s t a r e a --very &easy:f o r t h e e n c r a a c h e r s .

.The ,primary. res-

ponsibility of prevsnting encroachment l i e s with t h e f o r e s t department. But the f o r e s t o f f i c i a l s are i n e f f o c t i v e i n d i s c h a r g i n g t h f s responslI


I.<..

. bility effectively,. s i n c e l a n d i.n t h e Cordamom.,Hi 11s .Reserve. remain.., . .


A .

under t h e control of t h e revenue department and t h e fo'rest department


can intervene only when t h e t r e e s a r e c u t . Therefore, i n a - s i t u a t i o n

where unauthori sed occupation of f o r e s t land i s n o t . considered 'an

-ef.fmce, an. r e g u l a r i s a t i o n i s e v e n t u a l l y g r a n t e d by . t h e revenue depart.8eat i r x e q b c t i v e of t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e occupation, e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n


.a$ ~ n v i o l g e d the., ~ ~ , Farest A c t a g a i n s t wre .FiLhi.ng40f t r ~ d s ha#,bdc&e
.

alrn~et .impo&$ible, An important a s p e c t .of t h e encroachment of f o r e s t l'ancl sihce'


'

t h e early f i f. t.i e s was t h c occupation of a large p r o p o r t i o n of the J a n d

n o t suited f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n . , .

23/

Such a r e a under occupation

ranged from gra,ss land i n t e r s p e r s e d i n the .cardamom a r e a t o rn~3st

deciduous f o r e s t s containing valuable t r e e growth.

But t h e rules of

assignment of f o r e s t land on t h e Cardamom Wills Reserve permitted leg& l i s a t i o n of encroachment only f o r land occupied with t h e s p e c i f i c purp6# o f growing cardamom. Because of t h e increased demand f o r land, govern-,

ment revised t h e r u l e s of assignment of cardamom lands i n 1959 and f i x e d a 21i acre l i m i t on t h e maximum extent of land which an individual could t a k e on lease. I n 1961, by another amendment, t h e government

increased the l e a s e period from 7 yoars t o 20 years; t h i s amendment made t h e possession of land i n the name of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n more easy. Thus, i n t h e wake of l a r g e scale occupation in t h e Cardaniom Hflls Reserve, cvon aroas not s u i t a b l e f o r r a i s i n g cardamom happened t o be encroached upon i n t h e name of cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n , not with a view to growing cardamom, b u t t o take advantage of t h e 25 acre l i m i t and g e t as much f o r e s t area a s possible. Many of t h e o r i g i n a l encroachers, who
to
1-

had taken possession of t h e f o r e s t area, t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r land new;domers fok p r o f i t .

?'he new ccmers wero mostly absentee land-lords;

with t h e help of middlemen they sold t h e i r land piece-meal t o landless persons e l i g i b l e f o r aseignmont of land under t h o Kerala Land Assignment Rules.

&,The

majority of t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s r n r e n o t covered by v a l i d docy

mcints, and physioal possession was t h e only c r i t e r i o n f o r enjoymenti'. In


aourge of time, t h o government had t o r e g u l a r i s e a l l such i l l e g a l tran-

sac.tions, along with t h e r e g u l a r i s a t i o n of enroachment i n t o o t h e r arable f o r e s t land rrhicti took place und8r severe economh and p o l i t i c a l pressure
a t v a r i o u s stages.

It is possible t o obtain sama i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e process of rogu-

l a r i s a t i o n of oncroachments over t h e q l a s t three,'decados by examining systematically the various d e l i b e r a t i o n s within the s t a t e government on

rehabilitation of t h e e v i c t e d .

A summary s t a t e m e n t of t h e r e s u l t s o f

such deliberations i s given i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e .

The process involved i n t h e r e g u l arisatLowd%n~.oachedI;md


a s depicted i n Talile 2 shows t h e following:

( a ) tendency on Be p a r t

ef the s t a t e t o r e g u l a r i s e i l l e g a l occupation of f o r e s t l a n d a s on a certafn date, i t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s ; and ( b ) i n i t i a t i n g a c t i o n by t h e


state t o e v i c t t h e ancaoachers occupying t h e f o r e s t l a n d a f t e r each o f
the above dates.

Each t i m e , however, t h e a c t i o n i n i t i a t e d l e d t o massive

public p r o t e s t s and t o t h e appoirrtmentof ~cornrnittees/cornmissionst o reexamine t h e v a r i o u s dimensions o f e v i c t i o n .


And f i n a l l y on t h e ' b a s i s '

ef these-reports v a l i d a t i o n o f e n c r o a & h m e ~ [email protected] s subsequen.t

date.

M a t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e here i s t h a t , between t h e t i m e span

ef ,the f i r s t and t h e second. dates. of v a l i d a t i o n , . f u r t h e r massive en-

creachments, took place.

Thus, it seems t h q t t h e s t a t e h a s been showing

r lenient a t t i t u d e t w a r d s encrcachments, a p o l i c y t h a t h a s i n e f f e c t

8erired a s a'powerful i n c e n t i v e t o spread t h e encroachment mania f a r and


wide and t o denude t h e f o r e s t l a n d s of t h e s t a t e c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h o u t

rhym e r reason.

able

2 8

'statement

the

of t h e various d e l i b e r a t i o n s of the Government and Enquiry Commissions on m a t t e r of encroachment of f o r e s t land, e v i c t i o n of occupants and the p r o v i s i o n s f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the e v i c t e e s

1.
- ------I -

overnment . .orders/Commi ttee s Encpir-mi ssion s --.. I ~overnmentP r e s s Communique on 3-6-1957

--l-----b---------------

Obbectives~&liberati~n~~ct conternelated ion A l l encroachment on f o r e s t land a f t e r 1-4-7957 w u l d be s e r i o u s l y d e a l t w i t h and encroachment w i l l n o t be considered f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d t o l a n d l e s s poor.

I -

?.

Constitution of Populat Committee on Range Basis i n J u l y 1957

T h e - o b j e c t i v e was t o i d e n t i f y t h e l a n d l e s s c u l t i v a t o r s who had been u n d e r possession of f o r e s t land and had developed t h e same b e f o r e t h e d a t e o f s t a y of e v i c t i o n v i z . 26-4-1957. In t h e c a s e of e v i c t i o n of such p e r s o n s provision was made t o g i v e a l t e r n a t i v e l a n d f o r occupation, The c h i e f conservgtor of f o r e s t was informed t h a t n o e v i c t i o n based on t h e previous revertible/non-revertible (1955) c1assi.f i c a t i o n of f o r e s t d e p a r t ment from t a k i n g a c t i o n a g a i n s t encroachment a f t e r 1-4-1957.. Many p e o p l e g o t i n t o t h e Reserve o f Ayyappan C o i l a r e a and f o r c e d t o p a s s o f f a s e n t r a n t s p r i o r t o 1-4-1957. The department e v i c t e d a f e w f a m i l i e s b u t t h e High Land Karshakasangham s t a r t e d a g i t a t i o n and t h i s l e d b t h e formation of a n o t h e r Cornmi s sion.
y . -369 - f a m i l i e s i n t h o above a r e a claimed t h a t t h e y had occupied t h e p l o t s on t h e f o r e s t before 1-4-1957 znd t h a t t h e y a r e e v i c t e d i l l e g a l l y . On e n q u i r y t h e claim of o n l y 50 f a r z i l l e s were conceded and t h e zest were r e j e c t e d .

3.

Government Order on 4-7-1957

I.

G. Chandu Kenon Enquiry C a m % ssi on

I.

- - Conference of M i n i s t e r s i n

J u l y 196C.

The d e l i b e r a t i o n suggestad t h a t a l l encroachments subsequent t o October 1959 should be' summarily e v i c t e d and a s r e g a r d s encroachments p r i o r t o October 1959 t h e Government w i l l i s s u e i n s t r u c t i o n l a t e r .

Governmqnt o r d e r on. 27-4-1 961

Allowkg e v i c t i o n of oncroachero i n t h e western r e g i o n of ~araamomH i l l s Reserves. This a r e a comprised of about 70,000 a c r e s . ?he t o t a l number of households t o be e v i c t e d were enumerated as 6,955 and t h e e f f e c t i v e c u l t i v a t i o n a s 29,bbO acres. I h e e v i c t i o n t h a t commenced i n May 1961 was stopped when 8~000 a c r e s had been c l e a r e d of encroachment. A f r e s h enumeration was made according t o . which

0 4 Y
' 4 . 3 :
4

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3 0

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W t F C O c : s.4u.l C

k.3 dClkQ,

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Ef"?:

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Impact on t h e Eco-system

Tho r a p i d growth, of encroechment of f o r e s t l a n d s while c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the expansion of a r e a under c u l t i v a t i o n , h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h o f o l l o * n & changes i n t h e cropping p r a c t i c e s a s well a s t h e micro-envir. onment i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve:
(a) The migrant farmers adopted a cropping p a t t e r n n o t condu-

c i v e t o t h e f o r e s t eco-system.

Most of t h e farmers who migrated from :

t h e mid and low-land a r e a s of t h e s t a t e came i n search of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d f o r l i v e l i h o o d , and they introduced c v a r i e t y of w b s i s t a n c e crop0 l i k e r i c e , coconut, t a p i o c a , and o t h o r c r o p s l i k e pepper and rubber i n t h e High Ranges.
.

These were c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e g r a s s l a n d s o$ deciduous

f o r e s t a r e a s ad j a c a n t t o t h e evergreen f o r e s t canopy where ca'rdamom n s being cultivated. Thus t h e r e have taken p l a c e s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t s i n

t h e cropping p a t t e r n i n t h e Cardamom H i l l
(b)

A t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s , t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of many of t h e s e

c r o p s r e q u i r e d d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r e e g r o r r t k i n t h o deciduous f o r e s t areas.
4

Although t h e r u l e s of assignment of land on lease p r o h i b i t the

d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r e e growth, t h e dual c o n t r o l of t h e revenuo and f o r e s t departments on t h e Cardamom H i l l s made it p o s s i b l e f o r t h e culI

t i v a t o r s t o i n d u l g e f r e e l y i n such a c t i v i t y .

A s the forest officials

were n o t e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of menaging t h e land and


l e a s e s i n t h e f o r e s t region, no o b j e c t i o n could be r a i s e d f o r t h e mere occupation of l a n d s ) they would i n t w e n e only when t h e tree growth was cut.' Once t h e l a n d was a l i e h a t e d , t h e f i r s t s t e p of t h e encroacher

was t o c l e a r a s much t r e e gsowth a s p o s s i b l e and commence c u l t i v a t i o n .

Even i f cases. were booked agai!: st i l l i c i t f e l l f c a of t r e e s no evictian of the occupants could t a k e p l a c e i n t h e a r e a and t h e c u l t i v a t o r s could conbnue t h e i r o p e r a t i o n l e a d i n g t o f u r t h e r d e s t r u c t 5on of t h e

tree growth.

The c o n s t r u c t i o n of hydel p r o j e c t s and i s o l a t e d human

aattloments i n v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s h w e a1 so been c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e 26/ accentuation of t h e d e f o r e s t a t i o n p r o c e s s ' "


(c) Ihe c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s used i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of many of
9 .

them crops have n o t been conducive t o t h e i o ~ e s.environment. t

Pra-

ctices l f k e t i l l a g e and ploughing i n s t e e p s l o p e s l e a d t o s e r i o u s


preblcms of s o i l e r o s i o n and exposure o f t h e s o i l t o s u n l i g h t , eventutlly leading t o a p r o c e s s of l a t e r i s a t i o n .

21/

Aa a consequence of l a r g e e c a i e d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n t h e Cardambm

Hills m i o n , n o t only t h a t t h e adverse e f f e c t s of i n a p p r o p r i a t e c ~ o p mix, depletion of t r e e growth and u n s u i t a b l e c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e have

rehlted. . i n d e c i i n e i n s o i l f e - t i l i t y and p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t t h o micro


1

environment necessary f o r t h e sustenance of the cardamom p l a n t h a s

alrr und&gone irrevers!.hl e a l t e r a t i o n .

28/

The g r a v i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n
,

is best &ought o u t by t h e i i n ~ .s s i b r l i t y of s u s t a i n i n g cardamom i n


ouch m environment.
"Large s c a l e unauthorf sed f e e l i n g of t h e t r e e growth from laiids 'suited f o r cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n have taken p l a c e aafnly f o r conversion and c u l t i v a t i o n of seasonal c r o p s i n Vellathooval and P a l l i v a s a l v i l l a g e s i n Devikuleva Taluk and Ayyappancoil , Konnathady, Kalkoonthal, Parathodu 'and Rajakad v i l l a g e s i n Udumbanchola Taluk. Total area c l e a r e d afid converted for o t h e r c u l t i v a t i o n

i n these v i l l a g e s i s n o t l e s s than 10,000 a c r e s . Of .thee v i l l a g e s , t h e r e was heavy and widespread e x p l o i t a t i o n

of f o r e s t i n . Vellathooval and P a l l i v a s a l v i l l a g e s i n Devicolam Taluk and i n Kalkoonthal, Rajakad and Konnathady v i l l a g e s cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n h a s almost disappeared. Conversions have occurred i n almost a l l ae/ o t h e r cardamom v i l l a g o s a1 so, b u t i n i s o l a t e d pocketsw. The s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r complicated by t h e r e c u r r e n t p e s t and d i s e a s e a t t a c k s i n r e c e n t y e a r s and t h e u n s c i e n t i f i c c u l t i v a t i o n
. .

p r a c t i c e s followed.

Several s t u d i e s have shown t h a t t h e f e r t i l i t y

s t a t u s of cardamom s o i l i s g e n e r a l l y very high due t o t h e process of bio-cycling i n t h e f o r e s t environmen

In such an environment certain

c u l t u r a l practices l i k e frequent t i l l a g e , d r a s t i , ~ shade r e g u l a t i o n , p e r i o d i c removal of s o i l from inter-row a r e a s , d e p o s i t of mulch materi a l s beneath t h e t o p s o i l

... etc.,

which a r e widely p r a c t i s e d , a r e

proved t o be very harmful t o t h e growth of cardamom p l a n t . 'They lead t o heavy moisture d e p l e t i o n , poor n u t r i e n t absorption and high degree of s o i l erosion i n t h e region. I n f a c t , it woullPseem t h a t major

technological break-through i s needed only t o contain t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e a t t a c k of p e s t s and diseases. P r o d u c t i v i t y of cardamom could

s t i l l be reasonably maintained i f t h e crop i s allowed t o grow f r e e l y


i n i t s n a t u r a l f o r e s t environment with minimal investment and maximum concern f o r t h e maintenance of e c o l o g i c a l balance i n t h e region. I n sum, t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e human i n t e r a c t i o n i n tine d e l i c a t e eco system of t h e High Ranges h a s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d t h e e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n g e n e r a l and t h e s e n s i t i v e cardamom p l a n t i n p a r t i c u l a r . The concern f o r adequate f o r e s t cover i n t h e cardamom t r a c t which was shown till t h e f i f t i e s i s n o t shown any more and d e s t r u c t i o n goes on

unchecked.

It i s . f u r t h e r a b e t t e d by t h e r a p i d l y r i s i n g p r i c e of t h e

crops grown i n t h e regior. which do n o t adequately t r a n s m i t t h e c o s t s

m f deforestation t o t h e p r i v a t e c u l t i v a t o r s .

The v a r i o u s development

i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e t o o i n s o n s i t i v e t o p e r c e i v e t h e s o c i a l c o s t we have begun'to pay.


I t i s a l l t n e more complicated by t h e extremely

complex r e a l i t y f a c i n g u s i n t h e form of high d e n s i t y of population, lack of any source of l i v e l i h o o d o t h e r than lend which g e t s r e f l e c t e d

i n the "land hungrynesst' of t h e population, t h e p o l i t i c s of p e t t y


gains l e g i t i m i s i n g such hunger encouraging f u r t h e r land g r a b s and t h e further degradation of t h e ecosystem.

( This paper i s e x t r a c t e d frcm a r e p o r t "Development of Cardamom.


P1ant;:ions i n t h e High Rang;:
af Kerala", whl%
we d i d f o r

the National ~ a h k f o r A g r i c u l t u r e and Rural Development.

We

are g r a t e f u l t o t h e NABARD f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l support t o t h e

study and t o P r o f e s s o r s K.N.

Raj, P.G.K.

~ a n i k a r ,P . R . G .

Nair

and Chiranjib Sen f o r - t h e i r comments.

However, we e r e s o l e l y

responsible f o r t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d and t h e d e f e c t s t h a t remain)

Notes and References Cardamom H i l l s r e g i o n form a p o r t i o n of t h a Western Ghat i n Kerala, covering t h e geo r a p h i c n l a r e a s of Udubanchola, Peemedu and Devicolam t a l u k s i n dukki D i s t r i c t . This i s t h e only region i n Kerala f o r which h i s t o r i c a l documents of t h e development of Cardamom c u l t i v a t i o n f o r a p e r i o d of over hundred y e a r s a r e a v a i l able.

Ashim Dasgupta, Malabar i n Asian Trade 1740-1800, Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s 1967.


V. Nagam Aya, Travancore S t a t e Manual Vol. 1 1 1 pp. 84-85

Thavalams were p l a c e s i n t h e Cardamom H i l l s where t h e harvested Cardsmom was brought f o r d r y i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n purpose under t h e S t a t e monopoly c o n t r o l .

Mrs. Heath Lovette, ' A S h o r t H i s t o r v of t h e Peermedu. Vandiuerivaz District', p. 21


Administration Report of Travancore M.E.
Mrs. Heath Lovette op.cit,

1077,

21

t Travancore MEIC45, p.68 Ibid. and Administration Rer ~ r of


Administration R e ~ o r tcf Travancore ME 1045 p. 64 and ~ a ~ a n ~ i ~ a , o p . c i t . p.93 Nagam Iya, 0p.cit. Ibid. The Nagarampara and Thodupuzha r e s e r v e s of t h e Thodupuzha Taluk where ~ l s o cardamom :s grown, a r e known a s t h e "KanniElarnw t r a c t . Vol.111 p.85

The a r e a under Cardamoa i n t h e Devicolam, Udumbanchola and Peermedu Taluk i n t h e i d i k k i d i s t r i c t are known a s t h e Makaraelam t r a c t . This t r a c t i n c l . ~ d e s t h e Cardamom H i l l s Reserve which i s co-terminus with t h e 12 Revenue v i l l a g e s of Udumbanchola Taluk, t h e P e r i y a r Reserve ( t h e P e r i y a r Peerumedu and Ealappara v i l l a g e s i n Pzermedu t a l u k s ) and the P a l l i v a s a l unreserved".

Csns~saf Travancore 1891 3;-~d 1901


Travancore Administration Reports ME 1071 t o 1084
K.V.. Ramakrishnan: Report on ~ardzimorn 1975 g. 6 to 10 1978 and T.P. Viswanathan: Brief H i s t o r y of Cardamom d i l l s Reserve 1978.

C~SUS of Travancore K.V.

1921, 1931 and I941


p. 11

Ramakrishnan, o p , c i t

Estimated area and p r o d u c t i v i t y of Cardamom i n t h e Cardamom Hills Regewe Reqi-01

'lear

Area (1 000 ~ c r e s ) P r o d u c t i v i t y

acre

Saurce:

Various i s s u e s o f t h e Travancore Admini-stration R e p o r t s

2#.

~011ewingthe example of t h e European p l a r i t e r s , t h e other smaller changes t i n t h e techniques grewers a l s o brought o u t ~ t g n i f i c a ~ ef curing czrddrnom; while it was e a r l i s r d r i e d i n sun l i g h t . Tho use o f c u r i n g chambers f o r b e t t a r d r y t n g became widespread by t h e twenties and t h i r t i e s ' . These t e c h n i c a l changes r e s u l ted i n s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n t h e q u a l i t y of t h e t r i e d c a p s d e by r e t a i n i n g i t s gree c o l o u r .
T.P.
K.V.

21.

Viswanathan o p . c i t . Ramakrishnan op,cit.

22.

23.

T . ? . Viswanathan o~.cit,

25.

Kercla S t a t e Landuse Board: Trivandrum 1984. Census of Kerala

Land Use P l a n f o r Idukki District

26.
27.

- 1971.

D i s t r i c t Census Hand Book I d i k k i

P.K. Zaharia "Need f o r Mulching i n Cardamom C u l t u r e n . Report of t h e Proceedinus of t h e National Symposium on P l a n t a t i o n Crops. CPCRI. Kasargod 1976

28.

The impact of t h e s e on t h e f o r e s t eco-system may be understood from t h e environment i n which cardamom i s c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e Wcstern Ghats. The p l a n t p r e f e r s a warm humid atmosphere and a tcmperaturo ranging between 50 t o 95' F, t h r i v i n g b e s t i n shade provided by t h e l o f t y t r e e s . The p l a n t i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o wind and grows w 2 l l only f n s l o p e s of h i l l s o r p l a i n l a n d s l y i n g a g a i n s t t h e normal d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind. The crop a l s o r e q u i r e s p l e n t i f u l supply of hume m d f a i r l y d i s t r i b u t e d rainf a l l over 60 inches. Depending on t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e microenvironment i n which t h ? c r o p i s grown, i t s p r o d u c t i v i t y a l s o d i f f e r s significantly.
A n o t e p r ~ p a r e d2 t t h e c o l l e c t o r a t e , Idukki, f o r p e r u s a l 'of t h e M i n i s t e r , A Brief H i s t o r y of & m i n i s t r a t i o n of Cardamom l a n d s i n Idukki D i s t r i c t , Chapter V 1978.

29.

30.

In a f o r e s t l i t t l e i s l o s t u n t i l t h e timber i s destroyed. It i s estimated t h a t an h e c t a r e of cardamom p l a n t a t i o n g e t s an average of 5 t o 8 tonnes, of l e a f from l e a f shedding adding g of P and 75-120 Kg of K. Vegetation 50-80 k g of N, 12-20 K f u r t h e r improves i t and t h e n u t r i e n t removal by cardamom i s very low. N u t r i e n t removal on account of h a r v e s t i n g 100 Kg of cardamom i s only N-1 .28 kg, P -0.28 Kg, and K -3.84 Kg.

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