THE LEXICAL ITEM DOWN AND SOME OF ITS VARIANTS PRESENT IN THREE TEXTS ON THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CRISIS:
A CRHONOLOGICAL STUDY OF FORMS AND GRAMMATICALIZATION Franklin de la Cruz.
Universidad de Chile Facultad de Filosofa y Humanidades Departamento de Lingstica Magster en Lingstica mencin Lengua Inglesa English Grammar Course 2012 Professor Carlos Zenteno
Abstract: From all the different variations of the lexical item grade, it is the adverb form that is present in all the instances of compound forms. All of them originated in Modern English. Four out of seven compounds, came from ablatives and derived into nouns. Only in one instance, downgrade, derived from a noun into verb, making thus, a clear instance of grammaticalization. There is a strong tendency towards the fusion of the element adjacent to the right towards the adv. form.
1 1.1 1.1.1
Objectives General objective To track the change process of the lexical item 'down' and seven of its lexical
compounded forms found in a 15,220 word long corpus, in order to detect instances of grammaticalization.
1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2
Specific objectives To track the form of the items diachronically by means of their etymology. To quantify the occurrence of the items present in the texts and contrast the
numbers. 1.2.3 To seek for instances of grammaticalization.
Introduction The aim of the present study is to identify whether the changes present in the
lexical item down are in fact instances of grammaticalization or just any other kind of linguistic transformation. In words of Hopper and Traugott (2001) grammaticalization
refers to the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions. Thus nouns and verbs may change over time into grammatical elements such as case markers, sentence connectives , and auxiliaries. (Hopper and
Trauggott. 2001: preface)
A clear example of that is the transformation of will, from PIE root *wel- (be pleasing) up to Mod. Eng. ll (auxiliary modal verb sufix of will). Here, we are going to provide a descriptive / etimological study on the lexical item down and 7 different forms
found in three texts: downturn, downgrade (n.), downgrade (v.), downside, slowdown, downward and meltdown.
3 3.1
Grammaticalization. Grammaticalization The term was used for the first time by Meillet (1912) in order to name the process
by means of which grammatical forms come into existence or change.
Today, it is
believed that there are at least three mechanisms that take place in order to modify the grammatical status of words: they are analogy, reanalysis and grammaticalization. Examples of these processes are appreciated in cases such as the plural noun mark suffix s (book/ books) for the first one, the fusion attested in cannot for the second, and the contraction from 'because' to 'coz' for the latter. Even though there are clear cut differences among them, the main characteristics of the overall process is meaning loss, it usually takes place at word boundary (phonological vowel and consonant reduction mainly), semantic bleaching, the event is umpredictable and takes place in a very long time. Nonetheless, the clines may be traced diachronically. Here, we follow the definition provided by Lehemann (2002), in which grammaticalization is:
"a process which may not only change a lexical into a grammatical item, but may also shift an item 'from a less to a more grammatical status', in Kurylowickz's words. Since adjectives derived in al are commonly non-relative (they have no polar antonyms and do not take part in comparison; cf. maternal), one might take the position that the property of being grammatical, of belonging to the grammar, is a bynary property and not a matter of degree." (Leheman, 2002)
Finally, according to Harrys (1997), 'Meillet's sense of grammaticalization includes the process by which a word becomes a clitic, a clitic an affix, and an affix a synchronically
unanalyzable part of another morpheme. This change in the grammatical forms would be a result of 'two competing forces, the tendency towards easy of articulation, and the tendency towards distinctinctness' (Leheman, 2002.) As it is going to be explained below, the changes that the item down attests today, are not instances of a grammaticalization change mechanism as such, but that of reanalysis (fusion) and nominalization. A comprehensive view on the history of the study of grammatical forms, and a miriad of proposals relative to the appropriate term(s) to refer to these procesess of language change are found in Lehemann (2002: Ch 1 and 2) and in Traugott (1993: Chps. 1 to 3.) 3.2 3.2.1 Grammaticalization mechanisms Analogy Hopper and Traugott (1993:56) claim that analogy is a mechanism that takes place in the paradigmatic axis of the items by means of a generalization and latter extension of it into other items simmilar in nature: stone : stones = shoe : X X = shoes Its main characteristics are that the analogical extension is made once a nucleus of forms has already emerged to which new forms can be assimilated (Hopper and Traugott, 1993:21), it is peripheral (it does not affect the system as a whole) and it is ruled out as a primary source of new grammatical forms. 3.2.2 Reanalysis In the context of functional linguistics, Langaker (reference back to Hopper and Traugott, 1993:40) refers to reanalysis as a change in the structure of an expression or class of expressions that does not involve any immediate or intrinsic modification of its
surface manifestation and it is the result of abduction1. One of the processes is called fusion, and it consists in the merger of two or more forms across word or morphological boundaries (Hopper and Traugott 1993:41): cil-hod ='condition of a child childhood As such, reanalysis is a mechanism that may lead to grammaticalization and all grammaticalized items have passed through a process of reanalysis. It involves a shift from grammatical to lexical structure. (Hopper and Traugott 1993:49) 3.2.3 Grammaticalization (mechanism) Meillet asserts that it consists in the attribution of grammatical character to autonomous words or to ways of grouping words (reference back to Meillet, 1912:132 in Hopper and Traugott 1993:22) and it tends to be a process of replacing older categories with newer ones having the same approximate value (Hopper and Traugott 1993:22).
PIE root *wel- /*wol- >P.Gmc. welljan > O.E. willan, wyllan > M.E. will/ 'll : modal aux v. 'be pleasing' 'to wish, desire, want' 14th c sheele (she will) 15th c she'll
Chronology of will2
The main characteristic is that the change is on the paradigmatic axis and thus, it can change the overall system of the language. The example above clearly unveils the meaning loss, the reanalysis of the form willan, and its contraction ll, as a previous state before a hypothetical clitic l ( shel*: she will)3. 3 3.1 Sample: down Methodology
First of all, the item was detected out from three texts on the same theme: todays European economic crisis. The first text was written by a specialist on the subject, the second by an expert journalist and the third one (seven one-paragraph-long texts) from the opinions written by ordinary users on the second text. All of them were taken out randomly from the internet within the first three choices given from the search engine tool from google. Then, the texts were copied into Microsoft Word 2003. After that, all the words were counted up automatically, by means of the counting words tool incorporated in the software. Then, the texts were converted into PDF (Portable Document Software.) There, the word down was automatically detected by the searching tool of the reading software PDF:
PDF word search tool
Then, the variations of the source word down were detected manually from the previous list given by the search engine and grouped together according to its forms. After that, the source word and the variations were fully traced back diachronically from the
information present in the Online Etimology Dictionary. Based upon that information, the next chart was drawn in order to track the changes of the words (See appendix B):
Etymology chart
Finally, the items were selected from the first two lines, the word change and the form:
O.E. ofdune dat > dune dat >M.E. prep > Mod. Eng. 1560 [prep > v >adv >adj ] Synthesis: dat > adv [prep > v >adj] Derivation of down adv.
The synthesis is read as given the dative item (down) it became and adverb to coexist with down v, down prep, and down adj. 4. 4.1 4.1.1 Analysis and data. Texts Text 1 The longest, with 13,547 words, comes from an annual paper published by the United Nations on economy affairs called World Economic Situationand Prospects 2012. It has no authorship, but due to the source, it is believed it was written by at least one specialist on the field. 4.1.2 Text 2 It is the editorial from the USA Today News. It is called How the European financial crisis affects you, and it was written by the European Commission.
4.1.3
Text 3 Actually, the third text corresponds to seven opinions written by ordinary people
about the information present in Text 2. All of the texts consisted only in one paragraph made up by 77 words on average. Only for methodological reasons, all the comments were grouped together as one 7 paragraphs long text. 4.2 Numbers: The total amount of words present in the texts is 14,614, distributed as follows: Text 1: 13,547 wds. Text 2: 526 wds. Text 3: 541 wds. (77 words on average out from seven one-paragraph-long texts) Total: 14,614 words. 4.2.1 Text 1 52 instances (out of 13, 547 words) of the item down and its variants were found: downturn n.: 16 down adv.: 14 (30% of the overall) down n. 1 down adj. 1
slowdown n.: 8 downward adj.:4 downside adj.: 3 meltdown n.: 3 downgrade n. 1 4.2.2 Text 2 7 instances (out of 526 words): meltdown n: 2 downs n.: 1 down adj.:1 downgrade v. 1 (1,9% of the overall)
downturn n.: 1 slowdown n.: 1 bringdown adv.:1 4.2.3 Text 3 Only one instance was found: down adv. 4.3 Comment. It is very interesting the fact that, the longer the text, more instances of a compound form of down seem to appear.
5 5.1
Etymologies and synthesis down adv. O.E. ofdune dat > dune dat >M.E. prep > Mod. Eng. 1560 [prep > v >adv >adj ] Synthesis: dat > adv [prep > v >adj]
5.2
down n.1 PIE root *dheu- v > O.N. dunn n > Mod. Eng. down n. Synthesis: v>n
5.3
down n.2
PIE root *dheue- v > P.Gmc *dunaz n >O.E. >dun n > Ger. Dune n >Mod. eng. down n. Synthesis: v>n
5.4
downturn n. (down adv) + (turn n) dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + v > n [ v]
Synthesis: dat > n 5.5 slowdown n. (1898) (slow adj.) + (down adv) adj > n + v > n Synthesis: adj > n 5.6 meltdown n. root v- > [v / v+n] + dat > adv [prep > v > adj] Synthesis: root v- > n 5.7 downside n. (down adv) + side n dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + root adj- > n
Synthesis: dat > n 5.8 downward adj. (down adv) + O.E. ward adv dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + Root v- > [adj / adv] Synthesis dat > adj
5.9 5.10 downgrade v. dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + v > n [v] Synthesis: dat > n [v]
Summary of items and synthesis
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8
down adv. = down n.2= downturn n. = slowdown n. = meltdown n. = downside n. = downgrade n= downgrade v=
dat > adv [prep > v >adj] v>n dat > n adj > n root v- > n dat > n dat > n [v] dat > v [n]
7 7.1
Conclusions With no exceptions, all the compound forms were instances of fusions made in
Mod.Engl., since the 18th c. onwards, between down (adv.) + some other element, like this: [adj, root v] + down adv + [n, adj, root v,] n n / v
It can be stated that according to this information, all the compound forms of down, have a central element which is down (adv.).
7.2
With only one exeption (downgrade v), the fusions led to compound nouns.
According to the Online Etimology Dictictionary, the verb form downgrade is attested since 1930 onwards and comes from downgrade (n.) attested almost one hundred years before, in 1858.
7.3
Downgrade (v.) stands as a clear instance of grammaticalization as a reanalysis of
the noun downgrade.
7.4
It is possible that the adv. item down plus noun may lead to reanalysis thus: down adv + noun > compound noun > compound verb
7.5
It is believed that the instance down adv + noun > compound noun is a potential
for grammaticalization.
7.6
Downturn (n), was the item with the most occurrance with a 30% fromk the all
cases. Thus, according to n. 7.4, it is possible that in a near future instances of downgrade (v.) may appear.
Notes
1
Abduction proceeds from an observed result, invokes a law, and infers that something
may be the case. E.g. given the fact that Socrates is dead, we may relate this fact to the
general law that all men are mortal, and guess that Scrates was a man (reference back to Andersen 1973:775. Hopper and Traugott 1993:41)
1
All the cline proposals come from the etymologies found in the Online Etymology
Dictionary at http://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=0
1
shel* the diacritic in the end means a hypothetical form of the item in the future
Reference Harrys, A. 1997. Remarks on Grammaticalization. Vanderbilt University. Hopper Paul & Traugott Elizabeth. 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press. Lehmann, C. 2002. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. 2nd edition. Lincom Europa.
Bibliography Bybee, Joan. 2002.Cognitive Processess in Grammaticalization. University of New Mexico DeLancey, Scott. 1993. Grammaticalization and Linguistic Theory.University of Oregon. Durkin, Philip. 2009. The Oxford Guide to Etimology. OxfordUniversity Press. Harrys, Alice. 1997. Remarks on Grammaticalization. Vanderbilt University. Hopper Paul & Traugott Elizabeth. 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press. Kyparski, Paul.---. Grammaticalization as Optimization. University of Yale. Lehmann, C. 2002. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. 2nd edition. Lincom Europa. Vliz, Leonardo. Grammaticalization: the Development of some Modal English Auxiliaries. Literatura y Lingstica. 2007.
Webliography European economic crisis 2012 comments: http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/story/2012-06-10/euro-Europefinancial-crisis/55502256/1
European economic crisis 2012 pdf: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_current/2012wesp_prerel.pdf Online Etymology Dictionary: http://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=0
APENDIX A Abreviations
Anglo-Fr. Anglo-French, the French written in England from the Norman Conquest (1066) through the Middle Ages; the administrative and legal language of England 12c.-17c. O.E. Old English, the English language as written and spoken c.450-c.1100. M.E. Middle English, the English language as written and spoken c.1100-c.1500. Mod.Eng. Modern English, language of Britain and British America since mid-16c. O.N. Old Norse, the Norwegian language as written and spoken c.100 to 1500 C.E., the relevant phase of it being "Viking Norse" (700-1100), the language spoken by the invaders and colonizers of northern and eastern England c.875-950. This was before the rapid divergence of West Norse (Norway and the colonies) and East Norse (Denmark and Sweden), so the language of the vikings in England was essentially the same, whether they came from Denmark or from Norway. Only a few of the loan words into English can be distinguished as being from one or the other group. P.Gmc. Proto-Germanic, hypothetical prehistoric ancestor of all Germanic languages, including English. PIE Proto-Indo-European, the hypothetical reconstructed ancestral language of the IndoEuropean family. The time scale is much debated, but the most recent date proposed for it is about 5,500 years ago.
Apendix B: etymology chart of down
Abduction proceeds from an observed result, invokes a law, and infers that something may be the case. E.g. given the fact that Socrates is dead, we may relate this fact to the general law that all men are mortal, and guess that Scrates was a man (reference back to Andersen 1973:775. Hopper and Traugott 1993:41) 2 All the cline proposals come from the etymologies found in the Online Etymology Dictionary at http://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=0 3 shel* the diacritic in the end means a hypothetical form of the item in the future
