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C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

CProgramming/Printversion

CProgramming

Thecurrent,editableversionofthisbookisavailableinWikibooks,theopencontenttextbookscollection,at [Link]
Permissionisgrantedtocopy,distribute,and/ormodifythisdocumentunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlike3.0License.

WhylearnC?
[Link],MacOSX,andGNU/[Link] systems,[Link],Perl,PHP,andPythonareallwritteninC. Bywayofanalogy,let'ssaythatyouweregoingtobelearningSpanish,Italian,French,[Link]?JustasLatinwasthebasisofallofthoselanguages,knowingCwillenableyoutounderstandand [Link].

WhyC,andnotassemblylanguage?
Whileassemblylanguagecanprovidespeedandmaximumcontroloftheprogram,Cprovidesportability. [Link],oneofthemainstrengthsofCisthatitcombinesuniversalityandportabilityacrossvariouscomputer architectureswhileretainingmostofthecontrolofthehardwareprovidedbyassemblylanguage. Forexample,CprogramscanbecompiledandrunontheHP50gcalculator(ARMprocessor),theTI89calculator(68000processor),PalmOSCobaltsmartphones(ARMprocessor),theoriginaliMac(PowerPC),theArduino(AtmelAVR),andtheIntel iMac(IntelCore2Duo).Eachofthesedeviceshasitsownassemblylanguagethatiscompletelyincompatiblewiththeassemblylanguageofanyother. Assembly,whileextremelypowerful,[Link],[Link]"whatyouseeisallyou get"language:aCstatementcorrespondstoatmostahandfulofassemblystatements,everythingelseisprovidedbylibraryfunctions. SoisitanywonderthatCissuchapopularlanguage? Liketopplingdominoes,[Link](likeOpenGL, orGTK),[Link],games,[Link] [Link]......

WhyC,andnotanotherlanguage?
TheprimarydesignofCistoproduceportablecodewhilemaintainingperformanceandminimizingfootprint,asisthecaseforoperatingsystemsorotherprogramswherea"highlevel"[Link] languagewhosefeaturesareunlikelytodisappearforalongtimeandhasbeenportedtomost,ifnotall,platforms. Forexample,CprogramscanbecompiledandrunontheHP50gcalculator(ARMprocessor),theTI89calculator(68000processor),PalmOSCobaltsmartphones(ARMprocessor),theoriginaliMac(PowerPC),theArduino(AtmelAVR),andtheIntel iMac(IntelCore2Duo).Whilenearlyallpopularprogramminglanguageswillrunonatleastoneofthesedevices,Cmaybetheonlyprogramminglanguagethatrunsonmorethan3ofthesedevices. [Link],[Link],pointersandarraysaredesignedtostructure,andmanipulatememoryinanefficient, [Link],[Link],whichinevitablymeansthatmemorydeallocationistheburdenofthe [Link],sincedealingwithmemoryallocationwhenbuildingahighlevelprogramisahighlyerrorprone [Link],whendealingwithlowlevelcodesuchasthepartoftheOSthatcontrolsadevice,Cprovidesauniform,[Link]. WhilePerl,PHP,PythonandRubymaybepowerfulandsupportmanyfeaturesnotprovidedbydefaultinC,[Link],mostsuchlanguagesinitiallyreliedonbeingwritteninC(oranotherhigh performanceprogramminglanguage),andwouldrequiretheirimplementationbeportedtoanewplatformbeforetheycanbeused. Aswithallprogramminglanguages,whetheryouwanttochooseCoveranotherhighlevellanguageisamatterofopinionandbothtechnicalandbusinessrequirements.

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History
Thefieldofcomputingasweknowittodaystartedin1947withthreescientistsatBellTelephoneLaboratoriesWilliamShockley,WalterBrattain,andJohnBardeenandtheirgroundbreakinginvention:thetransistor.In1956,thefirstfullytransistor basedcomputer,theTX0,wascompletedatMIT.Thefirstintegratedcircuitwascreatedin1958byJackKilbyatTexasInstruments,butthefirsthighlevelprogramminglanguageexistedevenbeforethen. "TheFortranproject"[Link]" TheIBMMathematical Formula TranslatingSystem",theprojecthadthepurposeofcreatingandfosteringdevelopmentofaprocedural,imperativeprogramminglanguage [Link](comparedtoassemblylanguage)andspeed(Fortranprogramsrannearlyasfastas,andinsomecases, justasfastas,programswritteninassembly).Furthermore,Fortranwaswrittenatahighenoughlevel(andthuswasmachineindependentenough)[Link](Algol58)was [Link](CPL)wasthencreatedoutofAlgol60in1963.In1967,itevolvedintoBasicCPL,whichwasitself,[Link],Bwastheroot ofC,createdin1971. BwasthefirstlanguageinC'[Link],alsoworkingatBellLabs, [Link],C,[Link],andthenC,whichresultedinamoreportableoperatingsystem. [Link],systemprogrammerscouldsimplywritethefewsystemdependentpartsrequiredforthe machine,[Link],itsimplymadesensetoalsowritenewutilitiesinC. TheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitutebeganworkonstandardizingtheClanguagein1983,[Link],ANSIX3.1591989"ProgrammingLanguageC",servedasthebasisforallimplementationsofC compilers.Thestandardswerelaterupdatedin1990and1999,allowingforfeaturesthatwereeitherincommonuse,orwereappearinginC++.

Whatyouneedbeforeyoucanlearn
GettingStarted
[Link],butnospecialknowledgeisneeded. BeforeyoucanstartprogramminginC,youwillneeda [Link]. [1] PopularCcompilersInclude: Name MicrosoftVisual StudioExpress TinyCCompiler (TCC) Clang GNUCCompiler Website VisualStudio([Link] us/products/2010editions/visualcppexpress) tinycc([Link] clang([Link] gcc([Link] Platform Windows GNU/Linux,Windows GNU/Linux,Windows,Unix,OSX GNU/Linux,MinGW(Windows) ([Link] License FreeVersion LGPL UniversityofIllinois/NCSALicense ([Link] GPL Details Powerfulandstudentfriendlyversionofan industrystandardcompiler. Small,fastandsimplecompiler. Afrontendwhichcompiles(Objective)C/C++ usingaLLVMbackend. [Link] systems.

TheminimumsoftwarerequirementstoprograminCisatexteditor,[Link] editors(seeListofTextEditors),amongthemostpopularareNotepad++forWindows,SublimeText,[Link],whichmakescodeeasiertoread ataglance,andtospotsyntaxerrors. Thoughnotabsolutelyneeded,manyprogrammerspreferandrecommendusinganIntegrateddevelopmentenvironment(IDE )[Link],combinedintooneconvenientpackage,usually [Link],linker,[Link],atoolthatwillpreserveyourCsourcecodeaftercompilationandenable youtodosuchthingsasstepthroughitmanually,oralterdataasanaidtofindingandcorrectingprogrammingerrors. ForbeginnersitisrecommendednottouseanIDE,[Link]. Soasageneralguideline:DonotuseanIDEunlessyouknowwhattheIDEdoes! PopularIDEsInclude: Name EclipseCDT Netbeans Anjuta Geany LittleCCompiler(LCC) Website Platform License Opensource CDDLandGPL2.0 GPL GPL Details EclipseIDEforC/C++developement,apopularopensourceIDE. AGoodcomparablematuredIDEtoEclipse. AGTK+2IDEfortheGNOMEdesktopenvironment. AlightweightcrossplatformGTK+notepadbasedonScintilla,withbasicIDEfeatures.

Windows,MacOSX, Eclipse([Link] Linux Netbeans([Link] Anjuta([Link] geany([Link] lcc([Link] Crossplatform Linux Crossplatform Windows

Freefornoncommercial Smallopensourcecompiler. use

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Xcode PellesC DevC++ MicrosoftVisualStudio Express CodeLite Code::Blocks Xcode([Link] PellesC([Link] DevC++([Link]

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MacOSX Windows,PocketPC Windows Windows Crossplatform Crossplatform Free Free GPL Free GPL2 GPL3.0 AvailableforfreeatMacAppStore ([Link] AcompleteCdevelopmentkitforWindows. UpdatedversionoftheformerlypopularBloodshedDevC++. Apowerful,userfriendlyversionofanindustrystandardcompiler. FreeIDEforC/C++development. Builttomeetusers'[Link].

VisualC++([Link] editions/visualcppexpress) CodeLite([Link] Code::Blocks([Link]

On GNU/Linux,GCCisalmostalwaysincludedautomatically. On MicrosoftWindows,DevC++isrecommendedforbeginnersbecauseitiseasytouse,free,[Link],theofficialreleaseofDevC++hasn'tbeenupdatedsince22February2005. [2]Anunofficial ([Link] [3]AnalternateoptionforthoseworkingonlyintheWindowsenvironmentistheofficialMicrosoftVisualStudioExpresswhichisfreeandhasan excellentdebugger. On MacOSX ,[Link]>Preferences>Downloads.

Footnotes
1. Actually,GCC's(GNUCCompiler) cc(CCompiler)[Link]'sassembly,[Link] as(assembler)[Link] program cpp(CPreProcessor),whichisnottobeconfusedwith c++thecompiler. 2. [Link] 3. [Link]

UsingaCompiler
DevC++
DevC++isanIntegratedDevelopmentEnvironment(IDE)fortheC++programminglanguage,availablefromBloodshedSoftware([Link] C++isaprogramminglanguagewhichcontainswithinitself,mostoftheClanguage,[Link]++compilerswillcompileCprograms,sometimeswithafewadjustments(likeinvokingthemwithadifferentnameorcommandlineswitch). Therefore,youcanuseDevC++forCdevelopment. However,DevC++[Link]++package,althoughtheyarecompletelydifferentprojects. DevC++simplyprovidesaneditor,syntaxhighlighting,somefacilitiesforthevisualisationofcode(likeclassandpackagebrowsing)[Link]++analysestheerrormessagesproducedbythe compilerandattemptstodistinguishthelinenumbersfromtheerrorsthemselves,theuseofothercompilersoftwareisdiscouragedsincetheformatoftheirerrormessagesislikelytobedifferent. ThelatestversionofDevC++[Link],[Link],[Link]. AversionofDevC++[Link],[Link].([Link].)Mostofthegraphicaltexteditors,andothercommoneditorssuchas emacsand vi(m), supportsyntaxhighlighting.

GCC
TheGNUCompilerCollection(GCC)isafreesetofcompilersdevelopedbytheFreeSoftwareFoundation.

StepsforObtainingtheGCCCompilerifYou'reonGNU/Linux On GNU/Linux, InstallingtheGNUCCompilercanvaryinmethodfromdistributiontodistribution.(Typein ccvtoseeifitisinstalledalready.) ForRedhat,getaGCCRPM,[Link](asroot)using r p mi v hg c c v e r s i o n r e l e a s e . a r c h . r p m ForFedoraCore,installtheGCCcompiler(asroot)byusing y u mi n s t a l lg c c . ForMandrake,installtheGCCcompiler(asroot)byusing u r p m ig c c ForDebian,installtheGCCcompiler(asroot)byusing a p t g e ti n s t a l lg c c . ForUbuntu,installtheGCCcompiler(alongwithothernecessarytools)byusing s u d oa p t g e ti n s t a l lb u i l d e s s e n t i a l ,[Link]. ForSlackware,thepackageisavailableontheirwebsite([Link] i n s t a l l p k gg c c x x x x x . t g z ForGentoo,[Link](asroot) e m e r g eu a vg c c . ForArchLinux,installtheGCCcompiler(asroot)byusing p a c m a nSg c c . Ifyoucannotbecomeroot,gettheGCCtarballfrom[Link] YoucanusesomecommercialCcompiler/IDE.

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StepsforObtainingtheGCCCompilerifYou'reonBSDFamilySystems ForMacOSX,FreeBSD,NetBSD,OpenBSD,DragonFlyBSD,DarwintheportofGNUgccisavailableinthebasesystem,oritcouldbeobtainedusingtheportscollectionorpkgsrc.

StepsforObtainingtheGCCCompilerifYou'reonWindows TherearetwowaystouseGCConWindows:[Link],[Link],andtakeslessdiskspace. TogetMinGW,dothis: 1. Goto[Link] 2. Oncethedownloadisfinished,[Link],orthetoolMake,butthesearen'tnecessary. 3. [Link]"Mycomputer"andclick"Properties".Gotothe"Advanced"tabandclickon"Environmentvariables".Gotothe"Systemvariables"sectionandscrolldownuntilyousee"Path".Clickonit,thenclick "edit".Add"C:\mingw\bin\"(withoutthequotes)totheend. 4. TotestifGCCworks,openacommandpromptandtype"gcc".Youshouldgetthemessage"gcc:noinputfiles".Ifyougetthismessage,GCCisinstalledcorrectly. TogetCygwin,dothis: 1. 2. 3. 4. Goto[Link] Click"run"inthewindowthatpopsup,andclick"next"severaltimes,acceptingallthedefaultsettings. ChooseanyoftheDownloadsites("[Link]",etc.)whenthatwindowcomesuppress"next"andtheCygwininstallershouldstartdownloading. Whenthe"SelectPackages"windowappears,scrolldowntotheheading"Devel"andclickonthe"+"[Link],scrolldownandfindthe"gcccore"[Link]"Skip", anditshouldchangetosomenumberlike"3.4"etc.(theversionnumber),andan"X"willappearnextto"gcccore"andseveralotherrelatedpackagesthatwillnowbedownloaded. 5. Click"next"[Link]'rewaitingfortheinstallationtofinish,[Link],you [Link],itisnotideal. 6. OncetheCygwindownloadsarefinishedandyouhaveclicked"next",[Link],doubleclicktheCygwinicononyourdesktoptobegintheCygwin"commandprompt".Yourhomedirectorywillautomaticallybesetupinthe Cygwinfolder,whichnowshouldbeat"C:\cygwin"(theCygwinfolderisinsomewayslikeasmallunix/linuxcomputeronyourWindowsmachinenottechnicallyofcourse,butitmaybehelpfultothinkofitthatway). 7. Type"gcc"attheCygwinpromptandpress"enter"if"gcc:noinputfiles"orsomethinglikeitappearsyouhavesucceededandnowhavethegcccompileronyourcomputer(andcongratulationsyouhavealsojustreceivedyourfirsterror message!). Thecurrentstable(usable)versionofGCCis5.1.6publishedon20091002,[Link],GCCisnotonlyaCcompiler,butafamilyofcompilersforseverallanguages,suchasC++,Ada,Java,andFortran. Oncegccisinstalled,[Link].handimplementedinmyfun_a.candmyfun_b.c,thenitisenough towrite
g c c m a i n . cm y f u n _ a . cm y f u n _ b . c

[Link].c,butifisinaseparateheaderfilesdirectory,thenthatdirectorycanbelistedaftera"I"switch. Inlargerprograms,[Link]. HowtocompileeachobjectfileisusuallydescribedintheMakefilewiththeobjectfileasalabelendingwithacolonfollowedbytwospaces(tabsareoftenbadcharacters)followedbyalistofotherfilesthataredependencies,eg..[Link] compiledinanothersection,andonthenextline,[Link],andthesamegoesforgcc,althoughgcchasalotof optionswitches,[Link]'h'commandthatshowswhatitcando,andisusuallystartedwith'[Link]'[Link] istheanonymousexecutablemachinecodefilethatwascompiledbygcc.

Embeddedsystems
MostCPUsaremicrocontrollersinembeddedsystems,oftenprogrammedinC,butmostofthecompilersmentionedabove(exceptGCC)[Link],seeEmbedded Systems/CProgramming.

AtasteofC
Aswithnearlyeveryotherprogramminglanguagelearningbook,weusethe HelloworldprogramtointroduceyoutoC.
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { p u t s ( " H e l l o ,w o r l d ! " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

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Thisprogramprints"Hello,world!"andthenexits. EnterthiscodeintoyourtexteditororIDE,andsaveitas"hello.c".

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Then,presumingyouareusingGCC,type g c coh e l l oh e l l o . c .[Link]'ohello'tellsittocallthecompiledprogram'hello'. Ifyouhaveenteredthiscorrectly,[Link],andwhenrunshoulddisplay"Hello,world!" Hereisanexampleofhowcompilingandrunninglookswhenusingaterminalonaunixsystem. l s isacommonunixcommandthatwilllistthefilesinthecurrentdirectory,whichinthiscaseisthedirectory p r o g s insidethehomedirectory(represented withthespecialtilde,~,symbol).Afterrunningthe g c c command, l s willlistanewfile, h e l l o [Link] l s forexecutablefiles.
~ / p r o g s $l s h e l l o . c ~ / p r o g s $g c coh e l l oh e l l o . c ~ / p r o g s $l s h e l l o h e l l o . c ~ / p r o g s $. / h e l l o H e l l o ,w o r l d ! ~ / p r o g s $

Partbypartexplanation
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > tellstheCcompilertofindthestandardheadercalled <stdio.h>[Link],youoftenhavetopullinextraoptionalcomponentswhenyouneedthem. <stdio.h>containsdescriptionsofstandardinput/outputfunctions

whichyoucanusetosendmessagestoauser,ortoreadinputfromauser.
i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) issomethingyou'[Link] [Link],[Link],oneCprogramcanbescatteredacrossmultiplefiles,soyouwon'talwaysfindamain

[Link] int atthebeginningmeansthatmainwillreturnanintegertotheoperatingsystemwhenitisfinished.

p u t s ( " H e l l o ,w o r l d ! " ) ; isthestatementthatactuallyputsthemessagetothescreen. putsisastringprintingfunctionthatisdeclaredinthefile stdio.h(whichiswhyyouhadto #includethatatthestartoftheprogram) p u t s automaticallyprintsanewlineat

theendofthestring.
r e t u r n0 ; willreturnzero(whichistheintegerreferredtoonline3)[Link](GCC4complainsifitdoesn'twhencompiling).Anonzerovalueisreturnedtoindicateawarningorerror.

Theemptylineistherebecauseitis(atleastonUNIX)[Link] W a l lp e d a n t i ca n s i options,ifthefiledoesnotendwithanewlinethismessageisdisplayed:"warning:nonewlineatendof file".(Thenewlineisn'tshownontheexamplebecauseMediaWikiautomaticallyremovesit)

Introexercise
IntroductoryExercises
OnGCC
IfyouareusingaUnix(like)system,suchasGNU/Linux,MacOSX,orSolaris,[Link]:
g c cf i r s t . c

Thenruntheprogrambytyping:
. / a . o u t

or,IfyouareusingCygwin.
a . e x e

YoushouldnowseeyourveryfirstCprogram.

[Link],[Link],[Link]:
c

indicatesthatthecompilerissupposedtogeneratean objectfile,whichcanbelaterlinkedtootherfilestoformafinalprogram.
o

indicatesthatthenextparameteristhenameoftheresultingprogram(orlibrary).Ifthisoptionisnotspecified,thecompiledprogramwill,forhistoricreasons,endupinafilecalled"[Link]"or"[Link]"(forcygwinusers).
g 3

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indicatesthat debugginginformationshouldbeaddedtotheresultsofcompilation.
O 2f f a s t m a t h

indicatesthatthecompilationshouldbeoptimized.
WW a l lf n o c o m m o nW c a s t a l i g nW r e d u n d a n t d e c l sW b a d f u n c t i o n c a s tW w r i t e s t r i n g sW a g g r e g a t e r e t u r nW s t r i c t p r o t o t y p e sW m i s s i n g p r o t o t y p e s

indicatesthatgccshouldwarnaboutmanytypesofsuspiciouscodethatarelikelytobeincorrect.
E

indicatesthatgccshouldonlypreprocessthecodethisisusefulwhenyouarehavingtroubleunderstandingwhatgccisdoingwith#includeand#define,amongotherthings. Alltheoptionsarewelldocumentedinthemanualpage([Link]
theclassicalhelloworldprogram

Thebasichelloworldprogram,fromtheK+RbookonC,isoftenworthmemorising,justforthestructureofthemainfunctionwhichacceptsswitches,justlikegccisaprogramwithamainfunctionthatacceptsswitches.

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > i n tm a i n (i n ta r g c ,c h a r * *a r g v ){ p r i n t f ( " H e l l oW O r l d !\ n " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

Thecommentedprogrambelowisbasicallythesame,withsomevariationsthathavethesameeffect.e.g.a"argv",or"pointertopointers",isthesameas*x[]or"arrayofpointers"and"exit(0)"doesthesameas"return0"forthemainfunction. Note:[Link],allthecommandsbefore"return(0)",or"exit(0)"[Link] noticethatthisconventionisverycommon,especiallyinthemainfunction.

/ *H e l l oW o r l d* / / * t h i sg i v e si n c l u d es t a t e m e n t ,b r i n g si nt h eh e a d e rf i l es t d i o . h, l o c a t e do f t e no nu n i xs y s t e m sa tt h ed i r e c t o r y/ u s r / i n c l u d e / , a n di n c l u d e s t h ep r i n t f ( )f u n c t i o n ,a sw e l la so t h e r s ,s n p r i n t f ,s c a n f ,g e t c h a r ,g e t l i n e . I nC ,f u n c t i o n st h a ta r ee x p o r t e dh a v et h e i r" s i g n a t u r e s "-f u n c t i o nn a m ea n dp a r a m e t e rl i s tl i s t e di nh e a d e rf i l e sf o re x p o r t i n g ,a n dt h e nt h es a m es i g n a t u r e sa r ed e f i n e di na n o t h e rf i l e , o f t e no ft h es a m en a m e ,t ob ec o m p i l e do n c ei n t oa no b j e c tf i l e ,a n do nu n i xs y s t e m so f t e nr e s i d e i n/ u s r / l i b / w i t hf i l en a m e sl i k es t d l i b . a o rs t d l i b . s o,o f t e na ss o f tl i n k st ov e r s i o n e df i l e s e . g .s t d l i b . 1 . 3 . s o, * / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > / * t h i sg i v e st h es t a n d a r dl i b r a r y ,w h i c hh a sf u n c t i o n s s u c ha sr a n d ( )r a n d o mn u m b e rg e n e r a t i o n( e . g .f o rg a m e s ) m a l l o c ( )a n df r e e ( ) f o rd y n a m i ch e a pm e m o r ya l l o c a t i o na so p p o s e dt os t a c km e m o r ya l l o c a t i o n . s t a c km e m o r yc a nb ea l l o c a t e db yd e c l a r i n gv a r i a b l e sa n da r r a y sa tt h es t a r to faf u n c t i o n,i n c l u d i n g t h em a i nf u n c t i o n ,a n dw i l lb ed e s t r o y e dw h e nt h ef u n c t i o ne x i t s . * / # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > / * t h en e x tl i n ei st h es t a n d a r de x p e c t e df u n c t i o nn a m e" m a i n "a n da r g u m e n tl i s to ft h ef i r s tf u n c t i o n t ob ee x e c u t e df o rt h i sp r o g r a mw h e nt h ec o m p i l e dp r o g r a mi se x e c u t e d . t h ef i r s ta r g u m e n ti st h en u m b e ro fa r g u m e n t s ,a n dt h es e c o n da r g u m e n ti sa na r r a yo fp o i n t e r st o a r r a y so fc h a r a c t e r s( s t r i n g s )w h i c hc o n t a i na r g u m e n t s. e . g . " ? "," v "," c " * / i n tm a i n ( i n tn _ a r g s ,c h a r *a r g s [ ] ){ p r i n t f ( " H e l l oW o r l d ! " ) ; / / o u t p u t sas t r i n gw i t h o u tf o r m a t t i n g . e x i t ( 0 ) ; / / s t d l i b . hf u n c t i o nt oe x i tw i t hac o d e ,i fe x e c u t e df r o m s a yab a s hs h e l ls c r i p t ,0w i l lb e / / r e t u r n e d ,w h i c hc a nb eu s e di n s i d eas h e l lc o n d i t i o n a li fs t a t e m e n t . }

OnIDEs
IfyouareusingacommercialIDEyoumayhavetoselectconsoleproject,[Link],butyoushouldhaveamenubuttonsoyoucanjustrunthe executablefromtheIDE. OnecanalsofindopensourceIDE'slikeEclipse,[Link].

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BeginningC Preliminaries
BasicConcepts
BeforeonegetstoodeepintolearningCsyntaxandprogrammingconstructs,itisbeneficialtolearnthemeaningofafewkeytermsthatarecentraltoathoroughunderstandingofC.

BlockStructure,Statements,Whitespace,andScope
Nowwe [Link]'refamiliarwithPASCAL,youmayhavehearditreferredtoasa [Link](andyou'llfindoutwhywhenyougooverfunctionsin detail)butitisstillveryimportanttounderstandwhatblocksareandhowtousethem. Sowhatisina block?Generally,ablockconsistsofexecutable statements. Beforewesaywhatablockis,what'sastatement?Onewaytoputitisthatstatementsaretextthecompilerwillattempttoturnintoexecutableinstructions,[Link] codethatdothings,likethis:
i n ti=6 ;/ *t h i sd e c l a r e sav a r i a b l e' i ' ,a n ds e t si tt oe q u a l6* /

[Link]()[Link],beginnersandexpertsalike!Sountilitbecomes secondnature,besuretodoublecheckyourstatements! SinceCisa"freeformat"language,severalstatementscanshareasinglelineinthesourcefile,likeso:

/ *t h i sd e c l a r e st h ev a r i a b l e s' i ' ,' t e s t ' ,' f o o ' ,a n d' b a r ' n o t et h a tO N L Y' b a r 'i ss e tt os i x !* / i n ti ,t e s t ,f o o ,b a r=6 ;

Thereareseveralkindsofstatements,andyou'[Link](i=6),[Link]. [Link],blocksbeginwithanopeningbrace " { " andendwithaclosingbrace " } " .Blockscancontainotherblockswhichcancontaintheirownblocks,andsoon. Let'sshowanexampleofblocks.

i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { / *t h i si sa' b l o c k '* / i n ti=5 ; { / *t h i si sa l s oa' b l o c k , 's e p a r a t ef r o mt h el a s to n e* / i n ti=6 ; } r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link]'lllearnalittlemoreaboutscopeinasecond. Whitespacereferstothetab,spaceandnewline/EOL(EndOfLine)[Link],it'shardtoappreciatewhitespaceuntilit'[Link],thesourcecode
p r i n t f ( " H e l l ow o r l d " ) ;r e t u r n0 ;

isthesameas
p r i n t f ( " H e l l ow o r l d " ) ; r e t u r n0 ;

whichisthesameas
p r i n t f( " H e l l ow o r l d " );

r e t u r n0 ;

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[Link],itiscommonpracticetousespaces(andtabs)[Link],loop,orotherstatementtoorganizeyourcode. InC,mostofthetimewedonotwantotherfunctionsorotherprogrammer'[Link]. [Link], local and global .Whenwespeakofsomethingbeing global ,wespeakofsomethingthatcanbeseenormanipulatedfromanywhereinthe [Link] local ,wespeakofsomethingthatcanbeseenormanipulatedonlywithintheblockitwasdeclared. Let'sshowsomeexamples,togiveabetterpictureoftheideaofscope.
i n ti=5 ;/ *t h i si sa' g l o b a l 'v a r i a b l e ,a n y w h e r ei nt h ep r o g r a mc a na c c e s si t* / / *t h i si saf u n c t i o n ,a l lv a r i a b l e si n s i d eo fi t a r e" l o c a l "t ot h ef u n c t i o n .* / i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ti=6 ;/ *' i 'n o we q u a l s6* / p r i n t f ( " % d \ n " ,i ) ;/ *p r i n t sa' 6 't ot h es c r e e n ,i n s t e a do ft h eg l o b a lv a r i a b l eo f' i ' ,w h i c hi s5* / r e t u r n0 ; }

Thatshowsadecentexampleoflocalandglobal,butwhataboutdifferentscopes insideoffunctions?(you'lllearnmoreaboutfunctionslater,fornow,justfocusonthe"main"part.)
/ *t h em a i nf u n c t i o n* / i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { / *t h i si st h eb e g i n n i n go fa' b l o c k ' ,y o ur e a da b o u tt h o s ea b o v e* / i n ti=6 ;/ *t h i si st h ef i r s tv a r i a b l eo ft h i s' b l o c k ' ,' i '* / { / *t h i si san e w' b l o c k ' ,a n db e c a u s ei t ' sad i f f e r e n tb l o c k ,i th a si t so w ns c o p e* / / *t h i si sa l s oav a r i a b l ec a l l e d' i ' ,b u ti nad i f f e r e n t' b l o c k ' , b e c a u s ei t ' si nad i f f e r e n t' b l o c k 't h e nt h eo l d' i ' ,i td o e s n ' ta f f e c tt h eo l do n e !* / i n ti=5 ; p r i n t f ( " % d \ n " ,i ) ;/ *p r i n t sa' 5 'o n t ot h es c r e e n* / } / *n o ww e ' r eb a c ki n t ot h eo l db l o c k* / p r i n t f ( " % d \ n " ,i ) ;/ *p r i n t sa' 6 'o n t ot h es c r e e n* / r e t u r n0 ; }

BasicsofUsingFunctions
[Link],[Link] ofrequestingafunctiontoperformitstaskiscalleda functioncall .Manyfunctionsrequireacallertohanditcertainpiecesofdataneededtoperformitstaskthesearecalled [Link]'re finishedthisiscalleda returnvalue(thereturnvalueintheaboveprogramis 0). Thethingsyouneedtoknowbeforecallingafunctionare: Whatthefunctiondoes Thedatatype(discussedlater)oftheargumentsandwhattheymean Thedatatypeofthereturnvalueandwhatitmeans Allcodeotherthanglobaldatadefinitionsanddeclarationsneedstobeapartofafunction. Usually,you'[Link],andonlyone, mainfunction,whichiswheretheprogrambeginsexecuting. Wewilldiscussfunctionsinmoredetailinalaterchapter,CProgramming/Proceduresandfunctions.

TheStandardLibrary
In1983,whenCwasintheprocessofbecomingstandardized,theAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)formedacommitteetoestablishastandardspecificationofCknownas"ANSIC".Thatstandardspecificationcreatedabasicsetof functionscommontoeachimplementationofC,[Link]/output,stringmanipulation,mathematics,files,[Link] doesnotprovidefunctionsthataredependentonspecifichardwareoroperatingsystems,likegraphics,sound,[Link]"Hello,World",program,aStandardLibraryfunctionisused p r i n t f whichoutputslinesoftexttothestandardoutput stream.

Compiling
HavingcoveredthebasicconceptsofCprogramming,wecannowbrieflydiscusstheprocessof compilation.

Likeanyprogramminglanguage,[Link] iscomprehensibletoa

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Likeanyprogramminglanguage,[Link] iscomprehensibletoa [Link] compileriswhattakesthiscode,andtranslatesitintothemachinecode. Tothosenewtoprogramming,[Link],translateeverythingintomachinecode,[Link],[Link],foralargeproject,the [Link],ifyoumakeachangetoasinglesourcefile,youwouldrathernothavetorecompilethe entireapplication. Todealwiththeseproblems,compilersbreaktheirjobdownintostepsforeachsourcefile(each . c file),thecompilerreadsthefile,readsthefilesitreferenceswith # i n c l u d e ,[Link]"objectfile"(. o ).Once everyobjectfileismade,a"linker"[Link],ifyouchangeonesourcefile,onlythatfileneedstoberecompiledandthentheapplicationneedstoberelinked. Withoutgoingintothepainfuldetails,itcanbebeneficialtohaveasuperficialunderstandingofthecompilationprocess.

Preprocessor
Thepreprocessorprovidestheabilityfortheinclusionofheaderfiles,macroexpansions,conditionalcompilation,[Link] [Link],[Link] language. InClanguage,allpreprocessordirectivesbeginwiththepoundcharacter(#).YoucanseeonepreprocessordirectiveintheHelloworldprogramintroducedinAtasteofC: Example:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h >

[Link] # p r a g m a [Link] [Link],sotheCpreprocessorcanalsobeusedindependentlytoprocessotherkindsoftextfiles.

SyntaxChecking
[Link],youmaygetmessagesorwarningsindicatingpotentialissueswithyourprogram(suchasastatementalwaysbeingtrueorfalse,etc.) Whenanerrorisdetectedintheprogram,thecompilerwillnormallyreportthefilenameandlinethatispreventingcompilation.

ObjectCode
[Link]'tbeexecutedyet,asithastocompletethelinkingstage. It'simportanttonoteafterdiscussingthebasicsthatcompilationisa"onewaystreet".Thatis,compilingaCsourcefileintomachinecodeiseasy,but"decompiling"(turningmachinecodeintotheCsourcethatcreatesit)[Link] exist,buttheyrarelycreateusefulcode.

Linking
[Link],whichisoftenpartofacompiler. Commonerrorsduringthisstageareeithermissingfunctions,orduplicatefunctions.

Automation
ForlargeCprojects,manyprogrammerschoosetoautomatecompilation,bothinordertoreduceuserinteractionrequirementsandtospeeduptheprocessbyonlyrecompilingmodifiedfiles. Mostintegrateddevelopmentenvironmentshavesomekindofprojectmanagement,[Link],makeandMakefilesareoftenusedtoaccomplishthesame.

Structureandstyle
CStructureandStyle
[Link],comments,[Link] actuallyprogramminginC. Asabeginningprogrammer,thepointofcreatingstructureintheprograms'codemightnotbeclear,asthecompilerdoesn'[Link],asprogramsbecomecomplex,chancesarethatwritingtheprogramhasbecomeajoint effort.(Orothersmightwanttoseehowitwasaccomplished.)Therefore,thecodeisnolongerdesignedpurelyforacompilertoread. Inthefollowingsections,wewillattempttoexplaingoodprogrammingpracticesthatwillinturnmakeyourprogramsclearerandmoreeffective.

Introduction
InC,[Link],[Link],astatementshouldbekeptonitsownline,asshownintheexamplebelow:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h >

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i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! \ n " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

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Thefollowingblockofcodeisessentiallythesame:whileitcontainsexactlythesamecode,andwillcompileandexecutewiththesameresult,theremovalofspacingcausesanessentialdifferencemakingithardertoread:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ){ p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! \ n " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link],itismucheasiertoseewherefunctionsandproceduresend,and whichlinesarepartofwhichloopsandprocedures. Thisbookisgoingtofocusontheabovepieceofcode,[Link],therewillbemany(apparently)[Link] thatwewillbeexplaining,withoutbreakingtheoverallflowofcodethattheprogramachieves.

LineBreaksandIndentation
[Link],whichcanbeveryimportantwhenreturningtoyourcodewhenyou wanttomaintainit.

LineBreaks
Withminimallinebreaks,codeisbarelyreadablebyhumans,andmaybehardtodebugorunderstand:

1 .# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > a i n i 2 .i n tm ( v o i d ) {i n ti = 0 ;p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ;f o r( = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ) {p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ;b r e a k ;}r e t u r n0 ;}

Ratherthanputtingeverythingononeline,[Link],thecodewilllooklikethis:

1 .# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > a i n 2 .i n tm ( v o i d ) 3 .{ 4 .i n ti = 0 ; 5 .p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ; i 6 .f o r( = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ) 7 .{ 8 .p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; 9 .b r e a k ; 1 0 .} 1 1 .r e t u r n0 ; 1 2 .}

BlankLines
[Link] Afterprecompilerdeclarations. Afternewvariablesaredeclared. Basedonthesetworules,thereshouldnowbetwolinebreaksadded. Afterline1,becauseline1hasapreprocessordirective Afterline4,becauseline4containsavariabledeclaration Thiswillmakethecodemuchmorereadablethanitwasbefore: Thefollowinglinesofcodehavelinebreaksbetweenfunctions,butwithoutindentation.

1 .# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > 2 . a i n 3 .i n tm ( v o i d ) 4 .{

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5 .i n ti = 0 ; 6 . 7 .p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ; i 8 .f o r( = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ) 9 .{ 1 0 .p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; 1 1 .b r e a k ; 1 2 .} 1 3 .r e t u r n0 ; 1 4 .}

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Butthisstillisn'tasreadableasitcanbe.

Indentation
Althoughaddingsimplelinebreaksbetweenkeyblocksofcodecanmakecodeeasiertoread,[Link]:indentation [Link]:
Manytexteditors

Allcodeinsideanewblockshouldbeindentedbyonetab[1]morethanthecodeinthepreviouspath. Basedonthecodefromtheprevioussection,therearetwoblocksrequiringindentation: Lines5to13 Lines10and11

automaticallyindent appropriatelywhenyou hittheenter/returnkey.

1 .# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > 2 . a i n 3 .i n tm ( v o i d ) 4 .{ 5 . i n ti = 0 ; 6 . 7 . p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ; i 8 . f o r( = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ) 9 . { 1 0 . p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; 1 1 . b r e a k ; 1 2 . } 1 3 . r e t u r n0 ; 1 4 .}

[Link],[Link],oncemanynestedloops andpathsgetaddedtothestructureoftheprogram,[Link]. Indentationwasoriginallyonetabcharacter,ortheequivalentof8spaces.Researchsincetheoriginalindentsizehasshownthatindentsbetween2to4charactersareeasiertoread[2],resultinginsuchtabsizesbeingusedasdefaultinmodernIDEs. However,anindentof8charactersmaystillbeinuseforsomesystems[3].

Comments
[Link](andtheirpurpose)aswellasprovidingavisual"split"[Link] codewillmakeitmucheasiertorememberwhatspecificpartsofyourcodedo. CommentsinmodernflavorsofC(andmanyotherlanguages)cancomeintwoforms:
/ / S i n g l eL i n eC o m m e n t s ( a d d e db yC 9 9s t a n d a r d ,f a m o u s l yk n o w na sc + +s t y l eo fc o m m e n t s )

and
/ * M u l t i L i n e C o m m e n t s * /( o n l yf o r mo fc o m m e n t ss u p p o r t e db yC 8 9s t a n d a r d )

NotethatSinglelinecommentsareafairlyrecentadditiontoC,[Link]. Thissectionisgoingtofocusonthevarioususesofeachformofcommentary.

SinglelineComments

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Singlelinecommentsaremostusefulforsimple'side'[Link],andnexttopiecesofcodethatmayneedexplanation. Basedonourpreviousprogram,therearetwogoodplacestoplacecomments Line5,toexplainwhat'inti'isgoingtodo Line11,toexplainwhythereisa'break'keyword. Thiswillmakeourprogramlooksomethinglike

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ti = 0 ;

/ /l o o pv a r i a b l e .

p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ; f o r( i = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ){ p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; } r e t u r n0 ; }

/ / E x i t s' f o r 'l o o p .

MultilineComments
[Link]/licensingnotices,[Link]: Theymakeyourfunctionseasiertounderstand,[Link] supposedtodo,thenitismucheasiertofindthepieceofcodethatisresponsibleifanerroroccurs.
Singlelinecomments

Asanexample,supposewehadaprogramthatwasdesignedtoprint"Hello,World!"acertainnumberoflines,[Link],weshallcall thenumberoflines i,andthenumberofstringsperlineas j. Agoodexampleofamultilinecommentthatdescribes'for'loop i'spurposewouldbe:

/ *F o rL o o p( i n ti ) L o o p st h ef o l l o w i n gp r o c e d u r eit i m e s( f o rn u m b e ro fl i n e s ) . P e r f o r m s' f o r 'l o o pjo ne a c hl o o p , a n dp r i n t san e wl i n ea te n do fe a c hl o o p . * /

areanewfeature,so manyCprogrammers onlyusemultiline comments.

Thisprovidesagoodexplanationofwhat i'spurposeis,whilstnotgoingintodetailofwhat [Link](andnotonesinsideit),itwillbeeasiertotroubleshootthepath. Similarly,youshouldalwaysincludeamultilinecommentbeforeeachfunction,toexplaintherole,[Link] troubleshoot. Afunctiondescriptorshouldlooksomethinglike:

/ *F u n c t i o n:i n th w o r l d( i n ti , i n tj ) I n p u t :i n ti( N u m b e ro fl i n e s ) ,i n tj( N u m b e ro fi n s t a n c e sp e rl i n e ) O u t p u t :0( o ns u c c e s s ) P r o c e d u r e :P r i n t s" H e l l o ,W o r l d ! "jt i m e s ,a n dan e wl i n et os t a n d a r do u t p u to v e ril i n e s . * /

[Link]. Finally,ifyouliketohaveaestheticallypleasingsourcecode,[Link].
/ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * T h i si sam u l t il i n ec o m m e n t * T h a ti sn e a r l ys u r r o u n d e db ya * C o o l ,s t a r r yb o r d e r ! * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * /

Appliedtoouroriginalprogram,wecannowincludeamuchmoredescriptiveandreadablesourcecode:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { / * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *F u n c t i o n :i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) *I n p u t :n o n e *O u t p u t :R e t u r n s0o ns u c c e s s *P r o c e d u r e :P r i n t s" H e l l o ,W o r l d ! "a n dan e wl i n et os t a n d a r do u t p u tt h e ne x i t s . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * /

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i n ti = 0 ; / / T e m p o r a r yv a r i a b l eu s e df o r' f o r 'l o o p .

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p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ) ; / *F O RL O O P( i n ti ) P r i n t san e wl i n et os t a n d a r do u t p u t ,a n de x i t s* / f o r( i = 0 ;i < 1 ;i + + ) { p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; / / E x i t s' f o r 'l o o p . } r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link]. Afewprogrammersaddacolumnofstarsontherightsideofablockcomment:
/ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * T h i si sam u l t il i n ec o m m e n t * * t h a ti sc o m p l e t e l ys u r r o u n d e db ya* * c o o l ,s t a r r yb o r d e r ! * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * /

Butmostprogrammersdon'[Link]. CommentswritteninsourcefilescanbeusedfordocumentingsourcecodeautomaticallybyusingpopulartoolslikeDoxygen[4][5]

Links
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link] Aladdin'sCcodingguidelines([Link] C/C++ProgrammingStyles([Link] CProgrammingTutorial([Link]

Errorhandling
Cdoesnotprovidedirectsupportforerrorhandling(alsoknownasexceptionhandling).Byconvention,theprogrammerisexpectedtopreventerrorsfromoccurringinthefirstplace,[Link],1andNULLare usedinseveralfunctionssuchassocket()(Unixsocketprogramming)ormalloc()[Link],a Cprogrammerusuallytriestologtheerrorand"gracefully"terminatetheprogram. Thereisanexternalvariablecalled"errno",accessiblebytheprogramsafterincluding<errno.h>thatfilecomesfromthedefinitionofthepossibleerrorsthatcanoccurinsomeOperatingSystems([Link],thedefinitionisininclude/asm generic/errno.h)[Link]'strerror(errno)'. Thefollowingcodeteststhereturnvaluefromthelibraryfunctionmalloctoseeifdynamicmemoryallocationcompletedproperly:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< e r r n o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > e x t e r ni n te r r n o ; i n tm a i n (v o i d) { / *p o i n t e rt oc h a r ,r e q u e s t i n gd y n a m i ca l l o c a t i o no f2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 *s t o r a g ee l e m e n t s( d e c l a r e da sa ni n t e g e rc o n s t a n to ft y p e *u n s i g n e dl o n gi n t ) .( I fy o u rs y s t e mh a sl e s st h a n2 G Bo fm e m o r y *a v a i l a b l e ,t h e nt h i sc a l lt om a l l o cw i l lf a i l ) * / c h a r* p t r=m a l l o c (2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U L) ; / *f p r i n t f* / / *e r r n o* / / *m a l l o c ,f r e e ,e x i t* / / *s t r e r r o r* /

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i f(p t r= =N U L L) { p u t s ( " m a l l o cf a i l e d " ) ; p u t s ( s t r e r r o r ( e r r n o ) ) ; } e l s e { / *t h er e s to ft h ec o d eh e r e a f t e rc a na s s u m et h a t2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 *c h a r sw e r es u c c e s s f u l l ya l l o c a t e d . . . * / f r e e (p t r) ; } e x i t ( E X I T _ S U C C E S S ) ;/ *e x i t i n gp r o g r a m* / }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

[Link],[Link],aNULL pointerreturnedfrommallocsignalsanerrorinallocation,[Link],theprogrammighttrytohandletheerrorandtrytorecoverfromthefailedmemoryallocation.

Preventingdividebyzeroerrors
[Link],exit.
i n td i v i d e n d=5 0 ; i n td i v i s o r=0 ; i n tq u o t i e n t ; q u o t i e n t=( d i v i d e n d / d i v i s o r ) ;/ *T h i sw i l lp r o d u c ear u n t i m ee r r o r !* /

Forreasonsbeyondthescopeofthisdocument,[Link],for*nixprocesses,youcanstoptheOSfromterminatingyourprocessbyblockingtheSIGFPEsignal. Thecodebelowfixesthisbycheckingifthedivisoriszerobeforedividing.
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h >/ *f o rf p r i n t fa n ds t d e r r* / # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h >/ *f o re x i t* / i n tm a i n (v o i d) { i n td i v i d e n d=5 0 ; i n td i v i s o r=0 ; i n tq u o t i e n t ; i f( d i v i s o r= =0 ){ / *E x a m p l eh a n d l i n go ft h i se r r o r .W r i t i n gam e s s a g et os t d e r r ,a n d *e x i t i n gw i t hf a i l u r e . * / f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r ," D i v i s i o nb yz e r o !A b o r t i n g . . . \ n " ) ; e x i t ( E X I T _ F A I L U R E ) ;/ *i n d i c a t ef a i l u r e . * / } q u o t i e n t=d i v i d e n d/d i v i s o r ; e x i t ( E X I T _ S U C C E S S ) ;/ *i n d i c a t es u c c e s s . * / }

Signals
Insomecases,[Link]([Link], interrupt,andsoon.)However,thesesignalsarenotmeanttobeusedasameansoferrorcatchingtheyusuallyindicateacriticaleventthatwillinterferewithnormalprogramflow. Tohandlesignals,aprogramneedstousethe s i g n a l . h [Link],andthesignal()[Link](e.g. adivisionbyzero)[Link]. Thisexamplecreatesasignalhandlerandraisesthesignal:
# i n c l u d e< s i g n a l . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > s t a t i cv o i dc a t c h _ f u n c t i o n ( i n ts i g n a l ){ p u t s ( " I n t e r a c t i v ea t t e n t i o ns i g n a lc a u g h t . " ) ; } i n tm a i n ( v o i d ){ i f( s i g n a l ( S I G I N T ,c a t c h _ f u n c t i o n )= =S I G _ E R R ){ f p u t s ( " A ne r r o ro c c u r r e dw h i l es e t t i n gas i g n a lh a n d l e r . \ n " ,s t d e r r ) ; r e t u r nE X I T _ F A I L U R E ; } p u t s ( " R a i s i n gt h ei n t e r a c t i v ea t t e n t i o ns i g n a l . " ) ; i f( r a i s e ( S I G I N T )! =0 ){ f p u t s ( " E r r o rr a i s i n gt h es i g n a l . \ n " ,s t d e r r ) ;

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r e t u r nE X I T _ F A I L U R E ; } p u t s ( " E x i t i n g . " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

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setjmp
[Link],andisvalidaslongasthefunctioncontainingsetjmp()doesn't [Link].
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s e t j m p . h > j m p _ b u ft e s t 1 ; v o i dt r y j u m p ( ) { l o n g j m p ( t e s t 1 ,3 ) ; } i n tm a i n( v o i d ) { i f( s e t j m p ( t e s t 1 ) = = 0 ){ p r i n t f( " s e t j m p ( )r e t u r n e d0 . " ) ; t r y j u m p ( ) ; }e l s e{ p r i n t f( " s e t j m pr e t u r n e df r o mal o n g j m pf u n c t i o nc a l l . " ) ; } }

Thevaluesofnonvolatilevariablesmaybecorruptedwhensetjmpreturnsfromalongjmpcall. Whilesetjmp()andlongjmp()maybeusedforerrorhandling,itisgenerallypreferredtousethereturnvalueofafunctiontoindicateanerror,ifpossible.

Variables
Likemostprogramminglanguages,Cisabletouseandprocessnamedvariablesandtheircontents. Variablesaresimplynamesusedtorefertosomelocationinmemoryalocationthatholdsavaluewithwhichweareworking. [Link],ifyouhaveavariable ithatis initialized(setequal)to4,thenitfollowsthat i+1willequal 5. SinceCisarelativelylowlevelprogramminglanguage,[Link] [Link] whichaCprogramshowsthenumberofvariablesitneeds,whattheyaregoingtobenamed,andhowmuchmemorytheywillneed. WithintheCprogramminglanguage,whenmanagingandworkingwithvariables,itisimportanttoknowthe typeofvariablesandthe [Link],theseaspectsofitsworkingcanbehardware specificthatis,howthelanguageismadetoworkononetypeofmachinecanbedifferentfromhowitismadetoworkonanother. AllvariablesinCare [Link],everyvariabledeclaredmustbeassignedasacertaintypeofvariable.

Declaring,Initializing,andAssigningVariables
Hereisanexampleofdeclaringaninteger,whichwe'vecalled s o m e _ n u m b e r .(Notethesemicolonattheendofthelinethatishowyourcompilerseparatesoneprogram statement fromanother.)
i n ts o m e _ n u m b e r ;

Thisstatementmeanswe'redeclaringsomespaceforavariablecalledsome_number,whichwillbeusedtostore i n t [Link]'lllookatthem inthenextsection. Multiplevariablescanbedeclaredwithonestatement,likethis:

i n ta n u m b e r ,a n o t h e r n u m b e r ,y e t a n o t h e r n u m b e r ;

Wecanalsodeclare andassignsomecontenttoavariableatthesametime.
i n ts o m e _ n u m b e r = 3 ;

Thisiscalled initialization. InearlyversionsofC,variableshadtobedeclaredatthebeginningofablock.InC99itisallowedtomixdeclarationsandstatementsarbitrarilybutdoingsoisnotusual,becauseitisrarelynecessary,somecompilersstilldontsupportC99(portability), anditmay,becauseitisuncommonyet,irritatefellowprogrammers(maintainability).

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Afterdeclaringvariables,youcanassignavaluetoavariablelateronusingastatementlikethis:
s o m e _ n u m b e r = 3 ;

Youcanalsoassignavariablethevalueofanothervariable,likeso:

a n u m b e r=a n o t h e r n u m b e r ;

Orassignmultiplevariablesthesamevaluewithonestatement:
a n u m b e r=a n o t h e r n u m b e r=y e t a n o t h e r n u m b e r=3 ;

Thisisbecausetheassignment x=y returnsthevalueoftheassignment. x=y=z isreallyshorthandfor x=( y=z ) .

NamingVariables
VariablenamesinCaremadeupofletters(upperandlowercase)[Link]("_")[Link](suchasPerlandsomeBASICdialects),Cdoesnotuseany specialprefixcharactersonvariablenames. Someexamplesofvalid(butnotverydescriptive)Cvariablenames:
f o o B a r B A Z f o o _ b a r _ f o o 4 2 _ Q u U x

SomeexamplesofinvalidCvariablenames:
2 f o o m yf o o $ f o o w h i l e ( m u s tn o tb e g i nw i t had i g i t ) ( s p a c e sn o ta l l o w e di nn a m e s ) ( $n o ta l l o w e d-o n l yl e t t e r s ,d i g i t s ,a n d_ ) ( l a n g u a g ek e y w o r d sc a n n o tb eu s e da sn a m e s )

Asthelastexamplesuggests,certainwordsarereservedaskeywordsinthelanguage,andthesecannotbeusedasvariablenames. Inadditiontherearecertainsetsofnamesthat,whilenotlanguagekeywords,[Link],aCcompilermightusecertainnames"behindthescenes",andthismightcauseproblemsforaprogramthatattemptsto [Link],[Link](andinwhatcontextstheyarereserved)aretoocomplicatedtodescribehere,andasabeginneryou don'[Link],justavoidusingnamesthatbeginwithanunderscorecharacter. ThenamingrulesforCvariablesalsoapplytonamingotherlanguageconstructssuchasfunctionnames,structtags,andmacros,allofwhichwillbecoveredlater.

Literals
Anytimewithinaprograminwhichyouspecifyavalueexplicitlyinsteadofreferringtoavariableorsomeotherformofdata,thatvalueisreferredtoasa literal .Intheinitializationexampleabove,[Link] theirtype(moreonthatsoon),oronecanusehexadecimal(hex)notationtodirectlyinsertdataintoavariableregardlessofitstype. [citationneeded]Hexnumbersarealwaysprecededwith [Link],though,youprobablyshouldn'tbetooconcernedwith hex.

TheFourBasicDataTypes
[Link] i n t , c h a r , f l o a t ,and d o u b l e . Wewillbrieflydescribethemhere,thengointomoredetailinCProgramming/Types.

Thei n t type
The i n t typestoresintegersintheformof"wholenumbers".Anintegeristypicallythesizeofonemachineword,whichonmostmodernhomePCsis32bits(4octets).Examplesofliteralsarewholenumbers(integers)suchas1,2,3,10,100...When i n t is32bits(4octets),itcanstoreanywholenumber(integer)between2147483648and2147483647.A32bitword(number)hasthepossibilityofrepresentinganyonenumberoutof4294967296possibilities(2tothepowerof32). Ifyouwanttodeclareanewintvariable,usethe i n t [Link]:
i n tn u m b e r O f S t u d e n t s ,i ,j = 5 ;

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Inthisdeclarationwedeclare3variables,numberOfStudents,iandj,jhereisassignedtheliteral5.

Thec h a r type
The c h a r [Link] i n t ([Link]),[Link] C H A R _ B I T whichspecifiesthenumberof bitsinachar(byte).[Link] c h a r ismostoftenusedtostorecharacterdata,[Link],butit'sbestnotto knoworcareaboutthatunlesstheactualvaluesareimportant. Examplesofcharacterliteralsare'a','b','1',etc.,aswellassomespecialcharacterssuchas'\ 0 '(thenullcharacter)and'\ n '(newline,recall"Hello,World").Notethatthe c h a r valuemustbeenclosedwithinsinglequotations. Whenweinitializeacharactervariable,[Link],theotherwayis badprogrammingpractice. Thefirstwayistowrite
c h a rl e t t e r 1=' a ' ;

Thisis goodprogrammingpracticeinthatitallowsapersonreadingyourcodetounderstandthatletter1isbeinginitializedwiththeletter'a'tostartoffwith. Thesecondway,whichshould not beusedwhenyouarecodinglettercharacters,istowrite

c h a rl e t t e r 2=9 7 ;/ *i nA S C I I ,9 7=' a '* /

Thisisconsideredbysometobeextremely badpractice,ifweareusingittostoreacharacter,notasmallnumber,inthatifsomeonereadsyourcode,mostreadersareforcedtolookupwhatcharactercorrespondswiththenumber97intheencoding [Link], l e t t e r 1 and l e t t e r 2 storeboththesamethingtheletter'a',butthefirstmethodisclearer,easiertodebug,andmuchmorestraightforward. Oneimportantthingtomentionisthatcharactersfornumeralsarerepresenteddifferentlyfromtheircorrespondingnumber,i.e.'1'[Link],anysingleentrythatisenclosedwithin'singlequotes'. Thereisonemorekindofliteralthatneedstobeexplainedinconnectionwithchars:the stringliteral .Astringisaseriesofcharacters,[Link]("",not'').Anexampleofastringliteral isthe"Hello,World!\n"inthe"Hello,World"example. Thestringliteralisassignedtoacharacter array,[Link]:
c o n s tc h a rM Y _ C O N S T A N T _ P E D A N T I C _ I T C H [ ]=" l e a r nt h eu s a g ec o n t e x t . \ n " ; p r i n t f ( " S q u a r eb r a c k e t sa f t e rav a r i a b l en a m em e a n si ti sap o i n t e rt oas t r i n go fm e m o r yb l o c k st h es i z eo ft h et y p eo ft h ea r r a ye l e m e n t . \ n " ) ;

Thef l o a t type
f l o a t isshortfor [Link],[Link],itisusedwhenlessprecisionthanadoubleprovidesisrequired. f l o a t literalsmustbesuffixedwithForf,otherwisetheywillbeinterpretedas

[Link].1415926f,4.0f,6.022e+23f. f l o a t variablescanbedeclaredusingthe f l o a t keyword.

Thed o u b l e type
The d o u b l e and f l o a t [Link] f l o a t typeallowsyoutostoresingleprecisionfloatingpointnumbers,whilethe d o u b l e keywordallowsyoutostoredoubleprecisionfloatingpointnumbersrealnumbers,inotherwords,bothintegerandnon [Link],[Link] d o u b l e literalsare3.1415926535897932,4.0,6.022e+23(scientificnotation).Ifyouuse4insteadof4.0,the4willbeinterpretedasan i n t . [Link],[Link],withmemory morefreelyavailable,[Link],someCimplementationsusedoublesinsteadoffloatswhenyoudeclareafloatvariable. Ifyouwanttouseadoublevariable,usethe d o u b l e keyword.

s i z e o f
Ifyouhaveanydoubtsastotheamountofmemoryactuallyusedbyanyvariable(andthisgoesfortypeswe'lldiscusslater,also),youcanusethe s i z e o f operatortofindoutforsure.(Forcompleteness,itisimportanttomentionthat s i z e o f isaunary operator,notafunction.)Itssyntaxis:
s i z e o fo b j e c t s i z e o f ( t y p e )

Thetwoexpressionsabovereturnthesizeoftheobjectandtypespecified,[Link] s i z e _ t (definedintheheader < s t d d e f . h > )[Link]'sanexampleusage:

s i z e _ ts i z e ; i n ti ; s i z e=s i z e o f ( i ) ;
s i z e willbesetto4,assuming C H A R _ B I T isdefinedas8,[Link] s i z e o f 'sresultisthenumberofbytes.

Notethatwhen s i z e o f isappliedtoa c h a r ,theresultis1thatis:

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alwaysreturns1.

Datatypemodifiers
Onecanalterthedatastorageofanydatatypebyprecedingitwithcertainmodifiers.
l o n g and s h o r t [Link] i n t keywordneednotfollowthe s h o r t and l o n g [Link].A s h o r t canbeusedwherethevaluesfallwithinalesser

rangethanthatofan i n t ,typically32768to32767.A l o n g [Link] s h o r t useslessmemorythanan i n t ,norisitguaranteedthata l o n g takesupmorememorythanan i n t .Itisonly guaranteedthatsizeof(short)<=sizeof(int)<=sizeof(long).Typicallya s h o r t is2bytes,an i n t is4bytes,anda l o n g [Link] l o n gl o n g whichistypicallyan8byteinteger. Inallofthetypesdescribedabove,onebitisusedtoindicatethesign(positiveornegative)[Link],youmayusethe u n s i g n e d modifiertousethatonebitforstoringotherdata,effectively [Link] u n s i g n e d specifieralsomaybeusedwithoutatrailing i n t ,inwhichcasethesizedefaultstothatofan i n t .Thereisalsoa s i g n e d modifierwhichistheopposite,butitisnot necessary,exceptforcertainusesof c h a r ,andseldomusedsincealltypes(except c h a r )aresignedbydefault. Touseamodifier,justdeclareavariablewiththedatatypeandrelevantmodifiers:
u n s i g n e ds h o r ti n tu s i ; / *f u l l yq u a l i f i e d-u n s i g n e ds h o r ti n t* / s h o r ts i ; / *s h o r ti n t* / u n s i g n e dl o n gu l i ; / *u n s i g n e dl o n gi n t* /

c o n s t qualifier
Whenthe c o n s t qualifierisused,[Link]. Whiletheideaofavariablethatneverchangesmaynotseemuseful,therearegoodreasonstouse c o n s t .Foronething,[Link],ifyouneed thevalueofinyourcalculations,youcandeclareaconstvariableof p i ,soaprogramoranotherfunctionwrittenbysomeoneelsecannotchangethevalueof p i . NotethataStandardconformingcompilermustissueawarningifanattemptismadetochangea c o n s t variablebutafterdoingsothecompilerisfreetoignorethe c o n s t qualifier.

Magicnumbers
WhenyouwriteCprograms,[Link],[Link] decidestorepresentthecostofacanofcorn,currently99cents,[Link],[Link] isnotthatbigofaproblem,consideringthe"globalfindreplace"functionofmanytexteditors,consideranotherproblem:[Link],youhavetolookateveryoccurrenceofthe number99. [Link],thoughonemethodcanbeusefulinonecircumstance,overanother.

Usingthec o n s t keyword
The c o n s t keywordhelpseradicate [Link] c o n s tc o r n atthebeginningofablock,aprogrammercansimplychangethatconstandnothavetoworryaboutsettingthevalueelsewhere. [Link] c o n s t ,[Link],[Link]...
# d e f i n e

Whenyouwriteprograms,youcancreatewhatisknownasa macro,sowhenthecomputerisreadingyourcode,itwillreplaceallinstancesofawordwiththespecifiedexpression. Here'[Link]

# d e f i n eP R I C E _ O F _ C O R N0 . 9 9

whenyouwantto,forexample,printthepriceofcorn,youusetheword P R I C E _ O F _ C O R N insteadofthenumber0.99thepreprocessorwillreplaceallinstancesof P R I C E _ O F _ C O R N with0.99,whichthecompilerwillinterpretastheliteral d o u b l e [Link] preprocessorperformssubstitution,thatis, P R I C E _ O F _ C O R N isreplacedby0.99sothismeansthereisnoneedforasemicolon. Itisimportanttonotethat # d e f i n e hasbasicallythesamefunctionalityasthe"findandreplace"functioninalotoftexteditors/wordprocessors. Forsomepurposes, # d e f i n e canbeharmfullyused,anditisusuallypreferabletouse c o n s t if # d e f i n e [Link],forinstance,to # d e f i n e ,say,amacro D O G asthenumber3,butifyoutrytoprintthemacro,thinkingthat D O G representsastring thatyoucanshowonthescreen,theprogramwillhaveanerror. # d e f i n e [Link],replacingthetext everywhere(ineffect,disregardingscope),whichcouldbeadvantageousinsome circumstances,butcanbethesourceofproblematicbugs. Youwillseefurtherinstancesofthe # d e f i n e [Link] # d e f i n e dwordsinallcapitals,soaprogrammerwillknowthatthisisnotavariablethatyouhavedeclaredbuta # d e f i n e [Link] preprocessordirectivesuchas # d e f i n e withasemicoloninfact,somecompilersmaywarnyouaboutunnecessarytokensinyourcodeifyoudo.

Scope
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IntheBasicConceptssection,[Link],[Link],youplacethedeclarationatthebeginning ([Link])[Link],[Link],itcanberead,andwritten,fromanywhereinyourprogram. Globalvariablesarenotconsideredgoodprogrammingpractice,[Link],createnamingconflicts,wastememory,[Link] signoflazinessand/[Link],ifthereisasituationwherelocalvariablesmaycreatemoreobtuseandunreadablecode,there'snoshameinusingglobals.

OtherModifiers
Includedhere,forcompleteness,[Link], staticand externmaybeuseful. volatileismoreofinteresttoadvancedprogrammers. registerand autoarelargelydeprecatedandare generallynotofinteresttoeitherbeginningoradvancedprogrammers.

static
s t a t i c [Link].

Whenyoudeclareafunctionorglobalvariableas [Link](seebelow)keywordfromotherfilesinyourproject. Whenyoudeclarealocalvariableas static,[Link],whenthevariablegoesoutofscope([Link])thevariablestaysinmemory,[Link] [Link],staticvariablesstillobeyscoperulesandthereforecannotbeaccessedoutsideoftheirscope. Variablesdeclaredstaticareinitializedtozero(orforpointers,NULL)bydefault. Youcanusestaticin(atleast)[Link],andimagineitisinafilecalledjfile.c:

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > s t a t i ci n tj=0 ; v o i du p ( v o i d ) { / *ki ss e tt o0w h e nt h ep r o g r a ms t a r t s .T h el i n ei st h e n" i g n o r e d " *f o rt h er e s to ft h ep r o g r a m( i . e .ki sn o ts e tt o0e v e r yt i m eu p ( ) *i sc a l l e d ) * / s t a t i ci n tk=0 ; j + + ; k + + ; p r i n t f ( " u p ( )c a l l e d . k =% 2 d ,j =% 2 d \ n " ,k,j ) ; } v o i dd o w n ( v o i d ) { s t a t i ci n tk=0 ; j ; k ; p r i n t f ( " d o w n ( )c a l l e d .k =% 2 d ,j =% 2 d \ n " ,k,j ) ; } i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ti ; / *c a l lt h eu pf u n c t i o n3t i m e s ,t h e nt h ed o w nf u n c t i o n2t i m e s* / f o r( i =0 ;i<3 ;i + + ) u p ( ) ; f o r( i =0 ;i<2 ;i + + ) d o w n ( ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link],buttheyaretwodifferentvariables,[Link],atermfromtheobjectoriented wayofthinkingthateffectivelymeansnotallowingchangestobemadetoavariableexceptthroughfunctioncalls. Runningtheprogramabovewillproducethefollowingoutput:

u p ( )c a l l e d . k = 1 ,j = u p ( )c a l l e d . k = 2 ,j = u p ( )c a l l e d . k = 3 ,j = d o w n ( )c a l l e d .k =1 ,j = d o w n ( )c a l l e d .k =2 ,j = 1 2 3 2 1

Featuresof s t a t i c variables:
1 .K e y w o r du s e d -s t a t i c 2 .S t o r a g e -M e m o r y 3 .D e f a u l tv a l u e -Z e r o 4 .S c o p e -L o c a lt ot h eb l o c ki nw h i c hi ti sd e c l a r e d 5 .L i f e t i m e -V a l u ep e r s i s t sb e t w e e nd i f f e r e n tf u n c t i o nc a l l s 6 .K e y w o r do p t i o n a l i t y-M a n d a t o r yt ou s et h ek e y w o r d

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e x t e r n isusedwhenafileneedstoaccessavariableinanotherfilethatitmaynothave # i n c l u d e [Link], externdoesnotactuallycarveoutspaceforanewvariable,itjustprovidesthecompilerwithsufficientinformationtoaccesstheremote

variable. Featuresof e x t e r n a l variable:

1 .K e y w o r du s e d -e x t e r n 2 .S t o r a g e -M e m o r y 3 .D e f a u l tv a l u e -Z e r o 4 .S c o p e -G l o b a l( a l lo v e rt h ep r o g r a m ) 5 .L i f e t i m e -V a l u ep e r s i s t st i l lt h ep r o g r a m ' se x e c u t i o nc o m e st oa ne n d 6 .K e y w o r do p t i o n a l i t y-O p t i o n a li fd e c l a r e do u t s i d ea l lt h ef u n c t i o n s

volatile
v o l a t i l e [Link]

defined v o l a t i l e thenthecompilermayassumethatcertainoperationsinvolvingthevariablearesafetooptimizeawaywheninfacttheyaren't. volatileisparticularlyrelevantwhenworkingwithembeddedsystems(whereaprogrammaynothavecomplete controlofavariable)andmultithreadedapplications.

auto
a u t o isamodifierwhichspecifiesan"automatic"[Link]'vebeendoingallalongwhenyoudeclareavariable,you'reright:all

declareditemswithinablockareimplicitly"automatic".Forthisreason,the autokeywordismoreliketheanswertoatriviaquestionthanausefulmodifier,andtherearelotsofverycompetentprogrammersthatareunawareofitsexistence. Featuresof a u t o m a t i c variables:

1 .K e y w o r du s e d -a u t o 2 .S t o r a g e -M e m o r y 3 .D e f a u l tv a l u e -G a r b a g ev a l u e( r a n d o mv a l u e ) 4 .S c o p e -L o c a lt ot h eb l o c ki nw h i c hi ti sd e f i n e d 5 .L i f e t i m e -V a l u ep e r s i s t sw h i l et h ec o n t r o lr e m a i n sw i t h i nt h eb l o c k 6 .K e y w o r do p t i o n a l i t y-O p t i o n a l

register
r e g i s t e r isahinttothecompilertoattempttooptimizethestorageofthegivenvariablebystoringitinaregisterofthecomputer'[Link],[Link]

fact,[Link]++isanexampleofanimplementationthatcompletelyignoresthe registerkeyword. Featuresof r e g i s t e r variables:

1 .K e y w o r du s e d -r e g i s t e r 2 .S t o r a g e -C P Ur e g i s t e r s( v a l u e sc a nb er e t r i e v e df a s t e rt h a nf r o mm e m o r y ) 3 .D e f a u l tv a l u e -G a r b a g ev a l u e 4 .S c o p e -L o c a lt ot h eb l o c ki nw h i c hi ti sd e f i n e d 5 .L i f e t i m e -V a l u ep e r s i s t sw h i l et h ec o n t r o lr e m a i n sw i t h i nt h eb l o c k 6 .K e y w o r do p t i o n a l i t y-M a n d a t o r yt ou s et h ek e y w o r d

Concepts
Variables Types DataStructures Arrays

Inthissection
Cvariables Ctypes Carrays

SimpleInputandOutput
Whenyoutaketimetoconsiderit,[Link],[Link] theycandotasks,sodocomputers.

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Thesesuppliesandreturnsofinformationtoacomputerarecalled inputand output.'Input'isinformationsuppliedtoacomputerorprogram.'Output'[Link],computerprogrammerswilllumpthe discussioninthemoregeneralterm input/output orsimply, I/O. InC,[Link],[Link]"Hello,World"exampleatthebeginningofthistext, wewereintroducedtoaStandardLibraryfilestdio.h,andoneofitsfunctions,printf().[Link].

Outputusingprintf()
Recallfromthebeginningofthistextthedemonstrationprogramduplicatedbelow:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,w o r l d ! \ n " ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

Ifyoucompileandrunthisprogram,youwillseethesentencebelowshowuponyourscreen:

H e l l o ,w o r l d !

Thisamazingaccomplishmentwasachievedbyusingthe function p r i n t f ( ) .Afunctionislikea"blackbox"[Link],butwewillcoverthatlater. Youhaveseenthattouse p r i n t f ( ) oneputstext,surroundedbyquotes,[Link] literalstring(orjusta string),andwecallthatstringan argument toprintf. Asanoteofexplanation,itissometimesconvenienttoincludetheopenandclosingparenthesesafterafunctionnametoremindusthatitis,indeed,[Link],itisnot necessary. Asyoucanseeintheexampleabove,using p r i n t f ( ) canbeassimpleastypinginsometext,surroundedbydoublequotes(notethatthesearedoublequotesandnottwosinglequotes).So,forexample,youcanprintanystringbyplacingitasan argumenttothe p r i n t f ( ) function:

p r i n t f ( " T h i ss e n t e n c ew i l lp r i n to u te x a c t l ya sy o us e ei t . . . " ) ;

Andonceitiscontainedinaproper m a i n ( ) function,itwillshow:

T h i ss e n t e n c ew i l lp r i n to u te x a c t l ya sy o us e ei t . . .

Printingnumbersandescapesequences
Placeholdercodes The p r i n t f functionisapowerfulfunction,andisprobablythemostusedfunctioninCprograms. Forexample,[Link]'tknowwhat19+[Link]'suseCtogettheanswer. Westartwriting
# i n c l u d e" s t d i o . h "/ /t h i si si m p o r t a n t ,s i n c ep r i n t f / /c a n ' tb eu s e dw i t h o u tt h i sl i n e

i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) {

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p r i n t f ( " 1 9 + 3 1i s " ) ;

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butherewearestuck! p r i n t f onlyprintsstrings!Thankfully,[Link] [Link]:

p r i n t f ( " 1 9 + 3 1i s% d " ,1 9 + 3 1 ) ;

Theplaceholder%dliterally"holdstheplace"fortheactualnumberthatistheresultofadding19to31. Theseplaceholdersarecalled [Link] p r i n t f .Ifwehaveafloatingpointnumber,wecanuse % f toprintoutafloatingpointnumber,[Link]: %dint(sameas%i) %ldlongint(sameas%li) %ffloat %lfdouble %cchar %sstring %xhexadecimal Tabsandnewlines Whatif,wewanttoachievesomeoutputthatwilllooklike:
1 9 0 5 3 1 2+ -

p r i n t f willnotputlinebreaksinattheendofeachstatement:[Link]?

Whatwecandoisusethenewline [Link],suchasmakeabeep,writeatab,[Link] \ n .Allescapecharacters startwithabackslash. Sotoachievetheoutputabove,wewrite

p r i n t f ( "1 9 0 5 \ n 3 1 2+ \ n \ n " ) ;

ortobeabitmoreclear,[Link]
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { p r i n t f ( "1 9 0 5 \ n " ) ; p r i n t f ( " 3 1 2+ \ n " ) ; p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; p r i n t f ( " % d " ,1 9 0 5 + 3 1 2 ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link] \ t [Link] \ a toringthecomputer'sbell,butyoushouldnotusethisverymuchinyourprograms,asexcessiveuseofsoundisnotveryfriendlytothe [Link]:CProgramming/Printversion

Otheroutputmethods
puts()
Theputs()[Link]()functionwesawinthe"Hello,World!"example:
p u t s ( " P r i n tt h i ss t r i n g . " ) ;

willprinttothescreen:
P r i n tt h i ss t r i n g .

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followedbythenewlinecharacter(asdiscussedabove).(The p u t s functionappendsanewlinecharactertoitsoutput.)
# i n c l u d e < s t d i o . h > f ( i n ti , i n tj , i n tk ) { p r i n t f ( " % d % d % d " , i , j , k ) ; } m a i n ( ) { i n tx = 1 , y = 2 , z = 3 ; f ( x + y , y = x + z , z = x + y ) ; }

Inputusingscanf()
Thescanf()functionistheinputmethodequivalenttotheprintf()[Link],thescanf formatstringholdsasingle [Link] placeholdersareexactlythesameastheprintf()function%dforints,%fforfloats,and%lffordoubles. Thereis,however,onevariationtoscanf()ascomparedtoprintf().Thescanf()[Link] pointersarepossiblehere,thisisaconceptthatwon'tbeapproached [Link],thesimpletechniqueistousethe addressof operator, &.Fornowitmaybebesttoconsiderthis"magic"beforewediscusspointers. Atypicalapplicationmightbelikethis:
# i n c l u d e" s t d i o . h " i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ta ; p r i n t f ( " P l e a s ei n p u ta ni n t e g e rv a l u e :" ) ; s c a n f ( " % d " ,& a ) ; p r i n t f ( " Y o ue n t e r e d :% d \ n " ,a ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

Ifyouweretodescribetheeffectofthescanf()functioncallabove,itmightreadas:"Readinanintegerfromtheuserandstoreitattheaddressofvariable a". Ifyouaretryingtoinputa stringusing scanf ,youshould notincludethe&[Link].

s c a n f ( " % s " ,& a ) ;

Thecorrectusagewouldbe:
s c a n f ( " % s " ,a ) ;

Thisisbecause,wheneveryouuseaformatspecifierforastring(%s),thevariablethatyouusetostorethevaluewillbeanarrayand,thearraynames(inthiscasea)themselvespointouttotheirbaseaddressandhence,the addressofoperatoris notrequired. (Although,[Link]()ispreferredtoscanf()). Noteoninputs:Whendataistypedatakeyboard,[Link] [Link] leftinthebufferwhentheprogramwantstoreadfromtheinputsource,andthescanf()[Link](stdin),whichmayworkasdesiredon somecomputers,butisn'tconsideredgoodpractice,[Link],yourcodemaynotworkproperly.

Links
Backtocontents:BeginningC

Simplemath
OperatorsandAssignments
[Link]:

Primaryexpressions
Anidentifierisaprimaryexpression,providedthatithasbeendeclaredasdesignatinganobject(inwhichcaseitisanlvalue[avaluethatcanbeusedastheleftsideofanassignmentexpression])orafunction(inwhichcaseitisafunctiondesignator). [Link].

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Astringliteralisaprimaryexpression.

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[Link].

Postfixoperators
First,[Link]: Apostfixexpressionfollowedbyaleftsquarebracket([ ),anexpression,andarightsquarebracket(] )[Link]"pointertoobject type"andtheothershallhavean integertypetheresulttypeis [Link]. Apostfixexpressionfollowedbyparenthesesoranoptionalparenthesizedargumentlistindicatesaninvocationofthefunctioncalloperator. Apostfixexpressionfollowedbyadot(. )followedbyanidentifierselectsamemberfromastructureorunionapostfixexpressionfollowedbyanarrow(> )followedbyanidentifierselectsamemberfromastructureorunionwhoispointedtobythe pointeronthelefthandsideoftheexpression. Apostfixexpressionfollowedbytheincrementordecrementoperators(+ + or )[Link] beforetheincrementor decrement.

Unaryexpressions
First,[Link]: [Link] aftertheincrementordecrement. Thefollowingoperatorsfollowedbyacastexpressionareunaryexpressions:
O p e r a t o r = = = = = = = = & * + ! ~ M e a n i n g = = = = = = = A d d r e s s o f ;v a l u ei st h el o c a t i o no ft h eo p e r a n d C o n t e n t s o f ;v a l u ei sw h a ti ss t o r e da tt h el o c a t i o n N e g a t i o n V a l u e o fo p e r a t o r L o g i c a ln e g a t i o n(( ! E )i se q u i v a l e n tt o( 0 = = E )) B i t w i s ec o m p l e m e n t

Thekeyword s i z e o f [Link]. Thekeyword s i z e o f [Link].

Castoperators
Acastexpressionisaunaryexpression. [Link],thiseitherdoesnot changethevalueoftheexpression,ortruncatesthevalueoftheexpressioniftheexpressionisanintegerandthenewtypeissmallerthantheprevioustype. Anexampleofcastingafloatasanint:
f l o a tp i=3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 ; i n tt r u n c a t e d _ p i=( i n t ) p i ;/ /t r u n c a t e d _ p i= =3

Anexampleofcastingacharasanint:
c h a rm y _ c h a r=' A ' ; i n tm y _ i n t=( i n t ) m y _ c h a r ;/ /m y _ i n t= =6 5 ,w h i c hi st h eA S C I Iv a l u eo f' A '

Multiplicativeandadditiveoperators
InC,[Link]:+(addition),(subtraction),*(multiplication),/(division),and%(modulus)Youlikelyknowallofthemfromyourmathclassesexcept,perhaps,[Link] remainder ofadivision(e.g.5%2=1). Caremustbetakenwiththemodulus,becauseit'snottheequivalentofthemathematicalmodulus:(5)%2isnot1,[Link],andthedivisionofanegativeintegerbyapositiveintegerwillroundtowardszero insteadofroundingdown(e.g.(5)/3=1insteadof2). Thereisnoinlineoperatortodothepower(e.g.5^2is not25,and5**2isanerror),butthereisapowerfunction. [Link](2+3)*2=10while2+3*2=[Link].
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h >

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i n tm a i n ( ) { i n ti=0 ,j=0 ; / *w h i l eii sl e s st h a n5A N Dji sl e s st h a n5 ,l o o p* / w h i l e (( i<5 )& &( j<5 )) { / *p o s t f i xi n c r e m e n t ,i + + * t h ev a l u eo fii sr e a da n dt h e ni n c r e m e n t e d * / p r i n t f ( " i :% d \ t " ,i + + ) ; / * *p r e f i xi n c r e m e n t ,+ + j * t h ev a l u eo fji si n c r e m e n t e da n dt h e nr e a d * / p r i n t f ( " j :% d \ n " ,+ + j ) ; } p r i n t f ( " A tt h ee n dt h e yh a v eb o t he q u a lv a l u e s : \ n i :% d \ t j :% d \ n " ,i ,j ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

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willdisplaythefollowing:
i :0 j :1 i :1 j :2 i :2 j :3 i :3 j :4 i :4 j :5 A tt h ee n dt h e yh a v eb o t he q u a lv a l u e s : i :5 j :5

shiftandrotate
ShiftfunctionsareoftenusedinlowlevelI/[Link],shiftscanbeusedinplaceofdivisionormultiplicationbyapowerof [Link]/[Link],mostCcompilerscompileshiftandrotateoperatorstoasingleassembly languageinstructionseeX86Assembly/ShiftandRotate. shiftleft The < < operatorshiftsthebinaryrepresentationtotheleft,[Link]. unsignedshiftright Theunsignedshiftrightoperator,[Link],[Link] > > operatorisequivalenttodivisionbyapowerof twoforunsignedintegers. signedshiftright Thesignedshiftrightoperator,[Link],droppingtheleastsignificantbit,[Link] > > operatorisnotequivalent todivisionforsignedintegers. InC,thebehaviorofthe > > [Link],asignedandanunsignedrightshiftlooksexactlythesame,butproducesadifferentresultinsomecases. rotateright Contrarytopopularbelief,itispossibletowriteCcodethatcompilesdowntothe"rotate"assemblylanguageinstruction(onCPUsthathavesuchaninstruction). Mostcompilersrecognizethisidiom:
u n s i g n e di n tx ; u n s i g n e di n ty ; / *. . .* / y=( x> >s h i f t )|( x< <( 3 2-s h i f t ) ) ;

andcompileittoasingle32bitrotateinstruction. [1] [2] Onsomesystems,thismaybe"#define"edasamacroordefinedasaninlinefunctioncalledsomethinglike"rightrotate32"or"rotr32"or"ror32"inastandardheaderfilelike"bitops.h". [3]

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rotateleft Mostcompilersrecognizethisidiom:
u n s i g n e di n tx ; u n s i g n e di n ty ; / *. . .* / y=( x< <s h i f t )|( x> >( 3 2-s h i f t ) ) ;

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andcompileittoasingle32bitrotateinstruction. Onsomesystems,thismaybe"#define"edasamacroordefinedasaninlinefunctioncalledsomethinglike"leftrotate32"or"rotl32"inaheaderfilelike"bitops.h".

Relationalandequalityoperators
Therelationalbinaryoperators < (lessthan), > (greaterthan), < = (lessthanorequal),and > = (greaterthanorequal)operatorsreturnavalueof1iftheresultoftheoperationistrue,0iffalse. Theequalitybinaryoperators = = (equals)and ! = (notequals)operatorsaresimilartotherelationaloperatorsexceptthattheirprecedenceislower.

Bitwiseoperators
Thebitwiseoperatorsare & (and), ^ (exclusiveor)and | (inclusiveor).The & operatorhashigherprecedencethan ^ ,whichhashigherprecedencethan | .

Logicaloperators
Thelogicaloperatorsare & & (and),and | | (or).[Link],thesecondisignored.
& & isusedtoevaluateexpressionslefttoright,andreturnsa1if bothstatementsaretrue.

i n tx=7 ; i n ty=5 ; i f ( x= =7& &y= =5 ){ . . . }

Here,the&&operatorcheckstheleftmostexpression,thentheexpressiontoit'[Link],the&&operatorreturnstrue,andthecodeblockisexecuted.

i f ( x= =5& &y= =5 ){ . . . }

The&&operatorchecksinthesamewayasbefore,[Link]&&operatorstopsevaluatingassoonasitfindsastatementtobefalse,andreturnsafalse.
| | isusedtoevaluateexpressionslefttoright,andreturnsa1if eitheroftheexpressionsaretrue.

/ *U s et h es a m ev a r i a b l e sa sb e f o r e .* / i f ( x= =2| |y= =5 ){/ /t h e| |s t a t e m e n tc h e c k sb o t he x p r e s s i o n s ,f i n d st h a tt h el a t t e ri st r u e ,a n dr e t u r n st r u e . . . }

The | | operatorherecheckstheleftmostexpression,findsitfalse,[Link],stops,[Link] & & operatorceaseswhenitfindsanexpressionthat returnsfalse,the | | operatorceaseswhenitfindsanexpressionthatreturnstrue. ItisworthnotingthatCdoesnothaveBooleanvalues(trueandfalse)commonlyfoundinotherlanguages.Itinsteadinterpretsa0asfalse,andanynonzerovalueastrue.

Conditionaloperators
Theternary ? : [Link] ( x?y:z ) hasthevalueof y if x isnonzero, z otherwise. Example:

i n tx=0 ; i n ty ; y=( x?1 0 : 6 ) ;

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Theexpression x [Link]"iffalse"value,whichinthiscase,[Link],so y [Link] x beenanonzero,thentheexpressionwouldhavereturneda10.

Assignmentoperators
Theassignmentoperatorsare = , * = , / = , % = , + = , = , < < = , > > = , & = , ^ = ,and | = .The = operatorstoresthevalueoftherightoperandintothelocationdeterminedbytheleftoperand,whichmustbeanlvalue Fortheothers, xo p =y isshorthandfor x=xo p( y ) .Hence,thefollowingexpressionsarethesame:
1 .x+ =y 2 .x=y 3 .x* =y 4 .x/ =y 5 .x% =y x=x + y x=x y x=x * y x=x / y x=x % y

Commaoperator
[Link] x ,y willevaluateboth x and y ,butprovidesthevalueof y . Thisoperatorisusefulforincludingmultipleactionsinonestatement([Link]). Herearesomesmallexamplesofthecommaoperator:
i n ti ,x ; / *d e c l a r e st w oi n t s ,ia n dx ,i no n es t a t e m e n t* /

/ *t h i sl o o pi n i t i a l i z e sxa n dit o0 ,t h e nr u n st h el o o p* / f o r ( x=0 ,i=0 ;i< =6 ;i + + ){ p r i n t f ( " x=% d ,a n di=% d \ n " ,x ,i ) ; }

1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Furthermath
The < m a t h . h > headercontainsprototypesforseveralfunctionsthatdealwithmathematics.Inthe1990versionoftheISOstandard,onlythe d o u b l e versionsofthefunctionswerespecifiedthe1999versionaddedthe f l o a t and l o n gd o u b l e [Link] thesemathfunctions,[Link](includingGCC),youmustspecifytheadditionalparameter l m . Thefunctionscanbegroupedintothefollowingcategories:

Trigonometricfunctions
Thea c o s anda s i n functions
The a c o s functionsreturnthearccosineoftheirargumentsinradians,andthe a s i n [Link][1,+1].Thearccosinereturnsavalueintherange[0,]the arcsinereturnsavalueintherange[/2,+/2].
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a ta s i n f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ta c o s f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ea s i n ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l ea c o s ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ea s i n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ea c o s l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thea t a n anda t a n 2 functions

The a t a n functionsreturnthearctangentoftheirargumentsinradians,andthe a t a n 2 functionreturnthearctangentof y / x [Link] a t a n functionsreturnavalueintherange[/2,+/2](thereasonwhy/2areincludedintherangeisbecausethe floatingpointvaluemayrepresentinfinity,andatan()=/2)the a t a n 2 functionsreturnavalueintherange[/2,+/2].For a t a n 2 ,adomainerrormayoccurifbothargumentsarezero.

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# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a ta t a n f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ta t a n 2 f ( f l o a ty ,f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ea t a n ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l ea t a n 2 ( d o u b l ey ,d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ea t a n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ea t a n 2 l ( l o n gd o u b l ey ,l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

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Thec o s ,s i n ,andt a n functions

The c o s , s i n ,and t a n functionsreturnthecosine,sine,andtangentoftheargument,expressedinradians.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tc o s f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ts i n f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tt a n f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ec o s ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l es i n ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l et a n ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ec o s l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l es i n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l et a n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Hyperbolicfunctions
The c o s h , s i n h and t a n h functionscomputethehyperboliccosine,thehyperbolicsine,[Link],arangeerroroccursifthemagnitudeoftheargumentistoolarge. The a c o s h functionscomputetheinversehyperboliccosineoftheargument.Adomainerroroccursforargumentslessthan1. The a s i n h functionscomputetheinversehyperbolicsineoftheargument. The a t a n h [Link][1,+1].Arangeerrormayoccuriftheargumentequals1or+1.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tc o s h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ts i n h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tt a n h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ec o s h ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l es i n h ( d o u b l ex ) ; d o u b l et a n h ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ec o s h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l es i n h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l et a n h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ta c o s h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ta s i n h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ta t a n h f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ea c o s h ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ea s i n h ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ea t a n h ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ea c o s h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ea s i n h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ea t a n h l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Exponentialandlogarithmicfunctions
Thee x p ,e x p 2 ,ande x p m 1 functions
The e x p functionscomputethebaseeexponentialfunctionof x (ex).Arangeerroroccursifthemagnitudeof x istoolarge. The e x p 2 functionscomputethebase2exponentialfunctionof x (2x).Arangeerroroccursifthemagnitudeof x istoolarge. The e x p m 1 functionscomputethebaseeexponentialfunctionoftheargument,[Link] x istoolarge.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a te x p f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ee x p ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ee x p l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a te x p 2 f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ee x p 2 ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ee x p 2 l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a te x p m 1 f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ee x p m 1 ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ee x p m 1 l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

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Thef r e x p ,l d e x p ,m o d f ,s c a l b n ,ands c a l b l n functions

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Thesefunctionsareheavilyusedinsoftwarefloatingpointemulators,butareotherwiserarelydirectlycalled. Insidethecomputer,eachfloatingpointnumberisrepresentedbytwoparts: Thesignificandiseitherintherange[1/2,1),oritequalszero. Theexponentisaninteger. Thevalueofafloatingpointnumber is .

The f r e x p functionsbreaktheargumentfloatingpointnumber v a l u e intothosetwoparts,[Link],itstorestheexponentinthe i n t objectpointedtoby e x ,[Link],thevalue [Link] v a l u e iszero,bothpartsoftheresultarezero. The l d e x p [Link],[Link]. The m o d f functionsbreaktheargument v a l u e intointegerandfractionparts,[Link] * i p t r [Link] * i p t r isafloatingpointtype,rather thanan"int"type,becauseitmightbeusedtostoreanintegerlike1000000000000000000000whichistoobigtofitinanint.
n The s c a l b n and s c a l b l n compute x F L T _ R A D I X . F L T _ R A D I X isthebaseofthefloatingpointsystemifitis2,thefunctionsareequivalentto l d e x p .

# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tf r e x p f ( f l o a tv a l u e ,i n t* e x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ef r e x p ( d o u b l ev a l u e ,i n t* e x ) ; l o n gd o u b l ef r e x p l ( l o n gd o u b l ev a l u e ,i n t* e x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl d e x p f ( f l o a tx ,i n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el d e x p ( d o u b l ex ,i n te x ) ; l o n gd o u b l el d e x p l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,i n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tm o d f f ( f l o a tv a l u e ,f l o a t* i p t r ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l em o d f ( d o u b l ev a l u e ,d o u b l e* i p t r ) ; l o n gd o u b l em o d f l ( l o n gd o u b l ev a l u e ,l o n gd o u b l e* i p t r ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ts c a l b n f ( f l o a tx ,i n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l es c a l b n ( d o u b l ex ,i n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l es c a l b n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,i n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a ts c a l b l n f ( f l o a tx ,l o n gi n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l es c a l b l n ( d o u b l ex ,l o n gi n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l es c a l b l n l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gi n te x ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

MostCfloatingpointlibrariesalsoimplementtheIEEE754recommendednextafter(),nextUp(),andnextDown()functions.[6]([Link]

Thel o g ,l o g 2 ,l o g 1 p ,andl o g 1 0 functions

The l o g functionscomputethebaseenatural(notcommon)[Link]. The l o g 1 p functionscomputethebaseenatural(notcommon)logarithmofoneplustheargumentandreturntheresult.Adomainerroroccursiftheargumentislessthan1.Arangeerrormayoccuriftheargumentis1. The l o g 1 0 functionscomputethecommon(base10)[Link]. The l o g 2 [Link].
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tl o g f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el o g ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l el o g l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl o g 1 p f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el o g 1 p ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l el o g 1 p l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl o g 1 0 f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el o g 1 0 ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l el o g 1 0 l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl o g 2 f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el o g 2 ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l el o g 2 l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thei l o g b andl o g b functions

The i l o g b functionsextracttheexponentof x [Link] x iszero,theyreturnthevalue F P _ I L O G B 0 if x isinfinite,theyreturnthevalue I N T _ M A X if x isnotanumbertheyreturnthevalue F P _ I L O G B N A N otherwise,theyareequivalenttocallingthe corresponding l o g b functionandcastingthereturnedvaluetotype i n t .Arangeerrormayoccurif x iszero. F P _ I L O G B 0 and F P _ I L O G B N A N aremacrosdefinedin m a t h . h I N T _ M A X isamacrodefinedin l i m i t s . h .
l o g b ( x ) The l o g b functionsextracttheexponentof x [Link] x issubnormal,itistreatedasifitwerenormalizedthus,forpositivefinite x ,1 x F L T _ R A D I X < F L T _ R A D I X . F L T _ R A D I X istheradixforfloatingpointnumbers, definedinthe f l o a t . h header.

# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > i n ti l o g b f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

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i n ti l o g b ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / i n td o u b l ei l o g b l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl o g b f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el o g b ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l el o g b l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Powerfunctions
Thep o w functions
The p o w functionscompute x raisedtothepower y [Link] x isnegativeand y [Link] x iszeroand y islessthanorequaltozero.A rangeerrormayoccur.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tp o w f ( f l o a tx ,f l o a ty ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ep o w ( d o u b l ex ,d o u b l ey ) ; l o n gd o u b l ep o w l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gd o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thes q r t functions
The s q r t functionscomputethepositivesquarerootof x [Link].
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a ts q r t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l es q r t ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l es q r t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thec b r t functions
The c b r t functionscomputethecuberootof x andreturntheresult.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tc b r t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ec b r t ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ec b r t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Theh y p o t functions
The h y p o t functionscomputethesquarerootofthesumsofthesquaresof x and y ,withoutoverfloworunderflow,andreturntheresult.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a th y p o t f ( f l o a tx ,f l o a ty ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l eh y p o t ( d o u b l ex ,d o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l eh y p o t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gd o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Nearestinteger,absolutevalue,andremainderfunctions
Thec e i l andf l o o r functions
The c e i l functionscomputethesmallestintegralvaluenotlessthan x andreturntheresultthe f l o o r functionscomputethelargestintegralvaluenotgreaterthan x andreturntheresult.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tc e i l f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ec e i l ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ec e i l l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tf l o o r f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ef l o o r ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ef l o o r l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thef a b s functions
The f a b s functionscomputetheabsolutevalueofafloatingpointnumber x andreturntheresult.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tf a b s f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ef a b s ( d o u b l ex ) ; l o n gd o u b l ef a b s l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

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Thef m o d functions

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The f m o d functionscomputethefloatingpointremainderof x / y andreturnthevalue x i* y ,forsomeinteger isuchthat,if y isnonzero,theresulthasthesamesignas x andmagnitudelessthanthemagnitudeof y .If y iszero,whetheradomainerror occursorthe f m o d functionsreturnzeroisimplementationdefined.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tf m o d f ( f l o a tx ,f l o a ty ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ef m o d ( d o u b l ex ,d o u b l ey ) ; l o n gd o u b l ef m o d l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gd o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Then e a r b y i n t ,r i n t ,l r i n t ,andl l r i n t functions

The n e a r b y i n t functionsroundtheirargumenttoanintegervalueinfloatingpointformat,usingthecurrentroundingdirectionandwithoutraisingthe"inexact"floatingpointexception. The r i n t functionsaresimilartothe n e a r b y i n t functionsexceptthattheycanraisethe"inexact"floatingpointexceptioniftheresultdiffersinvaluefromtheargument. The l r i n t and l l r i n t [Link],thenumericresultisundefinedandarangeerrormayoccurifthe magnitudeoftheargumentistoolarge.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tn e a r b y i n t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l en e a r b y i n t ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l en e a r b y i n t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tr i n t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l er i n t ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l er i n t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r i n t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r i n t ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r i n t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r i n t f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r i n t ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r i n t l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Ther o u n d ,l r o u n d ,andl l r o u n d functions

The r o u n d functionsroundtheargumenttothenearestintegervalueinfloatingpointformat,roundinghalfwaycasesawayfromzero,regardlessofthecurrentroundingdirection. The l r o u n d and l l r o u n d functionsroundtheargumenttothenearestintegervalue,roundinghalfwaycasesawayfromzero,[Link],thenumericresultis undefinedandarangeerrormayoccurifthemagnitudeoftheargumentistoolarge.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tr o u n d f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l er o u n d ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l er o u n d l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r o u n d f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r o u n d ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gi n tl r o u n d l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r o u n d f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r o u n d ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gl o n gi n tl l r o u n d l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Thet r u n c functions
The t r u n c functionsroundtheirargumenttotheintegervalueinfloatingpointformatthatisnearestbutnolargerinmagnitudethantheargument.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tt r u n c f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l et r u n c ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l et r u n c l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Ther e m a i n d e r functions
The r e m a i n d e r functionscomputetheremainder x REM y [Link],"When y0,theremainder r= xREM yisdefinedregardlessoftheroundingmodebythemathematicalreduction r= x ny,where nistheinteger nearesttheexactvalueof x/ ywhenever|n x/ y|=,then [Link],[Link] r=0,itssignshallbethatof x."Thisdefinitionisapplicableforallimplementations.
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tr e m a i n d e r f ( f l o a tx ,f l o a ty ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l er e m a i n d e r ( d o u b l ex ,d o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l er e m a i n d e r l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gd o u b l ey ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Ther e m q u o functions

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The r e m q u o functionsreturnthesameremainderasthe r e m a i n d e r [Link] q u o ,theystoreavaluewhosesignisthesignof x /y andwhosemagnitudeiscongruentmodulo2ntothemagnitudeoftheintegralquotientof x /y ,where n isanimplementationdefinedintegergreaterthanorequalto3.

# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a tr e m q u o f ( f l o a tx ,f l o a ty ,i n t* q u o ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l er e m q u o ( d o u b l ex ,d o u b l ey ,i n t* q u o ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l er e m q u o l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ,l o n gd o u b l ey ,i n t* q u o ) ;/ *C 9 9* /

Errorandgammafunctions
The e r f functionscomputetheerrorfunctionoftheargument(2/() 0x et dt)the e r f c functionscomputethecomplimentaryerrorfunctionoftheargument(thatis,1erfx).Forthe e r f c functions,arangeerrormayoccuriftheargumentistoolarge. The l g a m m a functionscomputethenaturallogarithmoftheabsolutevalueofthegammaoftheargument(thatis,loge|(x)|).Arangeerrormayoccuriftheargumentisanegativeintegerorzero. The t g a m m a functionscomputethegammaoftheargument(thatis,(x)).[Link].
# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > f l o a te r f f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ee r f ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ee r f l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a te r f c f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l ee r f c ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l ee r f c l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tl g a m m a f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l el g a m m a ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l el g a m m a l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / f l o a tt g a m m a f ( f l o a tx ) ;/ *C 9 9* / d o u b l et g a m m a ( d o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* / l o n gd o u b l et g a m m a l ( l o n gd o u b l ex ) ;/ *C 9 9* /
2

Furtherreading
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Control
[Link],itisnecessarytounderstandhowonecanalterthestepstakenbyaprogramduetouserinputorotherconditions,howsome stepscanbeexecutedmanytimeswithfewlinesofcode,[Link]. Fromthispointforward,itisnecessarytounderstandwhatisusuallymeantbytheword [Link],thebeginningofablockofcodeisdenotedwith{(left curly),andtheendofablockisdenotedwith}.[Link],asin{}.[Link].

Conditionals
[Link],instinctualorotherwise, [Link],whendrivingacarandapproachingatrafficlight,onedoesnotthink,"Iwillcontinuedrivingthroughtheintersection."Rather,onethinks,"Iwillstopifthelightisred,goifthelightisgreen,andifyellowgoonlyifIam travelingatacertainspeedacertaindistancefromtheintersection."ThesekindsofprocessescanbesimulatedinCusingconditionals. [Link],withconditionalexpressionsandSwitchCase statementstypicallyusedasmoreshorthandedmethods. Beforeonecanunderstandconditionalstatements,[Link].Thevalue0(zero)representsfalse,and [Link] particularvaluetorepresenttrueandthencomparevaluesagainstit,soonerorlateryourcodewillfailwhenyourassumedvalue(often1)[Link] usageof#definetomakea"TRUE"value. [4] BecauselogicisarithmeticinC,[Link],thereareanumberofoperatorsthataretypicallyassociatedwithlogic:

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RelationalandEquivalenceExpressions:
a<b 1if aislessthan b,0otherwise. a>b 1if aisgreaterthan b,0otherwise. a<=b 1if aislessthanorequalto b,0otherwise. a>=b 1if aisgreaterthanorequalto b,0otherwise. a==b 1if aisequalto b,0otherwise. a!=b 1if aisnotequalto b,0otherwise

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Newprogrammersshouldtakespecialnoteofthefactthatthe"equalto"operatoris==,not=.Thisisthecauseofnumerouscodingmistakesandisoftenadifficulttofindbug,astheexpression ( a=b ) sets a equalto b andsubsequentlyevaluatesto b buttheexpression ( a= =b ) ,whichisusuallyintended,checksif a isequalto b .Itneedstobepointedoutthat,ifyouconfuse=with==,[Link] i f(c=2 0 ){ } is consideredperfectlyvalidbythelanguage,butwillalwaysassign20to c [Link](inmany,notallcases)[Link],if==got misspelledwith=. [Link]:
i f( f o o ( ) ){ / / d os o m e t h i n g }

and
i f( f o o ( )! =0 ){ / / d os o m e t h i n g }

Often # d e f i n eT R U E1 and # d e f i n eF A L S E0 [Link],[Link],as therearemanydifferentwaysofindicatingerrorconditions,dependingonthesituation.

i f( s t r s t r ( " f o o " ,b a r )> =0 ){ / / b a rc o n t a i n s" f o o " }

Here, s t r s t r [Link] T R U E [Link] > =0 . [Link],anexpression m y M i n<v a l u e<m y M a x [Link],thiswouldtestwhetherornot value isbetween myMinand [Link],whathappensisthat valueisfirstcomparedwith [Link]:
i n tv a l u e=2 0 ; / *. . .* / i f(0<v a l u e<1 0 ){/ /d o n ' td ot h i s !i ta l w a y se v a l u a t e st o" t r u e " ! / *d os o m es t u f f* / }

Because valueisgreaterthan0,thefirstcomparisonproducesavalueof1.Now1iscomparedtobelessthan10,whichistrue,[Link] be
i n tv a l u e=2 0 ; / *. . .* / i f(0<v a l u e& &v a l u e<1 0 ){ / /t h e& &m e a n s" a n d " / *d os o m es t u f f* / }

LogicalExpressions
a||b whenEITHER aor bistrue(orboth),theresultis1,otherwisetheresultis0. a&&b whenBOTH aand baretrue,theresultis1,otherwisetheresultis0.

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!a when aistrue,theresultis0,when ais0,theresultis1. Here'[Link]:
e=( ( a& &b )| |( c>d ) ) ;

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eissetequalto1ifaandbarenonzero,[Link],eissetto0. [Link],onceitisabletodeterminethetruthofalogicalexpression,[Link]:
i n tm y A r r a y [ 1 2 ] ; . . . . i f(i<1 2& &m y A r r a y [ i ]>3 ){ . . . .

Inthesnippetofcode,thecomparisonofiwith12isdonefirst.Ifitevaluatesto0(false), i wouldbeoutofboundsasanindexto [Link],theprogramneverattemptstoaccess myArray[i]sincethetruthoftheexpressionisknowntobe [Link]||operator.

w h i l e (d o T h i s ( )| |d o T h a t ( ) ). . .

doThat()isnevercalledifdoThis()returnsanonzero(true)value.

BitwiseBooleanExpressions
[Link](oneofthetypesusedforintegers).Thesixbitwiseoperatorsare&(AND),|(OR),^(exclusiveOR,commonlycalledXOR),~(NOT,whichchanges1to0and0 to1),<<(shiftleft),and>>(shiftright).[Link] equivalenceoperatorsitisoftenrequiredtoparenthesizeexpressionsinvolvingbitwiseoperators. Forthissection,recallthatanumberstartingwith 0xishexadecimal,orhexforshort.Unlikethenormaldecimalsystemusingpowersof10anddigits0123456789,[Link] Cprogramsbecauseaprogrammercanquicklyconvertittoorfrombinary(powersof2anddigits01).Cdoesnotdirectlysupportbinarynotation,whichwouldbereallyverboseanyway. a&b bitwisebooleanandof aand b 0xc&0xaproducesthevalue0x8(inbinary,1100&1010produces1000) a|b bitwisebooleanorof aand b 0xc|0xaproducesthevalue0xe(inbinary,1100|1010produces1110) a^b bitwisexorof aand b 0xc^0xaproducesthevalue0x6(inbinary,1100^1010produces0110) ~a bitwisecomplementof a. ~0xcproducesthevalue10xc(inbinary,~1100produces...11110011where"..."maybemanymore1bits) a<<b shift aleftby b(multiplyaby ) 0xc<<1producesthevalue0x18(inbinary,1100<<1producesthevalue11000) a>>b shift arightby b(divideaby ) 0xc>>1producesthevalue0x6(inbinary,1100>>1producesthevalue110)

TheIfElsestatement
[Link]:
i f( / *c o n d i t i o ng o e sh e r e* / ){ / *i ft h ec o n d i t i o ni sn o n z e r o( t r u e ) ,t h i sc o d ew i l le x e c u t e* / }e l s e{ / *i ft h ec o n d i t i o ni s0( f a l s e ) ,t h i sc o d ew i l le x e c u t e* / }

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Thefirstblockofcodeexecutesiftheconditioninparenthesesdirectlyafterthe if evaluatestononzero(true)otherwise,thesecondblockexecutes. The [Link],leaveitout. Also,keepinmindthatan if candirectlyfollowan [Link],[Link] constructdescribedlater. Twoothergeneralsyntaxnotesneedtobemadethatyouwillalsoseeinothercontrolconstructs:First,notethatthereisnosemicolonafter if or [Link],buttheblock(codeenclosedin{and})[Link],ifyouonly intendtoexecuteonestatementasaresultofan if or else,[Link],manyprogrammersbelievethatinsertingcurlybracesanywayinthiscaseisgoodcodingpractice. Thefollowingcodesetsavariablecequaltothegreateroftwovariablesaandb,or0ifaandbareequal.
i f ( a>b ){ c=a ; }e l s ei f ( b>a ){ c=b ; }e l s e{ c=0 ; }

Considerthisquestion:whycan'tyoujustforgetabout elseandwritethecodelike:
i f ( a>b ){ c=a ; } i f ( a<b ){ c=b ; } i f ( a= =b ){ c=0 ; }

[Link],ifyourconditionalsarenotmutuallyexclusive, [Link](e.g.:youresetthelesserofaandbto0 afterthecomparison)duringoneoftheblocks?Youcouldendupwithmultiple if statementsbeinginvoked,[Link],evaluating if [Link] elsetohandlethesesituations,inthecaseabove assuming(a>b)isnonzero(true),theprogramissparedtheexpenseofevaluatingadditional if [Link] elseclauseforallcasesinwhichaconditionalwillnotevaluatetononzero(true). Theconditionalexpression [Link]:
( / *l o g i c a le x p r e s s i o ng o e sh e r e* / )?( / *i fn o n z e r o( t r u e )* / ):( / *i f0( f a l s e )* / )

[Link](true),theoverallconditionalexpressionevaluatestotheexpressionplacedbetweenthe?and:,otherwise,itevaluatestotheexpressionafterthe:.Therefore,theaboveexample(changingitsfunction slightlysuchthatcissettobwhenaandbareequal)becomes:
c=( a>b )?a:b ;

[Link]'[Link],contrarytoacommon beginnerbelief,[Link],thereisnosuchcorrelation.

TheSwitchCasestatement
Sayyouwriteaprogramwheretheuserinputsanumber15(correspondingtostudentgrades,A(representedas1)D(4)andF(5)),storesitinavariable [Link] implementedthisusingIfElse,yourcodewouldlooksomethinglikethis:
i f ( g r a d e= =1 ){ p r i n t f ( " A \ n " ) ; }e l s ei f ( g r a d e= =2 ){ p r i n t f ( " B \ n " ) ; }e l s ei f/ *e t c .e t c .* /

Havingalongchainofifelseifelseifelsecanbeapain,[Link],there'sasolution:theSwitchCaseconstruct,ofwhichthebasicsyntaxis:
s w i t c h ( / *i n t e g e ro re n u mg o e sh e r e* / ){ c a s e/ *p o t e n t i a lv a l u eo ft h ea f o r e m e n t i o n e di n to re n u m* / : / *c o d e* / c a s e/ *ad i f f e r e n tp o t e n t i a lv a l u e* / : / *d i f f e r e n tc o d e* /

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/ *i n s e r ta d d i t i o n a lc a s e sa sn e e d e d* / d e f a u l t : / *m o r ec o d e* / }

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TheSwitchCaseconstructtakesavariable,usuallyanintoranenum,placedafter switch,andcomparesittothevaluefollowingthe [Link] case,theconstruct"activates",orbeginsexecutingthe [Link]"activated",therewillbenofurtherevaluationof cases. SwitchCaseissyntactically"weird"inthatnobracesarerequiredforcodeassociatedwitha case. Veryimportant:Typically,[Link],[Link] ifthebreakstatementisomitted,programexecutioncontinueswiththefirstlineofthenextcase,[Link] [Link],acommentshouldbeplacedattheendoftheblockofstatementsindicating [Link]'break'tobeanerror,andinadvertently'correct'[Link]'sanexample:
s w i t c h(s o m e V a r i a b l e){ c a s e1 : p r i n t f ( " T h i sc o d eh a n d l e sc a s e1 \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; c a s e2 : p r i n t f ( " T h i sp r i n t sw h e ns o m e V a r i a b l ei s2 ,a l o n gw i t h . . . \ n " ) ; / *F A L LT H R O U G H* / c a s e3 : p r i n t f ( " T h i sp r i n t sw h e ns o m e V a r i a b l ei se i t h e r2o r3 . \ n ") ; b r e a k ; }

Ifa default caseisspecified,theassociatedstatementsareexecutedifnoneoftheothercasesmatch.A default [Link]'saswitchstatementthatcorrespondstothesequenceofifelseifstatementsabove. [Link]'swhatitwouldlooklikeasSwitchCase:

s w i t c h( g r a d e ){ c a s e1 : p r i n t f ( " A \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; c a s e2 : p r i n t f ( " B \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; c a s e3 : p r i n t f ( " C \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; c a s e4 : p r i n t f ( " D \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; d e f a u l t : p r i n t f ( " F \ n " ) ; b r e a k ; }

Asetofstatementstoexecutecanbegroupedwithmorethanonevalueofthevariableasinthefollowingexample.(thefallthroughcommentisnotnecessaryherebecausetheintendedbehaviorisobvious)
s w i t c h( s o m e t h i n g ){ c a s e2 : c a s e3 : c a s e4 : / *s o m es t a t e m e n t st oe x e c u t ef o r2 ,3o r4* / b r e a k ; c a s e1 : d e f a u l t : / *s o m es t a t e m e n t st oe x e c u t ef o r1o ro t h e rt h a n2 , 3 , a n d4* / b r e a k ; }

SwitchCaseconstructsareparticularlyusefulwhenusedinconjunctionwithuserdefined [Link],whichmaybehelpfulforavoidingbugs.

Loops
Oftenincomputerprogramming,[Link],notto [Link],[Link],"Iwasheddishesallnight long."Heisnotlikelytorespond,"Iwashedadish,thenwashedadish,thenwashedadish,then...".Theconstructsthatenablecomputerstoperformcertainrepetitivetasksarecalledloops.

Whileloops
[Link](true).Forexample,ifyoutrythefollowing,[Link] conditionsforexitingtheloopwillneverbecometrueiscalledaninfiniteloop.
i n ta = 1 ;

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w h i l e ( 4 2 ){ a=a * 2 ; }

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Hereisanotherexampleofawhileloop.Itprintsoutallthepowersoftwolessthan100.
i n ta = 1 ; w h i l e ( a < 1 0 0 ){ p r i n t f ( " ai s% d\ n " , a ) ; a=a * 2 ; }

Theflowofallloopscanalsobecontrolledby breakand [Link]. Forexample:

i n ta = 1 ; w h i l e( 4 2 ){/ /l o o p su n t i lt h eb r e a ks t a t e m e n ti nt h el o o pi se x e c u t e d p r i n t f ( " ai s% d" , a ) ; a=a * 2 ; i f ( a > 1 0 0 ){ b r e a k ; }e l s ei f ( a = = 6 4 ){ c o n t i n u e ; / /I m m e d i a t e l yr e s t a r t sa tw h i l e ,s k i p sn e x ts t e p } p r i n t f ( " ai sn o t6 4 \ n " ) ; }

Inthisexample,thecomputerprintsthevalueofaasusual,andprintsanoticethataisnot64(unlessitwasskippedbythecontinuestatement). SimilartoIfabove,bracesfortheblockofcodeassociatedwithaWhileloopcanbeomittedifthecodeconsistsofonlyonestatement,forexample:
i n ta = 1 ; w h i l e ( a<1 0 0 )a=a * 2 ;

Thiswillmerelyincreaseauntilaisnotlessthan100. Whenthecomputerreachestheendofthewhileloop,italwaysgoesbacktothewhilestatementatthetopoftheloop,[Link]"true"atthatinstantevenifitwastemporarily0forafew [Link]"continuouslycheck"thecontrollingconditionofawhileloopduringtheexecutionof [Link]"peeks"atthecontrollingconditioneachtimeitreachesthe w h i l e atthetopoftheloop. Itisveryimportanttonote,oncethecontrollingconditionofaWhileloopbecomes0(false),[Link] reachingacertaincondition,considerusing break. Acommonidiomistowrite:

i n ti=5 ; w h i l e ( i ){ p r i n t f ( " j a v aa n dc #c a n ' td ot h i s \ n " ) ; }

Thisexecutesthecodeinthewhileloop5times,withihavingvaluesthatrangefrom4downto0(insidetheloop).Conveniently,thesearethevaluesneededtoaccesseveryitemofanarraycontaining5elements.

Forloops
Forloopsgenerallylooksomethinglikethis:
f o r ( i n i t i a l i z a t i o n ;t e s t ;i n c r e m e n t ){ / *c o d e* / }

The initializationstatementisexecutedexactlyoncebeforethefirstevaluationofthe test [Link],itisusedtoassignaninitialvaluetosomevariable,[Link] initializationstatementcanalsobeusedto declareandinitializevariablesusedintheloop. The test expressionisevaluatedeachtimebeforethecodeinthe forloopexecutes.Ifthisexpressionevaluatesas0(false)whenitischecked([Link]),theloopisnot(re)enteredandexecutioncontinuesnormallyatthecode [Link](true),thecodewithinthebracesoftheloopisexecuted. Aftereachiterationoftheloop,the increment [Link],[Link], controlreturnstothetopoftheloop,wherethe test [Link] continuestatementisexecutedwithinthe forloop,theincrementstatementwouldbethenextoneexecuted. [Link],[Link],processingeachitemat atime.

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i n t m y A r r a y [ 1 2 ] ; i n ti x ; f o r( i x=0 ;i x < 1 2 ;i x + + ){ m y A r r a y [ i x ]=5*i x+3 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

[Link].Inthefollowingcaseitstartsfrom1.
f o r ( i x=1 ;i x< =1 0 ;i x + + ){ p r i n t f ( " % d" ,i x ) ; }

whichwillprint
1234567891 0

Youwillmostoftenuseloopindexesthatstartfrom0,sincearraysareindexedatzero,butyouwillsometimesuseothervaluestoinitializealoopindexaswell. The increment actioncandootherthings,suchas decrement .Sothiskindofloopiscommon:

f o r( i=5 ;i>0 ;i ){ p r i n t f ( " % d" , i ) ; }

whichyields
54321

Here'sanexamplewherethetestconditionissimplyavariable.Ifthevariablehasavalueof0orNULL,theloopexits,otherwisethestatementsinthebodyoftheloopareexecuted.
f o r( t=l i s t _ h e a d ;t ;t=N e x t I t e m ( t )){ / * b o d yo fl o o p* / }

AWHILEloopcanbeusedtodothesamethingasaFORloop,howeveraFORloopisamorecondensedwaytoperformasetnumberofrepetitionssinceallofthenecessaryinformationisinaonelinestatement. AFORloopcanalsobegivennoconditions,forexample:
f o r ( ; ; ){ / *b l o c ko fs t a t e m e n t s* / }

[Link]. Itisalsocommontousethecommaoperatorinforloopstoexecutemultiplestatements.
i n ti ,j ,n=1 0 ; f o r ( i=0 ,j=0 ;i< =n ;i + + , j + = 2 ){ p r i n t f ( " i=% d,j=% d\ n " , i , j ) ; }

Specialcareshouldbetakenwhendesigningorrefactoringtheconditionalpart,especiallywhetherusing<or<=,whetherstartandstopshouldbecorrectedby1,andincaseofprefixandpostfixnotations.(Ona100yardspromenadewithatreeevery 10yardsthereare11trees.)
i n ti ,n=1 0 ; f o r ( i=0 ;i<n ;i + + )p r i n t f ( " % d" , i ) ;/ /p r o c e s s e dnt i m e s= >0123. . .( n 1 ) p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; f o r ( i=0 ;i< =n ;i + + )p r i n t f ( " % d" , i ) ;/ /p r o c e s s e d( n + 1 )t i m e s= >0123. . .n p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; f o r ( i=n ;i ; )p r i n t f ( " % d" , i ) ;/ /p r o c e s s e dnt i m e s= >( n 1 ). . . 3210 p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; f o r ( i=n ;i ; )p r i n t f ( " % d" , i ) ;/ /p r o c e s s e d( n 1 )t i m e s= >( n 1 ). . . 4321 p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ;

DoWhileloops

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ADOWHILEloopisapostcheckwhileloop,[Link],eveniftheconditioniszero(false),[Link]:
d o{ / *d os t u f f* / }w h i l e( c o n d i t i o n ) ;

[Link], breakand continuestatementswithintheloopfunctionaccordingly.A continuestatementcausesajumptothetestoftheconditionanda break statementexitstheloop. ItisworthnotingthatDoWhileandWhilearefunctionallyalmostidentical,withoneimportantdifference:DoWhileloopsarealwaysguaranteedtoexecuteatleastonce,butWhileloopswillnotexecuteatalliftheirconditionis0(false)onthefirst evaluation.

Onelastthing:goto
[Link],[Link] colon(:)[Link],youcantype"goto label"[Link] [Link]:
M y L a b e l : / *s o m ec o d e* / g o t oM y L a b e l ;

Theabilitytotransfertheflowofcontrolenabledbygotosissopowerfulthat,inadditiontothesimpleif,[Link],wecanlet"S"and"T"beanyarbitrarystatements:
i f( ' ' c o n d ' ' ){ S ; }e l s e{ T ; } / *. . .* /

Thesamestatementcouldbeaccomplishedusingtwogotosandtwolabels:
i f( ' ' c o n d ' ' )g o t oL a b e l 1 ; T ; g o t oL a b e l 2 ; L a b e l 1 : S ; L a b e l 2 : / *. . .* /

Here,thefirstgotoisconditionalonthevalueof"cond".[Link]:
w h i l e( ' ' c o n d 1 ' ' ){ S ; i f( ' ' c o n d 2 ' ' )b r e a k ; T ; } / *. . .* /

Whichcanbewrittenas:
S t a r t : i f( ! ' ' c o n d 1 ' ' )g o t oE n d ; S ; i f( ' ' c o n d 2 ' ' )g o t oE n d ; T ; g o t oS t a r t ; E n d : / *. . .* /

Asthesecasesdemonstrate,[Link],unmaintainablecodewhenmoreidiomaticalternatives(suchasifelses,orfor loops)[Link],thegotoconstructdoesnotever havetobeused,buttherearecaseswhenitcanincreasereadability,avoidcodeduplication,[Link] masteringtheidiomaticsolutions,[Link],ifnotmost,Cstyleguidelines strictlyforbiduseof goto,withtheonlycommonexceptionsbeingthefollowingexamples. [Link] breakwillnotwork(itcanonlyescapeoneloop), [Link] possible,butofteninvolvesthecreationandtestingofextravariablesthatmaymaketheresultingcodefarlessreadablethanitwouldbewith [Link] gotomakesiteasytoundoactionsinanorderlyfashion,typicallytoavoidfailingtofree memorythathadbeenallocated. [Link],andnotcommonlyneeded.

Examples
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# i n c l u d e< e r r n o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ty e a r s ; p r i n t f ( " E n t e ry o u ra g ei ny e a r s:" ) ; f f l u s h ( s t d o u t ) ; e r r n o=0 ; i f ( s c a n f ( " % d " ,& y e a r s )! =1| |e r r n o ) r e t u r nE X I T _ F A I L U R E ; p r i n t f ( " Y o u ra g ei nd a y si s% d \ n " ,y e a r s*3 6 5 ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Furtherreading
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Proceduresandfunctions
InCprogramming,allexecutablecoderesideswithina [Link]"function","subroutine", "subprogram","procedure",or"method"inC,theseareallfunctions. Afunctionisoftenexecuted(called)severaltimes,fromseveraldifferentplaces,[Link],theprogramwillbranchback(return)tothepointafterthecall. Functionsareapowerfulprogrammingtool. Asabasicexample,supposeyouarewritingcodetoprintoutthefirst5squaresofnumbers,dosomeintermediateprocessing,[Link]:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { i n ti ; f o r ( i = 1 ;i< =5 ;i + + ) { p r i n t f ( " % d" ,i * i ) ; } f o r ( i = 1 ;i< =5 ;i + + ) { p r i n t f ( " % d" ,i * i ) ; } r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link]:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > v o i dP r i n t _ S q u a r e s ( v o i d ) { i n ti ; f o r ( i = 1 ;i< = 5 ;i + + ) { p r i n t f ( " % d" ,i * i ) ; } } i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { P r i n t _ S q u a r e s ( ) ; P r i n t _ S q u a r e s ( ) ; r e t u r n0 ;

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}

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Thisispreciselywhatfunctionsarefor.

Moreonfunctions
[Link],doessomethingwithit,thenspitsoutananswer. Notethatafunctionmaynottakeanyinputsatall,[Link],ifweweretomakeafunctionofthatloop,wemaynotneedanyinputs,andwearen'treturninganythingatall(Textoutputdoesn'tcount whenwespeakof returningwemeantosaymeaningfuldatathattheprogramcanuse). Wehavesometerminologytorefertofunctions: Afunction,callit f ,thatusesanotherfunction g,issaidto call [Link], f calls gtoprintthesquaresoftennumbers. Afunction'sinputsareknownasits arguments Afunction gthatgivessomekindofanswerbackto f issaidto [Link], greturnsthesumofitsarguments.

WritingfunctionsinC
It'[Link]'swriteafunctionthatwillreturnthesquareofanumber.
i n ts q u a r e ( i n tx ) { i n ts q u a r e _ o f _ x ; s q u a r e _ o f _ x=x*x ; r e t u r ns q u a r e _ o f _ x ; }

Tounderstandhowtowritesuchafunctionlikethis,[Link] i n t ,x,andsquaresit,storingitinthevariablesquare_of_x.Nowthisvalueisreturned. [Link],andwearereturningthisinteger,andsowewrite i n t asthereturntype. [Link]"square",becausethat'swhatit doesitsquaresanumber. Nextisthefunction'sfirstandonlyargument,an i n t ,[Link]'s input . Inbetweenthebracesistheactualgutsofthefunction.Itdeclaresanintegervariablecalledsquare_of_xthatwillbeusedtoholdthevalueofthesquareofx.Notethatthevariablesquare_of_xcan onlybeusedwithinthisfunction,andnotoutside. We'lllearnmoreaboutthissortofthinglater,andwewillseethatthispropertyisveryuseful. Wethenassignxmultipliedbyx,orxsquared,tothevariablesquare_of_x,[Link] r e t u r n [Link],sowemustsaythatthisfunctionreturnsthecontents ofthevariablesquare_of_x. Ourbracetoclose,andwehavefinishedthedeclaration. Writteninamoreconcisemanner,thiscodeperformsexactlythesamefunctionastheabove:
i n ts q u a r e ( i n tx ) { r e t u r nx*x ; }

Notethisshouldlookfamiliaryouhavebeenwritingfunctionsalready,infactmainisafunctionthatisalwayswritten.

Ingeneral
Ingeneral,ifwewanttodeclareafunction,wewrite
t y p en a m e ( t y p e 1a r g 1 ,t y p e 2a r g 2 ,. . . ) { / *c o d e* / }

We'vepreviouslysaidthatafunctioncantakenoarguments,orcanreturnnothing,[Link]?WeuseC's v o i d keyword. v o i d basicallymeans"nothing"soifwewanttowriteafunctionthatreturns nothing,forexample,wewrite

v o i ds a y h e l l o ( i n tn u m b e r _ o f _ t i m e s ) { i n ti ; f o r ( i = 1 ;i< =n u m b e r _ o f _ t i m e s ;i + + ){

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p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ! \ n ' ' ' " ) ; } }

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Noticethatthereisno r e t u r n [Link]'snone,wewrite v o i d asthereturntype.(Actually,onecanusethe r e t u r n keywordinaproceduretoreturntothecallerbeforetheendoftheprocedure,butonecannotreturna valueasifitwereafunction.) Whataboutafunctionthattakesnoarguments?Ifwewanttodothis,wecanwriteforexample

f l o a tc a l c u l a t e _ n u m b e r ( v o i d ) { f l o a tt o _ r e t u r n = 1 ; i n ti ; f o r ( i = 0 ;i<1 0 0 ;i + + ){ t o _ r e t u r n+ =1 ; t o _ r e t u r n=1 / t o _ r e t u r n ; } r e t u r nt o _ r e t u r n ; }

Noticethisfunctiondoesn'ttakeanyinputs,butmerelyreturnsanumbercalculatedbythisfunction. Naturally,youcancombinebothvoidreturnandvoidinargumentstogethertogetavalidfunction,also.

Recursion
Here'[Link],whichagainprintsalineandcallsitselfagain,[Link],andnormally youwillhaveaconditionalthatwouldstoptherecursionafterasmall,finitenumberofsteps.
/ /d o n ' tr u nt h i s ! v o i di n f i n i t e _ r e c u r s i o n ( ) { p r i n t f ( " I n f i n i t el o o p ! \ n " ) ; i n f i n i t e _ r e c u r s i o n ( ) ; }

[Link]++[Link].Ifyousayprint_me(3,0)thefunction willprintthelineRecursion3times.
v o i dp r i n t _ m e ( i n tj ,i n td e p t h ) { i f ( d e p t h<j ){ p r i n t f ( " R e c u r s i o n !d e p t h=% dj=% d \ n " , d e p t h , j ) ;/ / jk e e p si t sv a l u e p r i n t _ m e ( j ,+ + d e p t h ) ; } }

Recursionismostoftenusedforjobssuchasdirectorytreescans,seekingfortheendofalinkedlist,parsingatreestructureinadatabaseandfactorisingnumbers(andfindingprimes)amongotherthings.

Staticfunctions
Ifafunctionistobecalledonlyfromwithinthefileinwhichitisdeclared,[Link],thecompilerwillnowcompiletoanobjectfileinawaythatpreventsthefunctionfrombeing [Link]:
s t a t i ci n tc o m p a r e (i n ta ,i n tb) { r e t u r n( a + 4<b ) ?a:b ; }

UsingCfunctions
Wecannow writefunctions,buthowdoweusethem?Whenwewritemain,weplacethefunctionoutsidethebracesthatencompassmain. Whenwewanttousethatfunction,say,usingour c a l c u l a t e _ n u m b e r functionabove,wecanwritesomethinglike
f l o a tf ; f=c a l c u l a t e _ n u m b e r ( ) ;

Ifafunctiontakesinarguments,wecanwritesomethinglike

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i n ts q u a r e _ o f _ 1 0 ; s q u a r e _ o f _ 1 0=s q u a r e ( 1 0 ) ;

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Ifafunctiondoesn'treturnanything,wecanjustsay
s a y _ h e l l o ( ) ;

sincewedon'tneedavariabletocatchitsreturnvalue.

FunctionsfromtheCStandardLibrary
WhiletheClanguagedoesn'titselfcontainfunctions,[Link],youneedtoaddan#includedirectiveatthetopoftheCfile,whichmaybeoneofthefollowing:

< a s s e r t . h > < c t y p e . h > < e r r n o . h > < f l o a t . h >

< l i m i t s . h > < l o c a l e . h > < m a t h . h > < s e t j m p . h >

< s i g n a l . h > < s t d a r g . h > < s t d d e f . h > < s t d i o . h >

< s t d l i b . h > < s t r i n g . h >

< c o m p l e x . h >

Thefunctionsavailableare:
< a s s e r t . h > < l i m i t s . h > < s i g n a l . h > < s t d l i b . h >

assert(int)

(constantsonly)

intraise(intsig).This void*signal(intsig,void(*func)(int))

atof(char*),atoi(char*),atol(char*) strtod(char*str,char**endptr),strtol(char*str,char**endptr),strtoul(char*str,char**endptr) rand(),srand() malloc(size_t),calloc(size_telements,size_telementSize),realloc(void*,int) free(void*) exit(int),abort() atexit(void(*func)()) getenv system qsort(void*,size_tnumber,size_tsize,int(*sortfunc)(void*,void*)) abs,labs div,ldiv
< s t r i n g . h >

< c t y p e . h >

< l o c a l e . h >

< s t d a r g . h >

isalnum,isalpha,isblank iscntrl,isdigit,isgraph islower,isprint,ispunct isspace,isupper,isxdigit tolower,toupper

structlconv*localeconv(void) char*setlocale(int,constchar*)

va_start(va_list,ap) va_arg(ap,(type)) va_end(ap) va_copy(va_list,va_list)

memcpy,memmove memchr,memcmp,memset strcat,strncat,strchr,strrchr strcmp,strncmp,strccoll strcpy,strncpy strerror strlen strspn,strcspn strpbrk strstr strtok strxfrm time.h

errno.h

math.h sin,cos,tan asin,acos,atan,atan2 sinh,cosh,tanh ceil exp

stddef.h

asctime(structtm*tmptr) clock_tclock() char*ctime(consttime_t*timer)

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fabs floor fmod frexp ldexp log,log10 modf pow sqrt

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doubledifftime(time_ttimer2,time_ttimer1) structtm*gmtime(consttime_t*timer) structtm*gmtime_r(consttime_t*timer,structtm*result) structtm*localtime(consttime_t*timer) time_tmktime(structtm*ptm) time_ttime(time_t*timer) char*strptime(constchar*buf,constchar*format,structtm*tptr) time_ttimegm(structtm*brokentime)

(errno)

offsetofmacro

float.h

setjmp.h fclose fopen,freopen remove rename rewind tmpfile clearerr feof,ferror fflush fgetpos,fsetpos fgetc,fputc fgets,fputs ftell,fseek

stdio.h fread,fwrite getc,putc getchar,putchar,fputchar gets,puts printf,vprintf fprintf,vfprintf sprintf,snprintf,vsprintf,vsnprintf perror scanf,vscanf fscanf,vfscanf sscanf,vsscanf setbuf,setvbuf tmpnam ungetc

(constants)

intsetjmp(jmp_bufenv) voidlongjmp(jmp_bufenv,intvalue)

printf fulllist([Link]

Variablelengthargumentlists
[Link] p r i n t f function,whichcantakeanynumberofargumentsdependingonhowtheprogrammerwantstouse it. [Link],theytypicallydefineastructuretoholdallthosethingsperhapsalinkedlist,oranarrayandcallthat functionwiththedatainthearguments. However,[Link],youmustfirstincludethestandardlibraryheader s t d a r g . h .Next,declare [Link],addasthelastargumentanellipsis("...").[Link],thefollowingfunctiondeclarationisforafunctionthatreturnstheaverageofa listofnumbers:
f l o a ta v e r a g e( i n tn _ a r g s ,. . . ) ;

Notethatbecauseofthewayvariablelengthargumentswork,wemustsomehow,inthearguments,[Link] a v e r a g e functionhere,it'sdonethroughanargumentcalled n _ a r g s . In the p r i n t f function,it'sdonewiththeformatcodesthatyouspecifyinthatfirststringintheargumentsyouprovide. Nowthatthefunctionhasbeendeclaredasusingvariablelengtharguments,[Link] a v e r a g e function,wemustfirst declareavariableforthelistitself:

v a _ l i s tm y L i s t ;

The v a _ l i s t typeisatypedeclaredinthe s t d a r g . h [Link] m y L i s t ,however,[Link],simplydeclaringitbyitselfwouldn'[Link],we mustcall v a _ s t a r t ,whichisactuallyamacrodefinedin s t d a r g . h . Intheargumentsto v a _ s t a r t ,youmustprovidethe v a _ l i s t variableyouplanonusing,aswellasthenameofthelastvariableappearingbeforetheellipsisinyourfunctiondeclaration:

# i n c l u d e< s t d a r g . h > f l o a ta v e r a g e( i n tn _ a r g s ,. . . ) { v a _ l i s tm y L i s t ; v a _ s t a r t( m y L i s t ,n _ a r g s ) ; v a _ e n d( m y L i s t ) ;

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Nowthat m y L i s t hasbeenpreppedforusage,[Link],usethe v a _ a r g macro,[Link] v a _ a r g ,providethe v a _ l i s t variableyou'reusing,aswell astheprimitivedatatype(e.g. i n t , c h a r )thatthevariableyou'reaccessingshouldbe:

# i n c l u d e< s t d a r g . h > f l o a ta v e r a g e( i n tn _ a r g s ,. . . ) { v a _ l i s tm y L i s t ; v a _ s t a r t( m y L i s t ,n _ a r g s ) ; i n tm y N u m b e r=v a _ a r g( m y L i s t ,i n t ) ; v a _ e n d( m y L i s t ) ; }

Bypopping n _ a r g s integersoffofthevariablelengthargumentlist,wecanmanagetofindtheaverageofthenumbers:
# i n c l u d e< s t d a r g . h > f l o a ta v e r a g e( i n tn _ a r g s ,. . . ) { v a _ l i s tm y L i s t ; v a _ s t a r t( m y L i s t ,n _ a r g s ) ; i n tn u m b e r s A d d e d=0 ; i n ts u m=0 ; w h i l e( n u m b e r s A d d e d<n _ a r g s ){ i n tn u m b e r=v a _ a r g( m y L i s t ,i n t ) ;/ /G e tn e x tn u m b e rf r o ml i s t s u m+ =n u m b e r ; n u m b e r s A d d e d+ =1 ; } v a _ e n d( m y L i s t ) ; f l o a ta v g=( f l o a t ) ( s u m )/( f l o a t ) ( n u m b e r s A d d e d ) ;/ /F i n dt h ea v e r a g e r e t u r na v g ; }

Bycalling a v e r a g e( 2 ,1 0 ,2 0 ) ,wegettheaverageof 1 0 and 2 0 ,whichis 1 5 .

Preprocessor
[Link] [Link]#(hash)symbol.C++compilersusethesameCpreprocessor. [5] Thepreprocessorisapartofthecompilerwhichperformspreliminaryoperations(conditionallycompilingcode,includingfilesetc...)[Link],meaningthattheoutputofthepreprocessoris stilltext.

NOTE:TechnicallytheoutputofthepreprocessingphaseforCconsistsofasequenceoftokens,ratherthansourcetext,butitissimpletooutputsourcetextwhichisequivalenttothegiventokensequence,andthatiscommonly supportedbycompilersviaa E or / E optionalthoughcommandlineoptionstoCcompilersaren'tcompletelystandard,manyfollowsimilarrules.

Directives
Directivesarespecialinstructionsdirectedtothepreprocessor(preprocessordirective)ortothecompiler(compilerdirective)onhowitshouldprocesspartorallofyoursourcecodeorsetsomeflagsonthefinalobjectandareusedtomakewritingsource codeeasier(moreportableforinstance)[Link],whichiseitheraseparateprograminvokedbythecompilerorpartofthecompileritself.

#include
Chassomefeaturesaspartofthelanguageandsomeothersaspartofa standardlibrary,[Link] [Link],onencounteringa # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > directive,itreplacesthedirectivewiththecontentsofthe s t d i o . h headerfile. Whenyouusefeaturesfromthelibrary,Crequiresyouto [Link] preprocessingdirectivewhichshouldlooklikethis:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h >

TheabovelinecausestheCdeclarationswhichareinthe s t d i o . h [Link] headerfilecalled s t d i o . h ,locatedinasystemdependent [Link]'[Link]. The s t d i o . h headercontainsvariousdeclarationsforinput/output(I/O)usinganabstractionofI/Omechanismscalled [Link] s t d o u t whichisusedtooutputtexttothestandardoutput,whichusually displaysthetextonthecomputerscreen.

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Ifusinganglebracketsliketheexampleabove,thepreprocessorisinstructedtosearchfortheincludefilealongthedevelopmentenvironmentpathforthestandardincludes.
# i n c l u d e" o t h e r . h "

Ifyouusequotationmarks("" ),thepreprocessorisexpectedtosearchinsomeadditional,usuallyuserdefined,locationsfortheheaderfile,[Link] thisformtoincludesearchinginthesamedirectoryasthefilecontainingthe # i n c l u d e directive.

NOTE:Youshouldcheckthedocumentationofthedevelopmentenvironmentyouareusingforanyvendorspecificimplementationsofthe # i n c l u d e directive.

Headers TheC90standardheaderslist:

< a s s e r t . h > < c t y p e . h > < e r r n o . h > < f l o a t . h > < l i m i t s . h >

< l o c a l e . h > < m a t h . h > < s e t j m p . h > < s i g n a l . h > < s t d a r g . h >

< s t d d e f . h > < s t d i o . h > < s t d l i b . h > < s t r i n g . h >

HeadersaddedsinceC90:

< c o m p l e x . h > < f e n v . h > < i n t t y p e s . h >

< i s o 6 4 6 . h > < s t d b o o l . h > < s t d i n t . h >

< t g m a t h . h > < w c h a r . h > < w c t y p e . h >

#pragma
The pragma(pragmaticinformation)directiveispartofthestandard,[Link]#pragmadirectiveprovidesawaytorequestspecialbehaviorfromthe [Link]. Pragmasareusedwithinthesourceprogram.
# p r a g m at o k e n ( s )

1. pragmaisusuallyfollowedbyasingletoken,[Link],thesetof commandsthatcanappearin#pragmadirectivesisdifferentforeachcompileryou'llhavetoconsultthedocumentationforyourcompilertoseewhichcommandsitallowsandwhatthosecommandsdo. Forinstanceoneofthemostimplementedpreprocessordirectives, # p r a g m ao n c e whenplacedatthebeginningofaheaderfile,indicatesthatthefilewhereitresideswillbeskippedifincludedseveraltimesbythepreprocessor.

NOTE:Othermethodsexisttodothisactionthatiscommonlyreferredasusing includeguards.

# d e f i n e

WARNING:Preprocessormacros,althoughtempting,[Link] [Link],[Link],ifthereareequivalent(Inexampleuse c o n s ti n t or e n u m insteadof # d e f i n e dconstants). Thatsaid,therearecases,wheremacrosareveryuseful(seethe d e b u g macrobelowforanexample).

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The # d e f i n e [Link],any errorsthatareintroducedby # d e f i n e aredifficulttotrace. Byconvention,valuesdefinedusing # d e f i n e [Link],[Link]. Today, # d e f i n e isprimarilyusedtohandlecompilerandplatformdifferences.E.g.,[Link] # d e f i n e shouldthusbelimitedunlessabsolutelynecessary t y p e d e f statements andconstantvariablescanoftenperformthesamefunctionsmoresafely. Anotherfeatureofthe # d e f i n e commandisthatitcantakearguments,[Link]:
# d e f i n eA B S O L U T E _ V A L U E (x)(( ( x )<0 )?( x ):( x )) . . . i n tx=1 ; w h i l e (A B S O L U T E _ V A L U E (x)){ . . . }

It'[Link],thevariable"x"[Link],itwillbeevaluatedinwhole,beforebeingcomparedto0or [Link],theentiremacroissurroundedbyparentheses,[Link]'renotcareful,youruntheriskofhavingthecompilermisinterpretyourcode. Becauseofsideeffectsitisconsideredaverybadideatousemacrofunctionsasdescribedabove.

i n tx=1 0 ; i n ty=A B S O L U T E _ V A L U E (x + +) ;

IfABSOLUTE_VALUE()werearealfunction'x'wouldnowhavethevalueof'9',butbecauseitwasanargumentinamacroitwasexpandedtwiceandthushasavalueof8.

Example: Toillustratethedangersofmacros,considerthisnaivemacro
# d e f i n eM A X ( a , b )a > b ? a : b

andthecode
i=M A X ( 2 , 3 ) + 5 ; j=M A X ( 3 , 2 ) + 5 ;

[Link]
i n ti=2 > 3 ? 2 : 3 + 5 ; i n tj=3 > 2 ? 3 : 2 + 5 ;

Thus,afterexecution i = 8 and j = 3 insteadoftheexpectedresultof i = j = 8 !Thisiswhyyouwerecautionedtouseanextrasetofparenthesisabove,butevenwiththese,[Link] thatif a or b containsexpressions,thedefinitionmustparenthesizeeveryuseof a , b inthemacrodefinition,likethis:

# d e f i n eM A X ( a , b )( ( a ) > ( b ) ? ( a ) : ( b ) )

Thisworks,provided a , b [Link],
i=2 ; j=3 ; k=M A X ( i + + ,j + + ) ;

wouldresultin k = 4 , i = 3 and j = 5 .Thiswouldbehighlysurprisingtoanyoneexpecting M A X ( ) tobehavelikeafunction. Sowhatisthecorrectsolution?[Link],inlinefunction,likethis

i n l i n ei n tm a x ( i n ta ,i n tb ){ r e t u r na > b ? a : b }

hasnoneofthepitfallsabove,butwillnotworkwithalltypes.

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NOTE:Theexplicit i n l i n e declarationisnotreallynecessaryunlessthedefinitionisinaheaderfile,sinceyourcompilercaninlinefunctionsforyou(withgccthiscanbedonewith f i n l i n e f u n c t i o n s or O 3 ).Thecompileris [Link],functioncallsarenotreallyexpensive(theyusedtobe). Thecompilerisactuallyfreetoignorethe i n l i n e [Link](exceptthat i n l i n e isnecessaryinordertoallowafunctiontobedefinedinaheaderfilewithoutgeneratinganerrormessageduetothefunction beingdefinedinmorethanonetranslationunit).

(#,##) The #and ##operatorsareusedwiththe # d e f i n e [Link]#causesthefirstargumentafterthe #[Link],thecommand

# d e f i n ea s _ s t r i n g (s)#s

willmakethecompilerturnthiscommand
p u t s (a s _ s t r i n g (H e l l oW o r l d !));

into
p u t s (" H e l l oW o r l d ! ") ;

Using ##concatenateswhat'sbeforethe ##withwhat'[Link],thecommand

# d e f i n ec o n c a t e n a t e (x ,y)x# #y . . . i n tx y=1 0 ; . . .

willmakethecompilerturn
p r i n t f (" % d " ,c o n c a t e n a t e (x ,y) ) ;

into
p r i n t f (" % d " ,x y ) ;

whichwill,ofcourse,display 1 0 tostandardoutput. Itispossibletoconcatenateamacroargumentwithaconstantprefixorsuffixtoobtainavalididentifierasin

# d e f i n em a k e _ f u n c t i o n (n a m e)i n tm y _# #n a m e( i n tf o o ){ } m a k e _ f u n c t i o n (b a r)

whichwilldefineafunctioncalled m y _ b a r ( ) .Butitisn'[Link],onecanusetheANSICpropertythattwoormoreconsecutivestring [Link],onecanwrite

# d e f i n ee a t (w h a t)p u t s (" I ' me a t i n g"# w h a t"t o d a y . ") e a t (f r u i t)

whichthemacroprocessorwillturninto
p u t s (" I ' me a t i n g"" f r u i t ""t o d a y . ")

whichinturnwillbeinterpretedbytheCparserasasinglestringconstant. Thefollowingtrickcanbeusedtoturnanumericconstantsintostringliterals
# d e f i n en u m 2 s t r ( x )s t r ( x )

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# d e f i n es t r ( x )# x # d e f i n eC O N S T2 3 p u t s ( n u m 2 s t r ( C O N S T ) ) ;

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Thisisabittricky,[Link] n u m 2 s t r ( C O N S T ) isreplacedwith s t r ( 2 3 ) ,whichinturnisreplacedwith " 2 3 " .Thiscanbeusefulinthefollowingexample:

# i f d e fD E B U G # d e f i n ed e b u g ( m s g )f p u t s ( _ _ F I L E _ _" : "n u m 2 s t r ( _ _ L I N E _ _ )"-"m s g ,s t d e r r ) # e l s e # d e f i n ed e b u g ( m s g ) # e n d i f

[Link] anythingthathassideeffects,sincethiscanleadtobugs,thatappearanddisappeardependingonthecompilationparameters.

macros
Macrosaren'[Link],theydonotobeyscopeproperly,butsimplytakethestringpassedtothemandreplaceeachoccurrenceofthemacroargumentinthetextofthemacrowiththeactualstringfor thatparameter(thecodeisliterallycopiedintothelocationitwascalledfrom). Anexampleonhowtouseamacro:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # d e f i n eS L I C E S8 # d e f i n eA D D ( x )(( x )/S L I C E S) i n tm a i n ( ) { i n ta=0 ,b=1 0 ,c=6 ; a=A D D ( b+c ) ; p r i n t f ( " % d \ n " ,a ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

theresultof"a"shouldbe"2"(b+c=16>passedtoADD>16/SLICES>resultis"2")

NOTE: Itisusuallybadpracticetodefinemacrosinheaders. [Link], [Link],enums,and i n l i n e (inC99)isoftenabetteroption.

Oneofthefewsituationswhereinlinefunctionswon'tworksoyouareprettymuchforcedtousefunctionlikemacrosinsteadistoinitializecompiletimeconstants(staticinitializationofstructs).Thishappenswhentheargumentstothemacroare literalsthatthecompilercanoptimizetoanotherliteral. [6]

#error
The #[Link].
# e r r o rm e s s a g e

#warning
Manycompilerssupporta #[Link],thecompileremitsadiagnosticcontainingtheremainingtokensinthedirective. 1. warningmessage

#undef
The #[Link].

#if,#else,#elif,#endif(conditionals)

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The #ifcommandcheckswhetheracontrollingconditionalexpressionevaluatestozeroornonzero,[Link]:
# i f1 / *T h i sb l o c kw i l lb ei n c l u d e d* / # e n d i f # i f0 / *T h i sb l o c kw i l ln o tb ei n c l u d e d* / # e n d i f

TheconditionalexpressioncouldcontainanyCoperatorexceptfortheassignmentoperators,theincrementanddecrementoperators,theaddressofoperator,andthesizeofoperator. Oneuniqueoperatorusedinpreprocessingandnowhereelseisthe definedoperator.Itreturns1ifthemacroname,optionallyenclosedinparentheses,iscurrentlydefined0ifnot. The #endifcommandendsablockstartedby # i f , # i f d e f ,or # i f n d e f . The #elifcommandissimilarto # i f ,exceptthatitisusedtoextractonefromaseriesofblocksofcode.E.g.:

# i f/ *s o m ee x p r e s s i o n* / : : : # e l i f/ *a n o t h e re x p r e s s i o n* / : / *i m a g i n em a n ym o r e# e l i f sh e r e. . .* / : # e l s e / *T h eo p t i o n a l# e l s eb l o c ki ss e l e c t e di fn o n eo ft h ep r e v i o u s# i fo r # e l i fb l o c k sa r es e l e c t e d* / : : # e n d i f/ *T h ee n do ft h e# i fb l o c k* /

#ifdef,#ifndef
The #ifdefcommandissimilarto # i f ,[Link],
# i f d e fN A M E

isequivalentto
# i fd e f i n e dN A M E

The #ifndefcommandissimilarto #ifdef,exceptthatthetestisreversed:

# i f n d e fN A M E

isequivalentto
# i f! d e f i n e dN A M E

UsefulPreprocessorMacrosforDebugging
ANSICdefinessomeusefulpreprocessormacrosandvariables, [7][8]alsocalled"magicconstants",include: __FILE__=>Thenameofthecurrentfile,asastringliteral __LINE__=>Currentlineofthesourcefile,asanumericliteral __DATE__=>Currentsystemdate,asastring __TIME__=>Currentsystemtime,asastring __TIMESTAMP__=>Dateandtime(nonstandard) __cplusplus=>undefinedwhenyourCcodeisbeingcompiledbyaCcompiler199711LwhenyourCcodeisbeingcompiledbyaC++compilercompliantwith1998C++standard. __func__=>Currentfunctionnameofthesourcefile,asastring(partofC99) __PRETTY_FUNCTION__=>"decorated"Currentfunctionnameofthesourcefile,asastring(inGCCnonstandard) Compiletimeassertions

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Somepeople[9]defineapreprocessormacrotoallowcompiletimeassertions,somethinglike:
# d e f i n eC O M P I L E _ T I M E _ A S S E R T ( p r e d )s w i t c h ( 0 ) { c a s e0 : c a s ep r e d : ; } C O M P I L E _ T I M E _ A S S E R T (B O O L E A NC O N D I T I O N) ;

The s t a t i c _ a s s e r t . h p p [Link] s t a t i c _ a s s e r t keywordusedinthesameway. [10] Suchcompiletimeassertionscanhelpyoudebugfasterthanusingonlyruntimeassert()statements,becausethecompiletimeassertionsarealltestedatcompiletime,whileitispossiblethatatestrunofaprogrammayfailtoexercisesomeruntime assert()statements. XMacros OnelittleknownusagepatternoftheCpreprocessorisknownas"XMacros". [11][12][13][14][Link]".def"insteadofthetraditional".h".Thisfilecontainsalistofsimilarmacrocalls,which canbereferredtoas"componentmacros".[Link],theincludefileis"[Link]"anditcontainsalistofcomponentmacrosofthestyle"foo(x,y,z)".
# d e f i n ef o o ( x ,y ,z )d o S o m e t h i n g W i t h ( x ,y ,z ) ; # i n c l u d e" x m a c r o . d e f " # u n d e ff o o # d e f i n ef o o ( x ,y ,z )d o S o m e t h i n g E l s e W i t h ( x ,y ,z ) ; # i n c l u d e" x m a c r o . d e f " # u n d e ff o o ( e t c . . . )

[Link] # u n d e f stheyneedinsidetheXMacro,asopposedtoexpectingthecallertoundefine them. Commonsetsofobjectsareasetofglobalconfigurationsettings,asetofmembersofastruct,alistofpossibleXMLtagsforconvertinganXMLfiletoaquicklytraversabletree,orthebodyofanenumdeclarationotherlistsarepossible. OncetheXMacrohasbeenprocessedtocreatethelistofobjects,thecomponentmacroscanberedefinedtogenerate,forinstance,accessorand/[Link]. HereisanexampleofanXMacrothatestablishesastructandautomaticallycreatesserialize/[Link],thisexampledoesn'taccountforendiannessorbufferoverflows. File [Link]:

E X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( x ,i n t ) E X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( y ,i n t ) E X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( z ,i n t ) E X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( r a d i u s ,d o u b l e ) # u n d e fE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R

File star_table.c:
t y p e d e fs t r u c t{ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )t y p em e m b e r ; # i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " }s t a r S t r u c t ; v o i ds e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,u n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ m e m c p y ( b u f f e r ,& ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ,s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; # i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " } v o i dd e s e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( s t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ m e m c p y ( & ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ,b u f f e r ,s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; # i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " }

Handlersforindividualdatatypesmaybecreatedandaccessedusingtokenconcatenation(" # # ")andquoting(" # ")[Link],thefollowingmightbeaddedtotheabovecode:

# d e f i n ep r i n t _ i n t ( v a l ) p r i n t f ( " % d " ,v a l ) # d e f i n ep r i n t _ d o u b l e ( v a l )p r i n t f ( " % g " ,v a l ) v o i dp r i n t _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ){ / *p r i n t _ # # t y p ew i l lb er e p l a c e dw i t hp r i n t _ i n to rp r i n t _ d o u b l e* / # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ p r i n t f ( " % s :" ,# m e m b e r ) ;\ p r i n t _ # # t y p e ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ;\ p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ;

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# i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " }

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Notethatinthisexampleyoucanalsoavoidthecreationofseparatehandlerfunctionsforeachdatatypeinthisexamplebydefiningtheprintformatforeachsupportedtype,withtheadditionalbenefitofreducingtheexpansioncodeproducedbythis headerfile:
# d e f i n eF O R M A T _ ( t y p e )F O R M A T _ # # t y p e # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ i n t " % d " # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ d o u b l e" % g " v o i dp r i n t _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ){ / *F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )w i l lb er e p l a c e dw i t hF O R M A T _ i n to rF O R M A T _ d o u b l e* / # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ p r i n t f ( " % s :"F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )" \ n " ,# m e m b e r ,s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; # i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " }

[Link],theabovefile"[Link]"couldbereplacedwiththismacroatthebeginningof: File star_table.c:

# d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R\ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( x ,i n t )\ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( y ,i n t )\ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( z ,i n t )\ E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( r a d i u s ,d o u b l e )

andthenallcallsto # i n c l u d e" s t a r . d e f " couldbereplacedwithasimple E X P A N D _ S T A R [Link]:

t y p e d e fs t r u c t{ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )t y p em e m b e r ; E X P A N D _ S T A R # u n d e f E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R }s t a r S t r u c t ; v o i ds e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,u n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ m e m c p y ( b u f f e r ,& ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ,s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; E X P A N D _ S T A R # u n d e f E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R } v o i dd e s e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( s t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ m e m c p y ( & ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ,b u f f e r ,s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; E X P A N D _ S T A R # u n d e f E X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R }

andtheprinthandlercouldbeaddedaswellas:
# d e f i n ep r i n t _ i n t ( v a l ) p r i n t f ( " % d " ,v a l ) # d e f i n ep r i n t _ d o u b l e ( v a l )p r i n t f ( " % g " ,v a l ) v o i dp r i n t _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ){ / *p r i n t _ # # t y p ew i l lb er e p l a c e dw i t hp r i n t _ i n to rp r i n t _ d o u b l e* / # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ p r i n t f ( " % s :" ,# m e m b e r ) ;\ p r i n t _ # # t y p e ( s t a r > m e m b e r ) ;\ p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; E X P A N D _ S T A R # u n d e fE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R }

oras:
# d e f i n eF O R M A T _ ( t y p e )F O R M A T _ # # t y p e # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ i n t " % d " # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ d o u b l e" % g " v o i dp r i n t _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ){ / *F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )w i l lb er e p l a c e dw i t hF O R M A T _ i n to rF O R M A T _ d o u b l e* / # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e )\ p r i n t f ( " % s :"F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )" \ n " ,# m e m b e r ,s t a r > m e m b e r ) ; E X P A N D _ S T A R # u n d e fE X P A N D _ S T A R _ M E M B E R

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Avariantwhichavoidsneedingtoknowthemembersofanyexpandedsubmacrosistoaccepttheoperatorsasanargumenttothelistmacro: File star_table.c:

/ * G e n e r i c * / # d e f i n eS T R U C T _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e ,d u m m y )t y p em e m b e r ; # d e f i n eS E R I A L I Z E _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e ,o b j ,b u f f e r )\ m e m c p y ( b u f f e r ,& ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ,s i z e o f ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ; # d e f i n eD E S E R I A L I Z E _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e ,o b j ,b u f f e r )\ m e m c p y ( & ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ,b u f f e r ,s i z e o f ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ) ;\ b u f f e r+ =s i z e o f ( o b j > m e m b e r ) ; # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ ( t y p e )F O R M A T _ # # t y p e # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ i n t " % d " # d e f i n eF O R M A T _ d o u b l e" % g " / *F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )w i l lb er e p l a c e dw i t hF O R M A T _ i n to rF O R M A T _ d o u b l e* / # d e f i n eP R I N T _ M E M B E R ( m e m b e r ,t y p e ,o b j )\ p r i n t f ( " % s :"F O R M A T _ ( t y p e )" \ n " ,# m e m b e r ,o b j > m e m b e r ) ; / * s t a r S t r u c t * / # d e f i n eE X P A N D _ S T A R ( _ ,. . . )\ _ ( x ,i n t ,_ _ V A _ A R G S _ _ )\ _ ( y ,i n t ,_ _ V A _ A R G S _ _ )\ _ ( z ,i n t ,_ _ V A _ A R G S _ _ )\ _ ( r a d i u s ,d o u b l e ,_ _ V A _ A R G S _ _ ) t y p e d e fs t r u c t{ E X P A N D _ S T A R ( S T R U C T _ M E M B E R ,) }s t a r S t r u c t ; v o i ds e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,u n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ E X P A N D _ S T A R ( S E R I A L I Z E _ M E M B E R ,s t a r ,b u f f e r ) } v o i dd e s e r i a l i z e _ s t a r ( s t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ,c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* b u f f e r ){ E X P A N D _ S T A R ( D E S E R I A L I Z E _ M E M B E R ,s t a r ,b u f f e r ) } v o i dp r i n t _ s t a r ( c o n s ts t a r S t r u c t* c o n s ts t a r ){ E X P A N D _ S T A R ( P R I N T _ M E M B E R ,s t a r ) }

Thisapproachcanbedangerousinthattheentiremacrosetisalwaysinterpretedasifitwasonasinglesourceline,whichcouldencountercompilerlimitswithcomplexcomponentmacrosand/orlongmemberlists. ThistechniquewasreportedbyLarsWirzenius[15]inawebpagedatedJanuary17,2000,inwhichhegivescredittoKennethOksanenfor"refininganddeveloping"[Link] decadebeforetheturnofthecentury. 1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Libraries
A libraryinCisagroupoffunctionsanddeclarations,[Link] interfaceexpressedina . h file(namedthe"header")andan implementationexpressedina . c [Link] . c filemightbe precompiledorotherwiseinaccessible,oritmightbeavailabletotheprogrammer.(Note:LibrariesmaycallfunctionsinotherlibrariessuchastheStandardCormathlibrariestodovarioustasks.) [Link],intheUnixandLinuxoperatingsystems,alibraryconsistsofoneormore objectfiles,whichconsistofobjectcodethatisusuallytheoutputofacompiler(if thesourcelanguageisCorsomethingsimilar)oranassembler(ifthesourcelanguageisassemblylanguage).Theseobjectfilesarethenturnedintoalibraryintheformofanarchivebythe ararchiver(aprogramthattakesfilesandstoresthemina biggerfilewithoutregardtocompression).Thefilenameforthelibraryusuallystartswith"lib"andendswith".a"[Link] [Link]"libm.a"themathematicsroutines,[Link]

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operatingsystemssuchasMicrosoftWindowsusea".lib"extensionforlibrariesandan".obj"extensionforobjectfiles. We'[Link]:
i

haveanoptionalargumentthatisconcatenated([Link]
i o p t a r g

orhavetheargumentinaseparateargvelement:
io p t a r g

Inordertoparseallthesetypesofarguments,wehavewrittenthefollowing"getopt.c"file:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # i n c l u d e" g e t o p t . h " / *v a r i a b l e s* / i n to p t e r r=1 ; i n to p t i n d=1 ; i n to p t o p t ; c h a r* o p t a r g ; / *f o rf p r i n t f ( )a n dE O F* / / *f o rs t r c h r ( )* / / *c o n s i s t e n c yc h e c k* / / *g e t o p tp r i n t se r r o r si ft h i si so n* / / *t o k e np o i n t e r* / / *o p t i o nc h a r a c t e rp a s s e db a c kt ou s e r* / / *f l a ga r g u m e n t( o rv a l u e )* /

/ *f u n c t i o n* / / *r e t u r no p t i o nc h a r a c t e r ,E O Fi fn om o r eo r?i fp r o b l e m . T h ea r g u m e n t st ot h ef u n c t i o n : a r g c ,a r g v-t h ea r g u m e n t st ot h em a i n ( )f u n c t i o n .A na r g u m e n to f" " s t o p st h ep r o c e s s i n g . o p t s-as t r i n gc o n t a i n i n gt h ev a l i do p t i o nc h a r a c t e r s . a no p t i o nc h a r a c t e rf o l l o w e db yac o l o n( : )i n d i c a t e st h a t t h eo p t i o nh a sar e q u i r e da r g u m e n t . * / i n t g e t o p t( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* * a r g v ,c h a r* o p t s ) { s t a t i ci n ts p=1 ; / *c h a r a c t e ri n d e xi n t oc u r r e n tt o k e n* / r e g i s t e rc h a r* c p ; / *p o i n t e ri n t oc u r r e n tt o k e n* / i f( s p= =1 ) { / *c h e c kf o rm o r ef l a g l i k et o k e n s* / i f( o p t i n d> =a r g c| |a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ 0 ]! =' '| |a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ 1 ]= =' \ 0 ' ) r e t u r nE O F ; e l s ei f( s t r c m p( a r g v [ o p t i n d ] ," " )= =0 ) { o p t i n d + + ; r e t u r nE O F ; } } o p t o p t=a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ s p ] ; i f( o p t o p t= =' : '| |( c p=s t r c h r( o p t s ,o p t o p t ) )= =N U L L ) { i f( o p t e r r ) f p r i n t f( s t d e r r ," % s :i n v a l i do p t i o n-' % c ' \ n " ,a r g v [ 0 ] ,o p t o p t ) ; / *i fn oc h a r a c t e r sl e f ti nt h i st o k e n ,m o v et on e x tt o k e n* / i f( a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ + + s p ]= =' \ 0 ' ) { o p t i n d + + ; s p=1 ; } r e t u r n' ? ' ; } i f( * + + c p= =' : ' ) { / *i fav a l u ei se x p e c t e d ,g e ti t* / i f( a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ s p+1 ]! =' \ 0 ' ) / *f l a gv a l u ei sr e s to fc u r r e n tt o k e n* / o p t a r g=a r g v [ o p t i n d + + ]+( s p+1 ) ; e l s ei f( + + o p t i n d> =a r g c ) { i f( o p t e r r ) f p r i n t f( s t d e r r ," % s :o p t i o nr e q u i r e sa na r g u m e n t-' % c ' \ n " , a r g v [ 0 ] ,o p t o p t ) ; s p=1 ;

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r e t u r n' ? ' ; } e l s e / *f l a gv a l u ei sn e x tt o k e n* / o p t a r g=a r g v [ o p t i n d + + ] ; s p=1 ; } e l s e { / *s e tu pt ol o o ka tn e x tc h a ri nt o k e n ,n e x tt i m e* / i f( a r g v [ o p t i n d ] [ + + s p ]= =' \ 0 ' ) { / *n om o r ei nc u r r e n tt o k e n ,s os e t u pn e x tt o k e n* / s p=1 ; o p t i n d + + ; } o p t a r g=0 ; } r e t u r no p t o p t ; } / *E N DO FF I L E* /

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Theinterfacewouldbethefollowing"getopt.h"file:
# i f n d e fG E T O P T _ H # d e f i n eG E T O P T _ H / *e x p o r t e dv a r i a b l e s* / e x t e r ni n to p t e r r ,o p t i n d ,o p t o p t ; e x t e r nc h a r* o p t a r g ; / *e x p o r t e df u n c t i o n* / i n tg e t o p t ( i n t ,c h a r* * ,c h a r* ) ; # e n d i f / *E N DO FF I L E* /

Ataminimum,aprogrammerhastheinterfacefiletofigureouthowtousealibrary,although,ingeneral,[Link],thedocumentationshouldsaythattheprovided arguments * * a r g v and * o p t s bothshouldn'tbenullpointers(orwhywouldyoubeusingthe g e t o p t functionanyway?).Specifically,[Link] usealibrary,arenormallynotinterestedintheimplementationofthelibraryunlesstheimplementationhasabug,inwhichcasehewouldwanttocomplainsomehow. Boththeimplementationofthegetoptslibrary,andprogramsthatusethelibraryshouldstate # i n c l u d e" g e t o p t . h " ,[Link]"linked"totheprogramtheonethatcontainsthemain()[Link] programmayrefertodozensofinterfaces. Insomecases,justplacing # i n c l u d e" g e t o p t . h " [Link],[Link]'s documentationorlibrary'sdocumentationonhowtoresolvethisissue.

Whattoputinheaderfiles
Asageneralrule,headerscontainanythingthatshouldbeexported,or"seen"[Link](preprocessor # d e f i n e s)structure,union,andenumerationdeclarationstypedefdeclarationsexternal [Link] g e t o p t . h examplefile,onefunctiondeclaration(g e t o p t )andfourglobalvariables(o p t i n d , o p t o p t , o p t a r g ,and o p t e r r )aredefined. The # i f n d e fG E T O P T _ H / # d e f i n eG E T O P T _ H trickiscolloquiallycalled [Link] g e t o p t . h filewereincludedmorethanonceinatranslationunit,theunitwouldonlyseethecontentsonce.

Furtherreading
CFAQ:"I'[Link].(Whatdoes".h"mean,anyway?)"([Link] PIClistthread:"GlobalvariablesinprojectswithmanyCfiles."([Link]

Standardlibraries
The Cstandardlibraryisastandardizedcollectionofheaderfilesandlibraryroutinesusedtoimplementcommonoperations,suchasinput/[Link](suchasCOBOL,Fortran,andPL/I)Cdoesnot includebuiltinkeywordsforthesetasks,sonearlyallCprogramsrelyonthestandardlibrarytofunction.

History
TheCprogramminglanguagepreviouslydidnotprovideanyelementaryfunctionalities,suchasI/[Link],[Link],andwere [Link] Cstandardlibraries. BothUnixandCwerecreatedatAT&T'sBellLaboratoriesinthelate1960sandearly1970s.Duringthe1970stheCprogramminglanguagebecameincreasinglypopular,withmanyuniversitiesandorganizationsbeginningtocreatetheirownvariationsof thelanguagefortheirownprojects.Bythestartofthe1980scompatibilityproblemsbetweenthevariousCimplementationsbecameapparent.In1983theAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)formedacommitteetoestablishastandard specificationofCknownas"ANSIC".Thisworkculminatedinthecreationofthesocalled [Link] ANSICstandardlibrary. [Link].

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Theheaders <iso646.h>, <wchar.h>,and <wctype.h>wereaddedwithNormativeAddendum1(hereafterabbreviatedas NA1),anadditiontotheCStandardratifiedin1995. Theheaders <complex.h>, <fenv.h>, <inttypes.h>, <stdbool.h>, <stdint.h>,and <tgmath.h>wereaddedwith C99,arevisiontotheCStandardpublishedin1999.

Design
Thedeclarationofeachfunctioniskeptinaheaderfile,[Link] [Link],astandardlibrarywithaparticularcompilerismostlyincompatiblewithstandardlibrariesofothercompilers. [Link],withthebenefitofhindsight,[Link] g e t s ( ) (andtheuseof s c a n f ( ) toreadstringinput)arethesourceofmanybuffer overflows,[Link] s t r t o k ( ) ,afunctionthatisdesignedasaprimitivelexicalanalyserbutishighly"fragile"anddifficulttouse.

ANSIStandard
TheANSICstandardlibraryconsistsof24Cheaderfileswhichcanbeincludedintoaprogrammer'[Link],[Link] headerfilesfollows. Incomparisontosomeotherlanguages(forexampleJava)[Link],stringmanipulation,typeconversions,andfileandconsolebasedI/[Link] setof"containertypes"liketheC++StandardTemplateLibrary,letalonethecompletegraphicaluserinterface(GUI)toolkits,networkingtools,[Link] libraryisthatprovidingaworkingANSICenvironmentismucheasierthanitiswithotherlanguages,andconsequentlyportingCtoanewplatformisrelativelyeasy. [Link],theGNOMEdesktopenvironmentprojecthasdevelopedtheGTK+graphicstoolkitandGLib,alibrary ofcontainerdatastructures,[Link] particularlywelltogether,programmersareoftenfamiliarwithdifferentsetsoflibraries,andadifferentsetofthemmaybeavailableonanyparticularplatform.

ANSIClibraryheaderfiles
<assert.h> Containstheassertmacro,usedtoassistwithdetectinglogicalerrorsandothertypesofbugindebuggingversionsofaprogram.

<complex.h> Asetoffunctionsformanipulatingcomplexnumbers.(Newwith C99) <ctype.h> <errno.h> <fenv.h> <float.h> Thisheaderfilecontainsfunctionsusedtoclassifycharactersbytheirtypesortoconvertbetweenupperandlowercaseinawaythatisindependentoftheusedcharacterset(typicallyASCIIoroneofitsextensions,although implementationsutilizingEBCDICarealsoknown). Fortestingerrorcodesreportedbylibraryfunctions. Forcontrollingfloatingpointenvironment.(Newwith C99) Containsdefinedconstantsspecifyingtheimplementationspecificpropertiesofthefloatingpointlibrary,suchastheminimumdifferencebetweentwodifferentfloatingpointnumbers(_EPSILON),themaximumnumberofdigitsof accuracy(_DIG)andtherangeofnumberswhichcanberepresented(_MIN,_MAX).

<inttypes.h> Forpreciseconversionbetweenintegertypes.(Newwith C99) <iso646.h> <limits.h> <locale.h> <math.h> <setjmp.h> <signal.h> <stdarg.h> ForprogramminginISO646variantcharactersets.(Newwith NA1) Containsdefinedconstantsspecifyingtheimplementationspecificpropertiesoftheintegertypes,suchastherangeofnumberswhichcanberepresented(_MIN,_MAX). Forsetlocale()[Link]. Forcomputingcommonmathematicalfunctions seeFurthermathorC++Programming/Code/StandardCLibrary/Mathfordetails. setjmpandlongjmp,whichareusedfornonlocalexits Forcontrollingvariousexceptionalconditions Foraccessingavaryingnumberofargumentspassedtofunctions.

<stdbool.h> Forabooleandatatype.(Newwith C99) <stdint.h> <stddef.h> <stdio.h> <stdlib.h> <string.h> <tgmath.h> Fordefiningvariousintegertypes.(Newwith C99) Fordefiningseveralusefultypesandmacros. [Link] p r i n t f function. Forperformingavarietyofoperations,includingconversion,pseudorandomnumbers,memoryallocation,processcontrol,environment,signalling,searching,andsorting. Formanipulatingseveralkindsofstrings. Fortypegenericmathematicalfunctions.(Newwith C99) Forconvertingbetweenvarioustimeanddateformats. <wchar.h> <wctype.h> Formanipulatingwidestreamsandseveralkindsofstringsusingwidecharacterskeytosupportingarangeoflanguages.(Newwith NA1) Forclassifyingwidecharacters.(Newwith NA1)

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Commonsupportlibraries
Whilenotstandardized,[Link],forexample,beforecalling m a i n ( ) ,isimplementedintheC RunTimeLibraryforagivenvendor'[Link],likehandlinguncaughtexceptionsorimplementingfloatingpointcode. TheCstandardlibraryonlydocumentsthatthespecificroutinesmentionedinthisarticleareavailable,[Link],itis likelythevendorspecificroutinesarepackagedwiththeCStandardLibraryinthesamemodule,becausethey'rebothlikelytobeneededbyanyprogrambuiltwiththeirtoolset. ThoughoftenconfusedwiththeCStandardLibrarybecauseofthispackaging,theCRuntimeLibraryisnotastandardizedpartofthelanguageandisvendorspecific.

Compilerbuiltinfunctions
Somecompilers(forexample,GCC)providebuiltinversionsofmanyofthefunctionsintheCstandardlibrarythatis,theimplementationsofthefunctionsarewrittenintothecompiledobjectfile,andtheprogramcallsthebuiltinversionsinsteadofthe [Link],especiallyiffunctioncallsarereplacedwithinlinevariants,andallowsotherformsofoptimization(asthecompilerknowsthecontrolflowcharacteristicsofthebuiltin variants),butmaycauseconfusionwhendebugging(forexample,thebuiltinversionscannotbereplacedwithinstrumentedvariants).

POSIXstandardlibrary
POSIX,(alongwiththeSingleUnixSpecification),specifiesanumberofroutinesthatshouldbeavailableoverandabovethoseintheCstandardlibrarypropertheseareoftenimplementedalongsidetheCstandardlibraryfunctionality,withvarying [Link],[Link],[Link],thisPOSIXspecifiedfunctionalitywillberegardedaspartof thelibrarytheClibrarypropermaybeidentifiedastheANSIorISOClibrary.

FileIO
Introduction
The s t d i o . h [Link] alsorequiresmoreexplanationbecauseofthecomplexmachinerythatunderliesthefunctions. Thedeviceindependentmodelofinputandoutputhasseendramaticimprovementovertheyearsandhasreceivedlittlerecognitionforitssuccess.FORTRANIIwastoutedasamachineindependentlanguageinthe1960s,yetitwasessentially [Link],[Link],yousaid R E A DI N P U TT A P E5 ona tapeorientedIBM7090but R E A DC A R D [Link] R E A D and W R I T E statements,specifyinga logicalunitnumber(LUN)[Link]/Ohaddawned. [Link], [Link],eachmanufacturerof consolessolvedproblemssuchasconsolecursormovementinanindependentmanner,causingfurtherheadaches. [Link],thedevelopersofUnix,[Link]. TheANSIC < s t d i o . h > libraryisbasedontheoriginalUnixfileI/Oprimitivesbutcastsawidernettoaccommodatetheleastcommondenominatoracrossvariedsystems.

Streams
Inputandoutput,whethertoorfromphysicaldevicessuchasterminalsandtapedrives,orwhethertoorfromfilessupportedonstructuredstoragedevices,aremappedintologicaldatastreams,whosepropertiesaremoreuniformthantheirvarious [Link]:textstreamsandbinarystreams. [Link].(Theonlyexceptionisthatinsomeimplementationsthelastlineofafiledoesnotrequireaterminatingnewline character.)[Link]'swhatanyprogramexpectswhenitreadstext,andthat'swhatanyprogramproduceswhenitwritestext.(Thisisthe mostbasicconvention,andifitdoesn'tmeettheneedsofatextorientedperipheralattachedtoaUnixmachine,[Link].)Thestringofcharactersthatgointo,orcome [Link],insomeimplementationswhenaspacecharacter precedesanewlinecharacterintheinput,[Link],whenthedataonlyconsistsofprintablecharactersandcontrolcharacterslikehorizontaltabandnewline,theinputandoutputofatextstreamare equal. Comparedtoatextstream,[Link] [Link],however,[Link]. NothinginUnixpreventstheprogramfromwritingarbitrary8bitbinarycodestoanyopenfile,[Link],Unixobliteratedthelongstandingdistinctionbetweentextstreamsandbinarystreams.

StandardStreams
WhenaCprogramstartsitsexecutiontheprogramautomaticallyopensthreestandardstreamsnamed s t d i n , s t d o u t ,and s t d e r r .TheseareattachedforeveryCprogram. [Link]. Considerthefollowingprogram:
/ *Ae x a m p l ep r o g r a m .* / i n tm a i n ( ) { i n tv a r ; s c a n f( " % d " ,& v a r ) ;/ *u s es t d i nf o rs c a n n i n ga ni n t e g e rf r o mk e y b o a r d .* / p r i n t f( " % d " ,v a r ) ;/ *u s es t d o u tf o rp r i n t i n gac h a r a c t e r .* /

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r e t u r n0 ; } / *e n dp r o g r a m .* /

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Bydefault s t d i n pointstothekeyboardand s t d o u t and s t d e r r [Link].

F I L E pointers
The < s t d i o . h > headercontainsadefinitionforatype F I L E (usuallyviaa t y p e d e f )whichiscapableofprocessingalltheinformationneededtoexercisecontroloverastream,includingitsfilepositionindicator,apointertotheassociatedbuffer(ifany),anerror indicatorthatrecordswhetheraread/writeerrorhasoccurred,andanendoffileindicatorthatrecordswhethertheendofthefilehasbeenreached. Itisconsideredbadmannerstoaccessthecontentsof F I L E directlyunlesstheprogrammeriswritinganimplementationof < s t d i o . h > [Link] F I L E isprovidedviathefunctionsin < s t d i o . h > .Itcanbesaidthatthe F I L E typeisanearlyexampleofobjectorientedprogramming.

OpeningandClosingFiles
Toopenandclosefiles,the < s t d i o . h > libraryhasthreefunctions: f o p e n , f r e o p e n ,and f c l o s e .

OpeningFiles
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > F I L E* f o p e n ( c o n s tc h a r* f i l e n a m e ,c o n s tc h a r* m o d e ) ; F I L E* f r e o p e n ( c o n s tc h a r* f i l e n a m e ,c o n s tc h a r* m o d e ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;
f o p e n and f r e o p e n opensthefilewhosenameisinthestringpointedtoby f i l e n a m e [Link],[Link]

cleared,andiftheopenoperationfailserrorisset. f r e o p e n differsfrom f o p e n inthatthefilepointedtoby s t r e a m isclosedfirstwhenalreadyopenandanycloseerrorsareignored.

m o d e forbothfunctionspointstoastringconsistingofoneofthefollowingsequences:

r w a r b w b a b r + w + a + r + bo rr b + w + bo rw b + a + bo ra b +

o p e nat e x tf i l ef o rr e a d i n g t r u n c a t et oz e r ol e n g t ho rc r e a t eat e x tf i l ef o rw r i t i n g a p p e n d ;o p e no rc r e a t et e x tf i l ef o rw r i t i n ga te n d o f f i l e o p e nb i n a r yf i l ef o rr e a d i n g t r u n c a t et oz e r ol e n g t ho rc r e a t eab i n a r yf i l ef o rw r i t i n g a p p e n d ;o p e no rc r e a t eb i n a r yf i l ef o rw r i t i n ga te n d o f f i l e o p e nt e x tf i l ef o ru p d a t e( r e a d i n ga n dw r i t i n g ) t r u n c a t et oz e r ol e n g t ho rc r e a t eat e x tf i l ef o ru p d a t e a p p e n d ;o p e no rc r e a t et e x tf i l ef o ru p d a t e o p e nb i n a r yf i l ef o ru p d a t e( r e a d i n ga n dw r i t i n g ) t r u n c a t et oz e r ol e n g t ho rc r e a t eab i n a r yf i l ef o ru p d a t e a p p e n d ;o p e no rc r e a t eb i n a r yf i l ef o ru p d a t e

Openingafilewithreadmode('r 'asthefirstcharacterinthe m o d e argument)failsifthefiledoesnotexistorcannotberead. Openingafilewithappendmode('a 'asthefirstcharacterinthe m o d e argument)causesallsubsequentwritestothefiletobeforcedtothethencurrentendoffile,regardlessofinterveningcallstothe f s e e k [Link],openinga binaryfilewithappendmode('b 'asthesecondorthirdcharacterintheabovelistof m o d e arguments)mayinitiallypositionthefilepositionindicatorforthestreambeyondthelastdatawritten,becauseofnullcharacterpadding. Whenafileisopenedwithupdatemode('+ 'asthesecondorthirdcharacterintheabovelistof m o d e argumentvalues),[Link],outputmaynotbedirectlyfollowedbyinputwithoutan interveningcalltothe f f l u s h functionortoafilepositioningfunction(f s e e k , f s e t p o s ,or r e w i n d ),andinputmaynotbedirectlyfollowedbyoutputwithoutaninterveningcalltoafilepositioningfunction,unlesstheinputoperationencountersendoffile. Opening(orcreating)atextfilewithupdatemodemayinsteadopen(orcreate)abinarystreaminsomeimplementations. Whenopened,astreamisfullybufferedifandonlyifitcanbedeterminednottorefertoaninteractivedevice.

ClosingFiles
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf c l o s e ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f c l o s e functioncausesthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m [Link]. [Link],[Link] E O F ifanyerrorsweredetected.

Otherfileaccessfunctions
Thef f l u s h function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf f l u s h ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

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If s t r e a m pointstoanoutputstreamoranupdatestreaminwhichthemostrecentoperationwasnotinput,the f f l u s h [Link] isundefinedforinputstream. If s t r e a m isanullpointer,the f f l u s h functionperformsthisflushingactiononallstreamsforwhichthebehaviorisdefinedabove. The f f l u s h functionsreturns E O F ifawriteerroroccurs,otherwisezero. Thereasonforhavinga f f l u s h functionisbecausestreamsinCcanhavebufferedinput/outputthatis,functionsthatwritetoafileactuallywritetoabufferinsidethe F I L E [Link],thewritefunctionswillcall f f l u s h to actually"write"[Link] f f l u s h isonlycalledeveryonceinawhile,callstotheoperatingsystemtodoarawwriteareminimized.

Thes e t b u f function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > v o i ds e t b u f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c h a r* b u f ) ;

Exceptthatitreturnsnovalue,the s e t b u f functionisequivalenttothe s e t v b u f functioninvokedwiththevalues _ I O F B F for m o d e and B U F S I Z for s i z e ,or(if b u f isanullpointer)withthevalue _ I O N B F for m o d e .

Thes e t v b u f function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n ts e t v b u f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c h a r* b u f ,i n tm o d e ,s i z e _ ts i z e ) ;

The s e t v b u f functionmaybeusedonlyafterthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m [Link] m o d e determineshowthestreamwillbebuffered,asfollows: _ I O F B F causesinput/outputtobefullybuffered _ I O L B F causesinput/outputtobelinebuffered _ I O N B F causesinput/[Link] b u f isnotanullpointer,thearrayitpointstomaybeusedinsteadofabufferassociatedbythe s e t v b u f function.(The buffermusthavealifetimeatleastasgreatastheopenstream,sothestreamshouldbeclosedbeforeabufferthathasautomaticstoragedurationisdeallocateduponblockexit.)Theargument s i z e [Link] arrayatanytimeareindeterminate. The s e t v b u f functionreturnszeroonsuccess,ornonzeroifaninvalidvalueisgivenfor m o d e oriftherequestcannotbehonored.

FunctionsthatModifytheFilePositionIndicator
The s t d i o . h libraryhasfivefunctionsthataffectthefilepositionindicatorbesidesthosethatdoreadingorwriting: f g e t p o s , f s e e k , f s e t p o s , f t e l l ,and r e w i n d . The f s e e k and f t e l l functionsareolderthan f g e t p o s and f s e t p o s .

Thef g e t p o s andf s e t p o s functions

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf g e t p o s ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,f p o s _ t* p o s ) ; i n tf s e t p o s ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c o n s tf p o s _ t* p o s ) ;

The f g e t p o s functionstoresthecurrentvalueofthefilepositionindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m intheobjectpointedtoby p o s .Thevaluestoredcontainsunspecifiedinformationusablebythe f s e t p o s functionforrepositioningthestreamtoits positionatthetimeofthecalltothe f g e t p o s function. Ifsuccessful,the f g e t p o s functionreturnszeroonfailure,the f g e t p o s functionreturnsnonzeroandstoresanimplementationdefinedpositivevaluein e r r n o . The f s e t p o s functionsetsthefilepositionindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m accordingtothevalueoftheobjectpointedtoby p o s ,whichshallbeavalueobtainedfromanearliercalltothe f g e t p o s functiononthesamestream. Asuccessfulcalltothe f s e t p o s functionclearstheendoffileindicatorforthestreamandundoesanyeffectsofthe u n g e t c [Link] f s e t p o s call,thenextoperationonanupdatestreammaybeeitherinputoroutput. Ifsuccessful,the f s e t p o s functionreturnszeroonfailure,the f s e t p o s functionreturnsnonzeroandstoresanimplementationdefinedpositivevaluein e r r n o .

Thef s e e k andf t e l l functions

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf s e e k ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,l o n gi n to f f s e t ,i n tw h e n c e ) ; l o n gi n tf t e l l ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f s e e k functionsetsthefilepositionindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m . Forabinarystream,thenewposition,measuredincharactersfromthebeginningofthefile,isobtainedbyadding o f f s e t tothepositionspecifiedby w h e n c e .Threemacrosin s t d i o . h called S E E K _ S E T , S E E K _ C U R ,and S E E K _ E N D [Link] specifiedby w h e n c e is S E E K _ S E T ,thespecifiedpositionisthebeginningofthefileif w h e n c e is S E E K _ E N D ,thespecifiedpositionistheendofthefileandif w h e n c e is S E E K _ C U R ,[Link] support f s e e k callswitha w h e n c e valueof S E E K _ E N D . Foratextstream,either o f f s e t shallbezero,or o f f s e t shallbeavaluereturnedbyanearliercalltothe f t e l l functiononthesamestreamand w h e n c e shallbe S E E K _ S E T . The f s e e k functionreturnsnonzeroonlyforarequestthatcannotbesatisfied.

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The f t e l l functionobtainsthecurrentvalueofthefilepositionindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m .Forabinarystream,thevalueisthenumberofcharactersfromthebeginningofthefileforatextstream,itsfilepositionindicatorcontains unspecifiedinformation,usablebythe f s e e k functionforreturningthefilepositionindicatorforthestreamtoitspositionatthetimeofthe f t e l l callthedifferencebetweentwosuchreturnvaluesisnotnecessarilyameaningfulmeasureofthenumberof characterswrittenorread. Ifsuccessful,the f t e l l [Link],the f t e l l functionreturns 1 L andstoresanimplementationdefinedpositivevaluein e r r n o .

Ther e w i n d function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > v o i dr e w i n d ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The r e w i n d functionsetsthefilepositionindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m [Link]

( v o i d ) f s e e k ( s t r e a m ,0 L ,S E E K _ S E T )

exceptthattheerrorindicatorforthestreamisalsocleared.

ErrorHandlingFunctions
Thec l e a r e r r function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > v o i dc l e a r e r r ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The c l e a r e r r functionclearstheendoffileanderrorindicatorsforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m .

Thef e o f function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf e o f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f e o f functionteststheendoffileindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m andreturnsnonzeroifandonlyiftheendoffileindicatorissetfor s t r e a m ,otherwiseitreturnszero.

Thef e r r o r function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf e r r o r ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f e r r o r functionteststheerrorindicatorforthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m andreturnsnonzeroifandonlyiftheerrorindicatorissetfor s t r e a m ,otherwiseitreturnszero.

Thep e r r o r function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > v o i dp e r r o r ( c o n s tc h a r* s ) ;

The p e r r o r functionmapstheerrornumberintheintegerexpression e r r n o [Link]:first,if s isnotanullpointerandthecharacterpointedtoby s isnotthenullcharacter,the stringpointedtoby s followedbyacolon(: )[Link] s t r e r r o r functionwiththeargument e r r n o ,which areimplementationdefined.

OtherOperationsonFiles
The s t d i o . h libraryhasavarietyoffunctionsthatdosomeoperationonfilesbesidesreadingandwriting.

Ther e m o v e function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tr e m o v e ( c o n s tc h a r* f i l e n a m e ) ;

The r e m o v e functioncausesthefilewhosenameisthestringpointedtoby f i l e n a m e [Link],[Link],thebehaviorofthe r e m o v e functionisimplementationdefined. The r e m o v e functionreturnszeroiftheoperationsucceeds,nonzeroifitfails.

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Ther e n a m e function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tr e n a m e ( c o n s tc h a r* o l d _ f i l e n a m e ,c o n s tc h a r* n e w _ f i l e n a m e ) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The r e n a m e functioncausesthefilewhosenameisthestringpointedtoby o l d _ f i l e n a m e tobehenceforthknownbythenamegivenbythestringpointedtoby n e w _ f i l e n a m e .Thefilenamed o l d _ f i l e n a m e [Link] stringpointedtoby n e w _ f i l e n a m e existspriortothecalltothe r e n a m e function,thebehaviorisimplementationdefined. The r e n a m e functionreturnszeroiftheoperationsucceeds,nonzeroifitfails,inwhichcaseifthefileexistedpreviouslyitisstillknownbyitsoriginalname.

Thet m p f i l e function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > F I L E* t m p f i l e ( v o i d ) ;

The t m p f i l e [Link],[Link] openedforupdatewith " w b + " mode. The t m p f i l e [Link],the t m p f i l e functionreturnsanullpointer.

Thet m p n a m function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > c h a r* t m p n a m ( c h a r* s ) ;

The t m p n a m functiongeneratesastringthatisavalidfilenameandthatisnotthenameofanexistingfile. The t m p n a m functiongeneratesadifferentstringeachtimeitiscalled,upto T M P _ M A X times.(T M P _ M A X isamacrodefinedin s t d i o . h .)Ifitiscalledmorethan T M P _ M A X times,thebehaviorisimplementationdefined. Theimplementationshallbehaveasifnolibraryfunctioncallsthe t m p n a m function. Iftheargumentisanullpointer,the t m p n a m [Link] t m p n a m [Link],itisassumedto pointtoanarrayofatleast L _ t m p n a m characters(L _ t m p n a m isanothermacroin s t d i o . h )the t m p n a m functionwritesitsresultinthatarrayandreturnstheargumentasitsvalue. Thevalueofthemacro T M P _ M A X mustbeatleast25.

ReadingfromFiles
CharacterInputFunctions
The f g e t c function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf g e t c ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f g e t c functionobtainsthenextcharacter(ifpresent)asan u n s i g n e dc h a r convertedtoan i n t ,fromtheinputstreampointedtoby s t r e a m ,andadvancestheassociatedfilepositionindicatorforthestream(ifdefined). The f g e t c functionreturnsthenextcharacterfromtheinputstreampointedtoby s t r e a m .Ifthestreamisatendoffile,theendoffileindicatorforthestreamissetand f g e t c returns E O F (E O F isanegativevaluedefinedin < s t d i o . h > ,usually ( 1 ) ).Ifareaderror occurs,theerrorindicatorforthestreamissetand f g e t c returns E O F . The f g e t s function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > c h a r* f g e t s ( c h a r* s ,i n tn ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f g e t s functionreadsatmostonelessthanthenumberofcharactersspecifiedby n fromthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m intothearraypointedtoby s .Noadditionalcharactersarereadafteranewlinecharacter(whichisretained)orafterendoffile.A nullcharacteriswrittenimmediatelyafterthelastcharacterreadintothearray. The f g e t s functionreturns s [Link],[Link],thearraycontents areindeterminateandanullpointerisreturned. Warning:[Link],somefilesystemsusetheterminator \ r \ n intextfiles f g e t s mayreadthoselines,removingthe \ n butkeepingthe \ r asthe lastcharacterof s .Thisexpuriouscharactershouldberemovedinthestring s beforethestringisusedforanything(unlesstheprogrammerdoesn'tcareaboutit).Unixestypicallyuse \ n asitsendoflinesequence,MSDOSandWindowsuses \ r \ n ,and MacOSesused \ r beforeOSX.

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/ *Ae x a m p l ep r o g r a mt h a tr e a d sf r o ms t d i na n dw r i t e st os t d o u t* / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # d e f i n eB U F F E R _ S I Z E1 0 0 i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { c h a rb u f f e r [ B U F F E R _ S I Z E ] ;/ *ar e a db u f f e r* / w h i l e (f g e t s( b u f f e r ,B U F F E R _ S I Z E ,s t d i n )! =N U L L ) { p r i n t f ( " % s " , b u f f e r ) ; } r e t u r n0 ; } / *e n dp r o g r a m .* /

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The g e t c function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tg e t c ( F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The g e t c functionisequivalentto f g e t c ,[Link],the s t r e a m argumentmaybeevaluatedmorethanonce,sotheargumentshouldneverbeanexpressionwithsideeffects([Link] assignment,increment,ordecrementoperators,orbeafunctioncall). The g e t c functionreturnsthenextcharacterfromtheinputstreampointedtoby s t r e a m .Ifthestreamisatendoffile,theendoffileindicatorforthestreamissetand g e t c returns E O F (E O F isanegativevaluedefinedin < s t d i o . h > ,usually ( 1 ) ).Ifareaderror occurs,theerrorindicatorforthestreamissetand g e t c returns E O F . The g e t c h a r function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tg e t c h a r ( v o i d ) ;

The g e t c h a r functionisequivalentto g e t c withtheargument s t d i n . The g e t c h a r functionreturnsthenextcharacterfromtheinputstreampointedtoby s t d i n .If s t d i n isatendoffile,theendoffileindicatorfor s t d i n issetand g e t c h a r returns E O F (E O F isanegativevaluedefinedin < s t d i o . h > ,usually ( 1 ) ).Ifareaderroroccurs,the errorindicatorfor s t d i n issetand g e t c h a r returns E O F . The g e t s function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > c h a r* g e t s ( c h a r* s ) ;

The g e t s functionreadscharactersfromtheinputstreampointedtoby s t d i n intothearraypointedtoby s [Link],andanullcharacteriswrittenimmediately afterthelastcharacterreadintothearray. The g e t s functionreturns s [Link],[Link],thearray contentsareindeterminateandanullpointerisreturned. [Link] g e t s ,[Link]#5of HenrySpencer's TheTenCommandmentsforCProgrammers(AnnotatedEdition)reads,"Thoushaltcheckthearrayboundsofallstrings(indeed,allarrays),forsurelywherethoutypest foosomeonesomedayshalltype supercalifragilisticexpialidocious." Itmentions g e t s intheannotation:"AsdemonstratedbythedeedsoftheGreatWorm,aconsequenceofthiscommandmentisthatrobustproductionsoftwareshouldnevermakeuseof g e t s ( ) ,[Link] informthyservantsoftheboundsofthyarrays,andservantswhospurnsuchadviceorquietlyfailtofollowitshouldbedispatchedforthwithtotheLandOfRm,wheretheycandonofurtherharmtothee." The u n g e t c function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tu n g e t c ( i n tc ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The u n g e t c functionpushesthecharacterspecifiedby c (convertedtoan u n s i g n e dc h a r )[Link].A successfulinterveningcall(withthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m )toafilepositioningfunction(f s e e k , f s e t p o s ,or r e w i n d )[Link]. [Link] u n g e t c functioniscalledtoomanytimesonthesamestreamwithoutaninterveningreadorfilepositioningoperationonthatstream,theoperationmayfail. Ifthevalueof c equalsthatofthemacro E O F ,theoperationfailsandtheinputstreamisunchanged.

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Asuccessfulcalltothe u n g e t c [Link] [Link],thevalueofitsfilepositionindicatorafterasuccessfulcalltothe u n g e t c [Link],itsfilepositionindicatorisdecrementedbyeachsuccessful calltothe u n g e t c functionifitsvaluewaszerobeforeacall,itisindeterminateafterthecall. The u n g e t c functionreturnsthecharacterpushedbackafterconversion,or E O F iftheoperationfails.

EOFpitfall
Amistakewhenusing f g e t c , g e t c ,or g e t c h a r istoassigntheresulttoavariableoftype c h a r beforecomparingitto E O F .Thefollowingcodefragmentsexhibitthismistake,andthenshowthecorrectapproach(usingtypeint): Mistake
c h a rc ; w h i l e( ( c=g e t c h a r ( ) )! =E O F ) p u t c h a r ( c ) ; i n tc ; w h i l e( ( c=g e t c h a r ( ) )! =E O F ) p u t c h a r ( c ) ;

Correction

Considerasysteminwhichthetype c h a r is8bitswide,representing256differentvalues. g e t c h a r mayreturnanyofthe256possiblecharacters,anditalsomayreturn E O F toindicateendoffile,foratotalof257differentpossiblereturnvalues. When g e t c h a r 'sresultisassignedtoa c h a r ,whichcanrepresentonly256differentvalues,thereisnecessarilysomelossofinformationwhenpacking257itemsinto256slots,[Link] E O F value,whenconvertedto c h a r ,becomes [Link],theaboveexamplemaymistakeitforanendoffileindicatoror,justasbad,iftype c h a r isunsigned,thenbecause E O F isnegative, itcanneverbeequaltoanyunsigned c h a r ,[Link],repeatedlyprintingthecharacterwhichresultsfromconverting E O F to c h a r . However,thisloopingfailuremodedoesnotoccurifthechardefinitionissigned(Cmakesthesignednessofthedefaultchartypeimplementationdependent), [16]assumingthecommonlyused E O F [Link],thefundamentalissueremainsthat ifthe E O F valueisdefinedoutsideoftherangeofthe c h a r type,whenassignedtoa c h a r thatvalueisslicedandwillnolongermatchthefull E O F [Link],if E O F iswithinrangeof c h a r ,thisguaranteesacollision between E O F [Link],regardlessofhowsystemtypesaredefined,neveruse c h a r typeswhentestingagainst E O F . Onsystemswhere i n t and c h a r arethesamesize(i.e.,systemsincompatiblewithminimallythePOSIXandC99standards),eventhe"good"examplewillsufferfromtheindistinguishabilityof E O F andsomecharacter'[Link] situationistocheck f e o f and f e r r o r after g e t c h a r returns E O F .If f e o f indicatesthatendoffilehasnotbeenreached,and f e r r o r indicatesthatnoerrorshaveoccurred,thenthe E O F returnedby g e t c h a r [Link] extrachecksarerarelydone,becausemostprogrammersassumethattheircodewillneverneedtorunononeofthese"big c h a r "[Link] U I N T _ M A X>U C H A R _ M A X ,whichatleastpreventsa programwithsuchanassumptionfromcompilinginsuchasystem.

Directinputfunction:thef r e a d function
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > s i z e _ tf r e a d ( v o i d* p t r ,s i z e _ ts i z e ,s i z e _ tn m e m b ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f r e a d functionreads,intothearraypointedtoby p t r ,upto n m e m b elementswhosesizeisspecifiedby s i z e ,fromthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m .Thefilepositionindicatorforthestream(ifdefined)isadvancedbythenumberofcharacterssuccessfully [Link],[Link],itsvalueisindeterminate. The f r e a d functionreturnsthenumberofelementssuccessfullyread,whichmaybelessthan n m e m b [Link] s i z e or n m e m b iszero, f r e a d returnszeroandthecontentsofthearrayandthestateofthestreamremain unchanged.

Formattedinputfunctions:thes c a n f familyoffunctions
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf s c a n f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ; i n ts c a n f ( c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ; i n ts s c a n f ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ;

The f s c a n f functionreadsinputfromthestreampointedtoby s t r e a m ,undercontrolofthestringpointedtoby f o r m a t thatspecifiestheadmissiblesequencesandhowtheyaretobeconvertedforassignment,usingsubsequentargumentsaspointerstothe [Link],[Link],theexcessargumentsareevaluated(asalways)butareotherwiseignored. Theformatshallbeamultibytecharactersequence,[Link]:oneormorewhitespacecharactersanordinarymultibytecharacter(neither % orawhitespace character)[Link] % .Afterthe % ,thefollowingappearinsequence: Anoptionalassignmentsuppressingcharacter * . Anoptionalnonzerodecimalintegerthatspecifiesthemaximumfieldwidth. Anoptional h , l (ell)or L [Link] d , i ,and n shallbeprecededby h ifthecorrespondingargumentisapointerto s h o r ti n t ratherthanapointerto i n t ,orby l ifitisapointerto l o n gi n t . Similarly,theconversionspecifiers o , u ,and x shallbeprecededby h ifthecorrespondingargumentisapointerto u n s i g n e ds h o r ti n t ratherthan u n s i g n e di n t ,orby l ifitisapointerto u n s i g n e dl o n gi n t .Finally,theconversionspecifiers e , f ,and g shallbe precededby l ifthecorrespondingargumentisapointerto d o u b l e ratherthanapointerto f l o a t ,orby L ifitisapointerto l o n gd o u b l e .Ifan h , l ,or L appearswithanyotherformatspecifier,thebehaviorisundefined. [Link].

The f s c a n f [Link],asdetailedbelow,the f s c a n f [Link](duetotheunavailabilityofinputcharacters)ormatchingfailures(duetoinappropriate

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The f s c a n f [Link],asdetailedbelow,the f s c a n f [Link](duetotheunavailabilityofinputcharacters)ormatchingfailures(duetoinappropriate input). Adirectivecomposedofwhitespacecharacter(s)isexecutedbyreadinginputuptothefirstnonwhitespacecharacter(whichremainsunread)oruntilnomorecharactersremainunread. [Link],thedirectivefails,andthedifferingandsubsequentcharactersremainunread. Adirectivethatisaconversionspecificationdefinesasetofmatchinginputsequences,[Link]: Inputwhitespacecharacters(asspecifiedbythe i s s p a c e function)areskipped,unlessthespecificationincludesa [ , c ,or n specifier.(Thewhitespacecharactersarenotcountedagainstthespecifiedfieldwidth.) Aninputitemisreadfromthestream,unlessthespecificationincludesan n [Link],unlessthatexceedsaspecifiedfieldwidth,inwhichcaseitistheinitialsubsequenceof [Link],ifany,[Link],theexecutionofthedirectivefailsthisconditionisamatchingfailure,unlessanerrorpreventedinputfromthestream,in whichcaseitisaninputfailure. Exceptinthecaseofa % specifier,theinputitem(or,inthecaseofa % n directive,thecountofinputcharacters)[Link],theexecutionofthedirectivefails [Link] * ,theresultoftheconversionisplacedintheobjectpointedtobythefirstargumentfollowingthe f o r m a t [Link] thisobjectdoesnothaveanappropriatetype,oriftheresultoftheconversioncannotberepresentedinthespaceprovided,thebehaviorisundefined. Thefollowingconversionspecifiersarevalid:
d

Matchesanoptionallysigneddecimalinteger,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectsequenceofthe s t r t o l functionwiththevalue10forthe b a s e [Link].

i

Matchesanoptionallysignedinteger,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectsequenceofthe s t r t o l functionwiththevalue0forthe b a s e [Link].

o

Matchesanoptionallysignedoctalinteger,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectsequenceofthe s t r t o u l functionwiththevalue8forthe b a s e [Link].

u

Matchesanoptionallysigneddecimalinteger,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectsequenceofthe s t r t o u l functionwiththevalue10forthe b a s e [Link].

x

Matchesanoptionallysignedhexadecimalinteger,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectsequenceofthe s t r t o u l functionwiththevalue16forthe b a s e [Link].

e , f , g

Matchesanoptionallysignedfloatingpointnumber,whoseformatisthesameasexpectedforthesubjectstringofthe s t r t o d [Link].
s

Matchesasequenceofnonwhitespacecharacters.(Nospecialprovisionsaremadeformultibytecharacters.)Thecorrespondingargumentshallbeapointertotheinitialcharacterofanarraylargeenoughtoacceptthesequenceandaterminating nullcharacter,whichwillbeaddedautomatically.
[

Matchesanonemptysequenceofcharacters(nospecialprovisionsaremadeformultibytecharacters)fromasetofexpectedcharacters(the scanset ).Thecorrespondingargumentshallbeapointertotheinitialcharacterofanarraylargeenough toacceptthesequenceandaterminatingnullcharacter,[Link] f o r m a t string,uptoandincludingthematchingrightbracket(] ).Thecharactersbetween thebrackets(the scanlist )comprisethescanset,unlessthecharacteraftertheleftbracketisacircumflex(^ ),[Link] conversionspecifierbeginswith [ ] or [ ^ ] ,therightbracketcharacterisinthescanlistandthenextrightbracketcharacteristhematchingrightbracketthatendsthespecificationotherwise,thefirstrightbracketcharacteristheonethatendsthe [Link] characterisinthescanlistandisnotthefirst,northesecondwherethefirstcharacterisa ^ ,northelastcharacter,thebehaviorisimplementationdefined.
c

Matchesasequenceofcharacters(nospecialprovisionsaremadeformultibytecharacters)ofthenumberspecifiedbythefieldwidth(1ifnofieldwidthispresentinthedirective).Thecorrespondingargumentshallbeapointertotheinitial [Link].
p

Matchesanimplementationdefinedsetofsequences,whichshouldbethesameasthesetofsequencesthatmaybeproducedbythe % p conversionofthe f p r i n t f [Link] v o i d .Theinterpretation [Link],thepointerthatresultsshallcompareequaltothatvalueotherwisethebehaviorofthe % p conversionisundefined.

n

[Link] f s c a n f [Link] % n directivedoesnotincrement theassignmentcountreturnedatthecompletionofexecutionofthe f s c a n f function.

%

Matchesasingle % [Link] % % .

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Ifaconversionspecificationisinvalid,thebehaviorisundefined.

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Theconversionspecifiers E , G ,and X arealsovalidandbehavethesameas,respectively, e , g ,and x . Ifendoffileisencounteredduringinput,[Link](otherthanleadingwhitespace,wherepermitted),executionofthecurrentdirectiveterminates withaninputfailureotherwise,unlessexecutionofthecurrentdirectiveisterminatedwithamatchingfailure,executionofthefollowingdirective(ifany)isterminatedwithaninputfailure. Ifconversionterminatesonaconflictinginputcharacter,[Link](includingnewlinecharacters)[Link] suppressedassignmentsisnotdirectlydeterminableotherthanviathe % n directive. The f s c a n f functionreturnsthevalueofthemacro E O F [Link],the f s c a n f functionreturnsthenumberofinputitemsassigned,whichcanbefewerthanprovidedfor,orevenzero,intheeventofanearly matchingfailure. The s c a n f functionisequivalentto f s c a n f withtheargument s t d i n interposedbeforetheargumentsto s c a n f .Itsreturnvalueissimilartothatof f s c a n f . The s s c a n f functionisequivalentto f s c a n f ,exceptthattheargument s specifiesastringfromwhichtheinputistobeobtained,[Link] f s c a n f [Link] copyingtakesplacebetweenobjectsthatoverlap,thebehaviorisundefined.

WritingtoFiles
CharacterOutputFunctions
The f p u t c function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf p u t c ( i n tc ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f p u t c functionwritesthecharacterspecifiedby c (convertedtoan u n s i g n e dc h a r )tothestreampointedtoby s t r e a m atthepositionindicatedbytheassociatedfilepositionindicator(ifdefined),[Link] supportpositioningrequests,orifthestreamisopenedwithappendmode,[Link],unlessawriteerroroccurs,inwhichcasetheerrorindicatorforthestreamissetand f p u t c returns E O F . The f p u t s function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf p u t s ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The f p u t s functionwritesthestringpointedtoby s tothestreampointedtoby s t r e a m .[Link] E O F ifawriteerroroccurs,otherwiseitreturnsanonnegativevalue. The p u t c function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tp u t c ( i n tc ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

The p u t c functionisequivalentto f p u t c ,exceptthatifitisimplementedasamacro,itmayevaluate s t r e a m morethanonce,[Link],unlessawriteerror occurs,inwhichcasetheerrorindicatorforthestreamissetandthefunctionreturns E O F . The p u t c h a r function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tp u t c h a r ( i n tc ) ;

The p u t c h a r functionisequivalentto p u t c withthesecondargument s t d o u t .Itreturnsthecharacterwritten,unlessawriteerroroccurs,inwhichcasetheerrorindicatorfor s t d o u t issetandthefunctionreturns E O F . The p u t s function

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tp u t s ( c o n s tc h a r* s ) ;

The p u t s functionwritesthestringpointedtoby s tothestreampointedtoby s t d o u t ,[Link] E O F ifawriteerroroccursotherwise,itreturnsa nonnegativevalue.

Directoutputfunction:thef w r i t e function

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# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > s i z e _ tf w r i t e ( c o n s tv o i d* p t r ,s i z e _ ts i z e ,s i z e _ tn m e m b ,F I L E* s t r e a m ) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The f w r i t e functionwrites,fromthearraypointedtoby p t r ,upto n m e m b elementswhosesizeisspecifiedby s i z e tothestreampointedtoby s t r e a m .Thefilepositionindicatorforthestream(ifdefined)isadvancedbythenumberofcharacterssuccessfully [Link],[Link],whichwillbelessthan n m e m b onlyifawriteerrorisencountered.

Formattedoutputfunctions:thep r i n t f familyoffunctions
# i n c l u d e< s t d a r g . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tf p r i n t f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ; i n tp r i n t f ( c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ; i n ts p r i n t f ( c h a r* s ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,. . . ) ; i n tv f p r i n t f ( F I L E* s t r e a m ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,v a _ l i s ta r g ) ; i n tv p r i n t f ( c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,v a _ l i s ta r g ) ; i n tv s p r i n t f ( c h a r* s ,c o n s tc h a r* f o r m a t ,v a _ l i s ta r g ) ;

Note:[Link],whichadheretotheC89/[Link],thenewoneswillbemarkedwith(C99). The f p r i n t f functionwritesoutputtothestreampointedtoby s t r e a m undercontrolofthestringpointedtoby f o r m a t [Link],thebehavioris [Link],theexcessargumentsareevaluated(asalways)[Link] f p r i n t f functionreturnswhentheendoftheformatstringisencountered. Theformatshallbeamultibytecharactersequence,[Link]:ordinarymultibytecharacters(not % ),whicharecopiedunchangedtotheoutputstreamandconversion specifications,eachofwhichresultsinfetchingzeroormoresubsequentarguments,convertingthem,ifapplicable,accordingtothecorrespondingconversionspecifier,andthenwritingtheresulttotheoutputstream. Eachconversionspecificationisintroducedbythecharacter % .Afterthe % ,thefollowingappearinsequence: Zeroormoreflags(inanyorder)thatmodifythemeaningoftheconversionspecification. [Link],itispaddedwithspaces(bydefault)ontheleft(orright,iftheleftadjustmentflag,describedlater,hasbeengiven)[Link] takestheformofanasterisk * (describedlater)oradecimalinteger.(Notethat0istakenasaflag,notasthebeginningofafieldwidth.) Anoptionalprecisionthatgivestheminimumnumberofdigitstoappearforthe d , i , o , u , x ,and X conversions,thenumberofdigitstoappearafterthedecimalpointcharacterfor a , A , e , E , f ,and F conversions,themaximumnumberofsignificant digitsforthe g and G conversions,orthemaximumnumberofcharacterstobewrittenfromastringin s [Link](. )followedeitherbyanasterisk * (describedlater)orbyanoptionaldecimalintegerif onlytheperiodisspecified,[Link],[Link] roundedtofittheprecisioni.e. p r i n t f ( " % 1 . 1 f \ n " ,1 . 1 9 ) ; produces 1 . 2 . Anoptionallengthmodifierthatspecifiesthesizeoftheargument. Aconversionspecifiercharacterthatspecifiesthetypeofconversiontobeapplied. Asnotedabove,afieldwidth,orprecision,orboth,[Link],an i n t [Link],orprecision,orboth,shallappear(inthatorder)beforethe argument(ifany)[Link] [Link]. Theflagcharactersandtheirmeaningsare:

Theresultoftheconversionisleftjustifiedwithinthefield.(Itisrightjustifiedifthisflagisnotspecified.)
+

Theresultofasignedconversionalwaysbeginswithaplusorminussign.([Link],andofnegativevalues thatroundtozero,includeaminussign.) space Ifthefirstcharacterofasignedconversionisnotasign,orifasignedconversionresultsinnocharacters,[Link] + flagsbothappear,thespaceflagisignored.

#

Theresultisconvertedtoan"alternativeform".For o conversion,itincreasestheprecision,ifandonlyifnecessary,toforcethefirstdigitoftheresulttobeazero(ifthevalueandprecisionareboth0,asingle0isprinted).For x (or X )conversion,a nonzeroresulthas 0 x (or 0 X )[Link] a , A , e , E , f , F , g ,and G conversions,theresultalwayscontainsadecimalpointcharacter,evenifnodigitsfollowit.(Normally,adecimalpointcharacterappearsintheresultoftheseconversionsonlyifa digitfollowsit.)For g and G conversions,[Link],thebehaviorisundefined.
0

For d , i , o , u , x , X , a , A , e , E , f , F , g ,and G conversions,leadingzeros(followinganyindicationofsignorbase)[Link] 0 and flagsbothappear,the 0 [Link] d , i , o , u , x ,and

X conversions,ifaprecisionisspecified,the 0 [Link],thebehaviorisundefined.

Thelengthmodifiersandtheirmeaningsare:
h h

(C99)Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa s i g n e dc h a r or u n s i g n e dc h a r argument(theargumentwillhavebeenpromotedaccordingtotheintegerpromotions,butitsvalueshallbeconvertedto s i g n e dc h a r or u n s i g n e d

c h a r beforeprinting)orthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa s i g n e dc h a r argument. h

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Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa s h o r ti n t or u n s i g n e ds h o r ti n t argument(theargumentwillhavebeenpromotedaccordingtotheintegerpromotions,butitsvalueshallbeconvertedto s h o r ti n t or u n s i g n e ds h o r t

i n t beforeprinting)orthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa s h o r ti n t argument. l (ell)

Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa l o n gi n t or u n s i g n e dl o n gi n t argumentthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa l o n gi n t argument(C99)thatafollowing c conversionspecifierappliesto a w i n t _ t argument(C99)thatafollowing s conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa w c h a r _ t argumentorhasnoeffectonafollowing a , A , e , E , f , F , g ,or G conversionspecifier.
l l (ellell)

(C99)Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa l o n gl o n gi n t or u n s i g n e dl o n gl o n gi n t argumentorthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa l o n gl o n gi n t argument.

j

(C99)Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoan i n t m a x _ t or u i n t m a x _ t argumentorthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoan i n t m a x _ t argument.

z

(C99)Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa s i z e _ t orthecorrespondingsignedintegertypeargumentorthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoasignedintegertypecorrespondingto s i z e _ t argument.

t

(C99)Specifiesthatafollowing d , i , o , u , x ,or X conversionspecifierappliestoa p t r d i f f _ t orthecorrespondingunsignedintegertypeargumentorthatafollowing n conversionspecifierappliestoapointertoa p t r d i f f _ t argument.

L

Specifiesthatafollowing a , A , e , E , f , F , g ,or G conversionspecifierappliestoa l o n gd o u b l e argument. Ifalengthmodifierappearswithanyconversionspecifierotherthanasspecifiedabove,thebehaviorisundefined. Theconversionspecifiersandtheirmeaningsare:

d , i

The i n t argumentisconvertedtosigneddecimalinthestyle [ ][Link],[Link] [Link].

o , u , x , X

The u n s i g n e di n t argumentisconvertedtounsignedoctal(o ),unsigneddecimal(u ),orunsignedhexadecimalnotation(x or X )inthestyle ddddtheletters a b c d e f areusedfor x conversionandtheletters A B C D E F for X [Link] theminimumnumberofdigitstoappearifthevaluebeingconvertedcanberepresentedinfewerdigits,[Link].
f , F

A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinga(finite)floatingpointnumberisconvertedtodecimalnotationinthestyle [ ]ddd. ddd,[Link],it istakenas6iftheprecisioniszeroandthe # flagisnotspecified,[Link],[Link]. (C99)A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinganinfinityisconvertedinoneofthestyles [ ]i n f or [ ]i n f i n i t y [Link] [ ]n a n or [ ]n a n ( ncharsequence) whichstyle,andthemeaningofany ncharsequence,[Link] F conversionspecifierproduces I N F , I N F I N I T Y ,or N A N insteadof i n f , i n f i n i t y ,or n a n ,respectively.(WhenappliedtoinfiniteandNaNvalues,the , + ,and space flagshavetheirusualmeaningthe # and 0 flagshavenoeffect.)
e , E

A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinga(finite)floatingpointnumberisconvertedinthestyle [ ]d. ddde dd,wherethereisonedigit(whichisnonzeroiftheargumentisnonzero)beforethedecimalpointcharacterandthenumberofdigitsafteritisequal totheprecisioniftheprecisionismissing,itistakenas6iftheprecisioniszeroandthe # flagisnotspecified,[Link] E conversionspecifierproducesa numberwith E insteadof e [Link],[Link],theexponentiszero. (C99)A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinganinfinityorNaNisconvertedinthestyleofan f or F conversionspecifier.
g , G

A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinga(finite)floatingpointnumberisconvertedinstyle f or e (orinstyle F or E inthecaseofa G conversionspecifier),[Link],itistakenas1. Thestyleuseddependsonthevalueconvertedstyle e (or E )[Link] unlessthe # flagisspecifiedadecimalpointcharacterappearsonlyifitisfollowedbyadigit. (C99)A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinganinfinityorNaNisconvertedinthestyleofan f or F conversionspecifier.
a , A

(C99)Adoubleargumentrepresentinga(finite)floatingpointnumberisconvertedinthestyle [ ]0 x h. hhhhp d,wherethereisonehexadecimaldigit(whichisnonzeroiftheargumentisanormalizedfloatingpointnumberandisotherwise unspecified)beforethedecimalpointcharacter(Binaryimplementationscanchoosethehexadecimaldigittotheleftofthedecimalpointcharactersothatsubsequentdigitsaligntonibble[4bit]boundaries.)andthenumberofhexadecimaldigits afteritisequaltotheprecisioniftheprecisionismissingand F L T _ R A D I X isapowerof2,thentheprecisionissufficientforanexactrepresentationofthevalueiftheprecisionismissingand F L T _ R A D I X isnotapowerof2,thentheprecisionis sufficienttodistinguish(Theprecision pissufficienttodistinguishvaluesofthesourcetypeif16p1> bnwhere bis F L T _ R A D I X and [Link] pmightsufficedependingonthe implementation'sschemefordeterminingthedigittotheleftofthedecimalpointcharacter.)valuesoftype d o u b l e ,exceptthattrailingzerosmaybeomittediftheprecisioniszeroandthe # flagisnotspecified,nodecimalpointcharacterappears.

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Theletters a b c d e f areusedfor a conversionandtheletters A B C D E F for A [Link] A conversionspecifierproducesanumberwith X and P insteadof x and p .Theexponentalwayscontainsatleastonedigit,andonlyasmanymoredigitsas [Link],theexponentiszero. A d o u b l e argumentrepresentinganinfinityorNaNisconvertedinthestyleofan f or F conversionspecifier.
c

Ifno l lengthmodifierispresent,the i n t argumentisconvertedtoan u n s i g n e dc h a r ,andtheresultingcharacteriswritten. (C99)Ifan l lengthmodifierispresent,the w i n t _ t argumentisconvertedasifbyan l s conversionspecificationwithnoprecisionandanargumentthatpointstotheinitialelementofatwoelementarrayof w c h a r _ t ,thefirstelementcontainingthe

w i n t _ t argumenttothe l c conversionspecificationandthesecondanullwidecharacter. s

Ifno l lengthmodifierispresent,theargumentshallbeapointertotheinitialelementofanarrayofcharactertype.(Nospecialprovisionsaremadeformultibytecharacters.)Charactersfromthearrayarewrittenupto(butnotincluding)the [Link],[Link],thearrayshallcontainanullcharacter. (C99)Ifan l lengthmodifierispresent,theargumentshallbeapointertotheinitialelementofanarrayof w c h a r _ t [Link](eachasifbyacalltothe w c r t o m b function,withthe conversionstatedescribedbyan m b s t a t e _ t objectinitializedtozerobeforethefirstwidecharacterisconverted)[Link](butnotincluding)the terminatingnullcharacter(byte).Ifnoprecisionisspecified,[Link],nomorethanthatmanycharacters(bytes)arewritten(includingshiftsequences,ifany),andthearrayshallcontain anullwidecharacterif,toequalthemultibytecharactersequencelengthgivenbytheprecision,[Link].(Redundantshift sequencesmayresultifmultibytecharactershaveastatedependentencoding.)
p

Theargumentshallbeapointerto v o i d .Thevalueofthepointerisconvertedtoasequenceofprintablecharacters,inanimplementationdefinedmanner.
n

Theargumentshallbeapointertosignedintegerintowhichiswrittenthenumberofcharacterswrittentotheoutputstreamsofarbythiscallto f p r i n t f .Noargumentisconverted,[Link] flags,afieldwidth,oraprecision,thebehaviorisundefined.

%

A % [Link] % % . Ifaconversionspecificationisinvalid,[Link],thebehaviorisundefined. Innocasedoesanonexistentorsmallfieldwidthcausetruncationofafieldiftheresultofaconversioniswiderthanthefieldwidth,thefieldisexpandedtocontaintheconversionresult. For a and A conversions,if F L T _ R A D I X isapowerof2,thevalueiscorrectlyroundedtoahexadecimalfloatingnumberwiththegivenprecision. Itisrecommendedpracticethatif F L T _ R A D I X isnotapowerof2,theresultshouldbeoneofthetwoadjacentnumbersinhexadecimalfloatingstylewiththegivenprecision,withtheextrastipulationthattheerrorshouldhaveacorrectsignforthecurrent roundingdirection. Itisrecommendedpracticethatfor e , E , f , F , g ,and G conversions,ifthenumberofsignificantdecimaldigitsisatmost D E C I M A L _ D I G ,thentheresultshouldbecorrectlyrounded.(Forbinarytodecimalconversion,theresultformat'svaluesarethenumbers [Link],andinthecaseoffixedpointconversionbythesourcevalueaswell.)Ifthenumberofsignificantdecimaldigitsismorethan D E C I M A L _ D I G butthesourcevalueisexactlyrepresentablewith D E C I M A L _ D I G digits,[Link],thesourcevalueisboundedbytwoadjacentdecimalstrings L<U,bothhaving D E C I M A L _ D I G significantdigits thevalueoftheresultantdecimalstring Dshouldsatisfy LDU,withtheextrastipulationthattheerrorshouldhaveacorrectsignforthecurrentroundingdirection. The f p r i n t f functionreturnsthenumberofcharacterstransmitted,oranegativevalueifanoutputorencodingerroroccurred. The p r i n t f functionisequivalentto f p r i n t f withtheargument s t d o u t interposedbeforetheargumentsto p r i n t f .Itreturnsthenumberofcharacterstransmitted,oranegativevalueifanoutputerroroccurred. The s p r i n t f functionisequivalentto f p r i n t f ,exceptthattheargument s specifiesanarrayintowhichthegeneratedinputistobewritten,[Link] [Link],[Link],notcountingtheterminatingnullcharacter. The v f p r i n t f functionisequivalentto f p r i n t f ,withthevariableargumentlistreplacedby a r g ,whichshallhavebeeninitializedbythe v a _ s t a r t macro(andpossiblysubsequent v a _ a r g calls).The v f p r i n t f functiondoesnotinvokethe v a _ e n d [Link] returnsthenumberofcharacterstransmitted,oranegativevalueifanoutputerroroccurred. The v p r i n t f functionisequivalentto p r i n t f ,withthevariableargumentlistreplacedby a r g ,whichshallhavebeeninitializedbythe v a _ s t a r t macro(andpossiblysubsequent v a _ a r g calls).The v p r i n t f functiondoesnotinvokethe v a _ e n d [Link] returnsthenumberofcharacterstransmitted,oranegativevalueifanoutputerroroccurred. The v s p r i n t f functionisequivalentto s p r i n t f ,withthevariableargumentlistreplacedby a r g ,whichshallhavebeeninitializedbythe v a _ s t a r t macro(andpossiblysubsequent v a _ a r g calls).The v s p r i n t f functiondoesnotinvokethe v a _ e n d [Link] takesplacebetweenobjectsthatoverlap,[Link],notcountingtheterminatingnullcharacter.

References
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link]

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3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Beginningexercises
Variables
Naming
1. Canavariablenamestartwithanumber?can't 2. Canavariablenamestartwithatypographicalsymbolcan't(e.g.#,*,_)? 3. GiveanexampleofaCvariablenamethatwould not [Link]'titwork? Solution 1. No,thenameofavariablemustbeginwithaletter(lowercaseoruppercase),oranunderscore. 2. Onlytheunderscorecanbeused. 3. forexample, #nm*rtisnotallowedbecause#and*arenotthevalidcharactersforthenameofavariable.
# i n c l u d e < s t d i o . h > m a i n ( ) { i n ta , b , c , m a x ; c l r s c r ( ) ; p r i n t f ( " \ n e n t e rt h r e en u m b e r s" ) ; s c a n f ( " % d% d% d " , & a , & b , & c ) ; m a x = a ; i f ( m a x < b ) m a x = b ; i f ( m a x < c ) m a x = c ; p r i n t f ( " \ n l a r g e s t = % d\ n " , m a x ) ; g e t c h ( ) ; }

DataTypes
1. ListatleastthreedatatypesinC 1. Onyourcomputer,howmuchmemorydoeseachrequire? 2. Whichonescanbeusedinplaceofanother?Why? 1. Arethereanylimitationsontheseuses? 2. Ifso,whatarethey? 3. Isitnecessarytodoanythingspecialtousethealternative? 2. Canthenameweuseforadatatype(e.g.'int','float')beusedasavariable? Solution 3datatypes: longint, shortint, float. Onmycomputer: longint:4byte shortint:2bytes float:4bytes wecannotuse'int'or'float'asavariable'sname.

Assignment
1. Howwouldyouassignthevalue3.14toavariablecalledpi?

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2. Isitpossibletoassignan int toa double? 1. Isthereversepossible?

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Solution Thestandardwayofassigning3.14topiis:

d o u b l ep i ; p i = 3 . 1 4 ;

Sincepiisaconstant,[Link]:

c o n s tf l o a tp i=3 . 1 4 ; # d e f i n ep i3 . 1 4

Yes,forexample:

i n ta = 6 7 ; d o u b l eb ; b = a ;

Yes,butacastisnecessaryandthedoubleistruncated:

d o u b l ea = 8 9 ; i n tb ; b = ( i n t )a ;

Referencing
1. [Link]"pi"toanothervariable,say"pi2": 1. Whatisthecorrectstatement? 2. Whatisthereverse?IsthisavalidCstatement(evenifitgivesincorrectresults)? 3. Whatifyouwantedtoassignaconstantvalue(like3.1415)to"pi2": [Link]? [Link]? Solution 1. p i 2=p i ; 2. Thereverse, p i=p i 2 ; isavalidCstatementif p i isnotaconstant. 3. a. p i 2=3 . 1 4 1 5 ; [Link]: 3 . 1 4 1 5=p i 2 ; isnotvalidsinceitisimpossibletoassignavaluetoaliteral.

SimpleI/O
Input
1. scanf()[Link]. 2. Writethescanf()functioncallthatwillreadintothevariable"var":

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1. afloat 2. anint 3. adouble

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Solution

s c a n f ( " % f " , & v a r ) ; / / r e a df l o a ti n t ov a r s c a n f ( " % d " , & v a r ) ; / / r e a di n ti n t ov a r s c a n f ( " % l f " ,& v a r ) ; / / r e a dd o u b l ei n t ov a r

Stringmanipulation
[Link],andprintsitsreverse. Solution Onepossiblesolutioncouldbe:

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { c h a rs [ 8 1 ] ;/ /As t r i n go fu p t o8 0c h a r s+' \ 0 ' i n ti ; p u t s ( " P l e a s ew r i t eas t r i n g :" ) ; f g e t s ( s ,8 1 ,s t d i n ) ; p u t s ( " Y o u rs e n t e n c ei nr e v e r s e :" ) ; f o r( i =s t r l e n ( s ) 1 ;i> =0 ;i ) { i f( s [ i ]= =' \ n ' ) c o n t i n u e ;/ /d o n ' tw r i t en e w l i n e e l s e p u t c h a r ( s [ i ] ) ; } p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

[Link],andprintseachwordonitsownline. Solution Onepossiblesolutioncouldbe:

# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n tm a i n ( v o i d ) { c h a rs [ 8 1 ] ,w o r d [ 8 1 ] ; i n tn =0 ,i d x =0 ; p u t s ( " P l e a s ew r i t eas e n t e n c e : " ) ; f g e t s ( s ,8 1 ,s t d i n ) ; / *% sm a t c h e sas e q u e n c eo fn o n w h i t e s p a c ec h a r a c t e r ,w h i c hi sa * f a i rd e f i n i t i o no f" w o r d "i nt h i sc o n t e x t . *% nm a t c h e sn o t h i n g ,b u ts t o r e st h en u m b e ro fc h a r a c t e r st h a th a v e * b e e np r o c e s s e d .i . e .i fsi s" H e l l o ,W o r l d ! " ,t h e nw o r da n dn * w i l lb e" H e l l o , "a n d6r e s p e c t i v e l yi nt h ef i r s ti t e r a t i o n .I n * t h es e c o n di t e r a t i o nt h e yw i l lb e" W o r l d ! "a n d7( 6c h a r s+ * t h es p a c ei nf r o n to ft h ew o r d ) . * / w h i l e(s s c a n f ( & s [ i d x ] ," % s % n " ,w o r d ,& n )>0) { i d x+ =n ; p u t s ( w o r d ) ; }

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r e t u r n0 ; }

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Loops
[Link] n,so n=3wouldlooklike
* * * * * *

Solution Onepossiblesolution:

v o i di s o s c e l e s ( i n tn ) { i n tx , y ; f o r( y =0 ;y<n ;y + + ) { f o r( x =0 ;x< =y ;x + + ) p u t c h a r ( ' * ' ) ; p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; } }

[Link] 2n1andwidth n,sotheoutputfor n=4wouldbe:

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Solution Onepossiblesolution:

v o i ds i d e w a y s ( i n tn ) { i n tx , y ; f o r( y =0 ;y<n ;y + + ) { f o r( x =0 ;x< =y ;x + + ) p u t c h a r ( ' * ' ) ; p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; } f o r( y =n 1 ;y>0 ;y ) { f o r( x =0 ;x<y ;x + + ) p u t c h a r ( ' * ' ) ; p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; } }

orlikethis(allmath)

v o i ds i d e w a y s ( i n tn ) { i n ti = 0 , j = 0 ; f o r ( i = 1 ; i < 2 * n ; i + + ) { f o r ( j = 1 ; j < = ( n ( a b s ( n i ) ) ) ; j + + ) {

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p r i n t f ( " * " ) ; } p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; } }

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[Link] nandwidth 2n1theoutputfor n=6wouldbe:

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Solution Onepossiblesolution:

v o i dr i g h t _ s i d e _ u p ( i n tn ) { i n tx , y ; f o r( y =1 ;y< =n ;y + + ) { f o r( x =0 ;x<n y ;x + + ) p u t c h a r ( '' ) ; f o r( x =( n y ) ;x<( n y ) + ( 2 * y 1 ) ;x + + ) p u t c h a r ( ' * ' ) ; p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; } }

ProgramFlow
1.Buildaprogramwherecontrolpassesfrommaintofourdifferentfunctionswith4calls. [Link] [Link],so1goestofunction1,2goestofunction2,etc. 4.Havefunction1callfunctiona,whichcallsfunctionb,whichcallsfunctionc [Link],witharrowstoindicatewherecontrolgoes

Functions
1.Writeafunctiontocheckifanintegerisnegativethedeclarationshouldlooklikeboolis_positive(inti) [Link],soforexampletowhenyouuseit floata=raise_to_power(2,3)//agets8 floatb=raise_to_power(9,2)//bgets81 floatraise_to_power(floatf,intpower)//makethisyourdeclaration

Math
[Link].Return1ifitisprimeand0ifitisnotaprime. Solution Onepossiblesolutionusinganaveprimalitytest:

/ /t oc o m p i l e :g c cW a l lp r i m e . cl mop r i m e

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# i n c l u d e< m a t h . h > / /f o rt h es q u a r er o o tf u n c t i o ns q r t ( ) # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n ti s _ p r i m e ( i n tn ) ; i n tm a i n ( ) { p r i n t f ( " W r i t ea ni n t e g e r :" ) ; i n tv a r ; s c a n f ( " % d " ,& v a r ) ; i f( i s _ p r i m e ( v a r ) = = 1 ){ p r i n t f ( " Ap r i m e \ n " ) ; }e l s e{ p r i n t f ( " N o tap r i m e \ n " ) ; } r e t u r n1 ; } i n ti s _ p r i m e ( i n tn ) { i n tx ; i n ts q =s q r t ( n ) + 1 ; / /C h e c k i n gt h et r i v i a lc a s e sf i r s t i f(n<2) r e t u r n0 ; i f(n= =2| |n= =3) r e t u r n1 ; / /C h e c k i n gi fni sd i v i s i b l eb y2o ro d dn u m b e r sb e t w e e n3a n dt h e / /s q u a r er o o to fn . i f(n%2= =0) r e t u r n0 ; f o r( x =3 ;x< =s q ;x+ =2 ) { i f(n%x= =0) r e t u r n0 ; } r e t u r n1 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

[Link]. [Link]'smethod. [Link]: [Link]. 6.Writeafunctiontodeterminetheprimenumberbetween2and100:

Recursion
Mergesort [Link],andsortitrecursivelyusingtheMergesortalgorithm. Themergesortalgorithmisarecursivealgorithm. sortingaoneelementarrayiseasy. sortingtwooneelementarrays,[Link],andcomparestheheadofthelist,andwhicheverheadissmaller,thiselementisputonthesortedlistandtheheadofthatlistis tickedoff,[Link],andtheotherlististhencopiedontotheendofthesortedlist. therecursionoccurs,becausemergingtwooneelementarraysproducesonetwoelementsortedarray,whichcanbemergedwithanothertwoelementsortedarrayproducedthesameway.Thisproducesasorted4elementarray,andthesameapplies foranother4elementsortedarray. sothebasicmergesort,istocheckthesizeoflisttobesorted,andifitisgreaterthanone,dividethearrayintotwo,[Link],mergethetwohalvesinatemporaryspaceofequalsize,andthencopy backthefinalsortedarrayontotheoriginalarray. Solution Onepossiblesolution,afterreadingonlinedescriptionsofrecursivemergesort,[Link]:

/ /t oc o m p i l e :g c cW a l lr m e r g e s o r t . cl mor m e r g e s o r t

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/ * = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = N a m e :r m e r g e s o r t . c A u t h o r :A n o n V e r s i o n :0 . 1 C o p y r i g h t :( C ) 2 0 1 3u n d e rC C B y S A3 . 0L i c e n s e D e s c r i p t i o n:R e c u r s i v eM e r g eS o r t ,A n s i s t y l e = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = * / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / / c o n s ti n tM A X=2 0 0 ; c o n s ti n tM A X=2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; i n t* b ; i n tp r i n t O f f=0 ; / /t h i sd e b u g g i n gp r i n to u to ft h ea r r a yh e l p st os h o w / /w h a ti sg o i n go n . v o i dp r i n t A r r a y ( c h a r *l a b e l ,i n t *a ,i n ts z ){ i n th=s z /2 ; i n ti ; i f( p r i n t O f f )r e t u r n ; p r i n t f ( " \ n % s : \ n " ,l a b e l ) ; f o r( i=0 ;i<h ;+ + i){ p r i n t f ( " % d % c " ,a [ i ] , / /a d di nan e w l i n ee v e r y2 0n u m b e r s ((i! =0& &i%2 0= =0) ?' \ n ' :'')) ; } p r i n t f ( "|" ) ; f o r( ; i<s z ;+ + i ){ p r i n t f ( " % d % c " ,a [ i ] , ((i! =0& &i%2 0= =0) ?' \ n ' :'')) ; } p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; } v o i dm e r g e s o r t ( i n t *a ,i n tm){ p r i n t A r r a y ( " B E F O R E " ,a ,m ) ; i f( m>2 ){ / /i fg r e a t e rt h a n2e l e m e n t s ,t h e nr e c u r s i v e m e r g e s o r t ( a ,m/2 ) ; m e r g e s o r t ( a+m/2 ,m-m/2 ) ; }e l s ei f( m= =2& &a [ 0 ]>a [ 1 ] ){ / /i fe x a c t l y2e l e m e n t sa n dn e e ds w a p p i n g ,s w a p i n tt=a [ 1 ] ; a [ 1 ]=a [ 0 ] ; a [ 0 ]=t ; g o t oe n d ; } / /1o rg r e a t e rt h a n2e l e m e n t sw h i c hh a v eb e e nr e c u r s i v e l ys o r t e d / /d i v i d et h ea r r a yi n t oal e f ta n dr i g h ta r r a y / /m e r g ei n t ot h ea r r a ybw i t hi n d e xl . i n tn=m / 2 ; i n to=m-n ; i n ti=0 ,j=n ; i n tl=0 ; / /ii sl e f t ,ji sr i g h t; / /ls h o u l de q u a lmt h es i z eo ft h ea r r a y w h i l e( i<n ){ i f(j> =m ){ / /t h er i g h ta r r a yh a sf i n i s h e d ,s oc o p yt h er e m a i n i n gl e f ta r r a y f o r ( ;i<n ;+ + i ){ b [ l + + ]=a [ i ] ; } / /t h em e r g eo p e r a t i o ni st oc o p yt h es m a l l e rc u r r e n te l e m e n ta n d / /i n c r e m e n tt h ei n d e xo ft h ep a r e n ts u b a r r a y . }e l s ei f ( a [ i ]<a [ j ]){

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b [ l + + ]=a [ i + + ] ; }e l s e{ b [ l + + ]=a [ j + + ] ; } } w h i l e(j<m ){ / /c o p yt h er e m a i n i n gr i g h ta r r a y,i fa n y b [ l + + ]=a [ j + + ] ; } m e m c p y ( a ,b ,s i z e o f ( i n t )*l) ; e n d : p r i n t A r r a y ( " A F T E R " ,a ,m ) ; r e t u r n ; } v o i dr a n d _ i n i t ( i n t *a ,i n tn ){ i n ti ; f o r( i=0 ;i<n ;+ + i){ a [ i ]=r a n d ( )%M A X ; } } i n tm a i n ( v o i d ){ p u t s ( " ! ! ! H e l l oW o r l d ! ! ! " ) ;/ *p r i n t s! ! ! H e l l oW o r l d ! ! !* / / / / / / / i n tN=2 0 ; i n tN=1 0 0 0 ; i n tN=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; i n tN=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; / /s t i l lc a n ' tm a k eas t a c ko v e r f l o wo nu b u n t u , 4 G B ,p h e n o m p r i n t O f f=1 ; i n t* a ; b=c a l l o c (N ,s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ; a=c a l l o c (N ,s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ; r a n d _ i n i t ( a ,N ) ; m e r g e s o r t ( a ,N ) ; p r i n t O f f=0 ; p r i n t A r r a y ( " L A S T " ,a ,N ) ; f r e e ( a ) ; f r e e ( b ) ; r e t u r nE X I T _ S U C C E S S ; } / *H a v i n gf a i l e dt ot r a n s l a t em yc o n c e p to fn o n r e c u r s i v em e r g es o r t , *It a c k l e dt h ee a s i e rc a s eo fr e c u r s i v em e r g es o r t . *T h en e x tt a s ki st ot r a n s l a t et h er e c u r s i v ev e r s i o nt oan o n r e c u r s i v e *v e r s i o n .T h i sc o u l db ed o n eb yr e p l a c i n gc a l l st om e r g e s o r t ,w i t h *p u s h e so n t oas t a c ko f *t u p l e so f(< a r r a ys t a r ta d d r e s s > ,< n u m b e ro fe l e m e n t st op r o c e s s >) * / / *T h ec e n t r a li d e ao fm e r g i n g ,i st h a tt w os o r t e dl i s t sc a nb e *m e r g e di n t oo n es o r t e dl i s t ,b yc o m p a r i n gt h et o po fe a c hl i s ta n d *m o v i n gt h el o w e s tv a l u e de l e m e n to n t ot h ee n do ft h en e wl i s t . * T h eo t h e rl i s tw h i c hh a st h eh i g h e rv a l u e de l e m e n tk e e p si t st o p * e l e m e n tu n c h a n g e d .W h e nal i s ti se x h a u s t e d ,c o p yt h er e m a i n i n go t h e rl i s t * o n t ot h ee n do ft h en e wl i s t . * / / *T h er e c u r s i v ep a r t ,i st od e f e ra n yw o r ki ns o r t i n ga nu n s o r t e dl i s t , *b yd i v i d i n gi ti n t ot w ol i s t su n t i lt h e r ei so n l y1o rt w oe l e m e n t s , *a n di ft h e r ea r et w oe l e m e n t s ,s o r tt h e md i r e c t l yb ys w a p p i n gi f *t h ef i r s te l e m e n ti sl a r g e rt h a nt h es e c o n de l e m e n t . * *A f t e rr e t u r n i n gf r o mar e c u r s i v ec a l l ,m e r g et h el i s t s ,w h i c hw i l l *b e g i nw i t ho n eo rt w oe l e m e n ts o r t e dl i s t s .T h er e s u l ti sas o r t e dl i s t *w h i c hw i l lb er e t u r n e dt ot h ep a r e n to ft h er e c u r s i v ec a l l ,a n dc a n *b eu s e df o rm e r g i n g . * / / *T h ef o l l o w i n gi sa ni m a g i n a r yd i s c u s s i o na b o u tw h a tap r o g r a m m e r *m i g h tb et h i n k i n ga b o u tw h e np r o g r a m m i n g : * *V i s u a l i s i n gr e c u r s i o ni nt e r m so faZ 8 0a s s e m b l yl a n g u a g e ,w h i c h

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*i ss i m i l i a rt om o s ta s s e m b l yl a n g u a g e s ,t h e r ei sad a t as t a c k( D S )a n d *ac a l ls t a c k( C S )p o i n t e r ,a n de a c hr e c u r s i v ec a l lt om e r g e s o r t *p u s h e st h er e t u r na d d r e s s,w h i c hi st h ep r o g r a ma d d r e s so ft h ei n s t r u c t i o n *a f t e rt h ec a l l,o n t ot h es t a c kp o i n t e dt ob yC Sa n dC Si si n c r e m e n t e d , *a n dt h ea d d r e s so ft h ea r r a ys t a r ta n di n t e g e rw h i c hi st h es u b a r r a yl e n g t h *o n t ot h ed a t as t a c kp o i n t e dt ob yD S ,w h i c hw i l lb ei n c r e m e n t e dt w i c e . * *I ft h en u m b e ro fr e c u r s i v e,a c t i v ec a l l se x c e e dt h ea l l o w a b l es p a c ef o re i t h e rt h ec a l ls t a c k *o rt h ed a t as t a c k ,t h e nt h ep r o g r a mw i l lc r a s h,o rap r o c e s ss p a c ep r o t e c t i o n *v i o l a t i o ni n t e r r u p ts i g n a lw i l lb es e n tb yt h eC P U ,a n dt h ei n t e r r u p tv e c t o r *f o rt h a ts i g n a lw i l lj u m pt h ep r o c e s s o r ' sc u r r e n ti n s t r u c t i o np o i n t e rt ot h e *i n t e r r u p th a n d l i n gr o u t i n e . * /

Binaryheaps 2. Binaryheaps: Abinarymaxheaporminheap,isanorderedstructurewheresomenodesareguaranteedgreaterthanothernodes,[Link],where, givenaposition i (theparent), i*2istheleftchild,and i*2+1istherightchild. (Carraysbeginatposition0,but0*2=0,and0*2+1=1,whichisincorrect,sostarttheheapatposition1,oradd1forparenttochildcalculations,andsubtract1forchildtoparentcalculations). trytomodelthisusingwithapencilandpaper,using10randomunsortednumbers,andinsertingeachofthemintoa"heapsort"arrayof10elements. Toinsertintoaheap, endaddand swapparentifhigher,untilparenthigher. Todeletethetopofaheap,move endtotop,and deferhigherchildor siftdown,untilnochildishigher. tryitonapenandpaperthenumbers10,4,6,3,5,11. penandpapersolution 10,4,6,3,5,11>10 4,6,3,5,11>10,4:4isendadded,noswapparentbecause4<10. 6,3,5,11>10,4,6:6isendadded,noswapparentbecause6<10. 3,5,11>10,4,6,3:3isendadded,3isposition4,divideby2=2,4atposition2,noswapparentbecause4>3. 5,11>10,4,6,3,5:5isendadded,5isposition5,dividedby2=2,4atposition2,swapparentas4<55atposition2,noswapparentbecause5<10atposition1. 10,5,6,3,4 11>10,5,6,3,4,11:11isendadded,11isposition6,divideby2=3,swap6with11,11isposition3,swap11with10,stopasnoparent. 11,5,10,3,4,6 11haschildren5,[Link]>child.

theanswerwas11,5,10,3,4,6. EXERCISE:Nowtryremovingeachtopelementof11,5,10,3,4,6,usingendtotopandsiftdown(orswaphigherchild)togetthenumbers indescendingorder. penandpapersolution 11leaves*,5,10,3,4,6>6,5,10,3,4> siftdown>choosegreaterchild5(2*n+0)or10(2*n+1)>is6>10?no>swap10and6> 10,5,*6,3,4>4isgreatestchildasno+1child.is6>4?yes,stop. 10leaves*,5,6,3,4>*4,5,6,3>isleft(0)orright(+1)childgreater>+1isgreateris4>+1child?no,swap 6,5,*4,3>*4hasnochildrensostop. 6leaves*,5,4,3>*3,5,4>+0childisgreater>is3>5?no,soswap>5,*3,4,*3hasnochildsostop. is

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5leavesso3,4>*4,3>+0childgreatestasnorightchild>is4>3?no,soexit 4leaves3. 3leaves*. numbersextractedindescendingorder11,10,6,5,4,3.

apriorityqueueallowselementstobeinsertedwithapriority,andextractedaccordingtopriority.(Thiscanhappenusefully,iftheelementhasapairedstructure,onepartisthekey,[Link],itisjustamechanism forsorting). EXERCISE:Usingtheabovetechniqueofinsertback/challengeparent,anddeletefront/lasttofront/deferhigherchild,implementeitherheapsortorapriorityqueue. Dijsktra'salgorithm Dijsktra'[Link],acurrent distancetostartnode,[Link],isanadjacencymatrix,whichneedsnxnbooleanadjacencies. Theagorithmbasicallyiteratesoverthepriorityqueue,removingthefrontnode,examiningtheadjacentnodes,andupdatingwithadistanceequaltothesumofthefrontnodesdistanceforeachadjacentnode,andthedistancegivenbytheadjacency informationforanadjacentnode. Aftereachnode'supdate,theextraoperation "updatepriority"isusedonthatnode: whilethenode'sdistanceislessthanit'sparentsnode(forthispriorityqueue,parentshavelesserdistancesthanthechildren),thenodeisswappedwiththeparent. Afterthis, whilethenodeisgreaterdistancethanoneormoreofitschildren,itisswappedwiththeleastdistantchild,sotheleastdistantchildbecomesparentofitsgreaterdistantsibling,andparenttothegreaterdistantcurrentnode. Withupdatingthepriority,theadjacentnodetothecurrentnodehasabackpointerchangedtothecurrentnode. Thealgorithmendswhenthetargetnodebecomesthecurrentnoderemoved,andthepathtothestartnodecanberecordedinanarraybyfollowingbackpointers,andthendoingsomethinglikeaquicksortpartitiontoreversetheorderofthearray,to givetheshortestpathtotargetnodefromthestartnode. Quicksort [Link]. youcanusethe"driver",[Link]"reuse",whichisencouragedingeneral. anadvantageofreuseislesswritingtime,debuggingtime,testingtime. theconceptofpartitionexchangeisthatapartitionelementis(randomly)selected,andeverythingthatneedssortedisputinto3equivalance classes:thoseelementslessthanthepartitionvalue,thepartitionelement,andeverythingabove(andequalto)thepartitionelement. [Link]. However,wherethepartitionelementshouldbeusingtheoriginalarrayspaceisnotknown. Thisisusuallyimplementedwithputtingthepartitionontheendofthearraytobesorted,andthenputtingtwopointers,oneatthestartofthearray, andoneattheelementnexttothepartitionelement,andrepeatedlyscanningtheleftpointerright,andtherightpointerleft. theleftscanstopswhenanelementequaltoorgreaterthanthepartitionisfound,andtherightscanstopsforasmallerelementthanthepartitionvalue, andtheseareswapped,whichusesthetemporaryextraspace. theleftscanwillalwaysstopifitreachesthepartitionelement,whichisthelastelementthismeanstheentirearrayislessthanpartitionvalue. therightscancouldreachthefirstelement,iftheentirearrayisgreaterthanthepartition,andthisneedstobetestedfor,elsethescandoesn'tstop. [Link] shouldoccurbeforeswapping,otherwisetherightpointermaybeswappingalessthanpartitionelementpreviouslyscannedbytheleftpointer. finally,thepartitionelementneedstobeputbetweentheleftandrightpartitions,oncethepointerscross. Atpointercrossing,theleftpointermaybestoppedatthepartitionelement'slastpositioninthearray,andtherightpointernotprogressedpastthe [Link]. iftherightpointerischosentoswapwiththepartition,thenanincorrectstateresultswherethelastelementoftheleftarraybecomeslessthanthepartitionelementvalue. iftheleftpointerischosentoswapwiththepartition,thentheleftarraywillbelessthanthepartition,andpartitionwillhaveswappedwithanelementwithvaluegreaterthanthepartitionorthepartitionitself.

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Thecornercaseofquicksortinga2element outoforderarrayhastobeexamined. Theleftpointerstopsonthefirst [Link] outoforderelement,[Link]'sfirstelement, andthetwoelementsarenow inorder. Inthecaseofa2element inorderarray,theleftmostpointerskipsthefirstelementwhichislessthanthepartition,[Link] [Link],sotheinorderingispreserved. Afterdoingaswap,theleftpointershouldbeincrementedandrightpointerdecremented,sothesamepositionsaren'tscannedagain,becauseanendlessloopcanresult(possiblywhentheleftpointerexitswhentheelementisequaltoorgreater thanthepartition,andtherightelementisequaltothepartitionvalue).Oneimplementation,Sedgewick,startsthepointerswiththeleftpointerminusoneandrightpointer theplusonetheintendedinitialscanpositions,andusethepreincrementandpredecrementoperatorse.g.(++i,i). Solution Onepossiblesolution,[Link],anexercisewouldbetorewritenongenericqsortfunctionsofqsortsimp,partition,andswapforintegers.

/ * *q s o r t s i m p . h * * C r e a t e do n :1 7 / 0 3 / 2 0 1 3 * A u t h o r :a n o n y m o u s * / # i f n d e fQ S O R T S I M P _ H _ # d e f i n eQ S O R T S I M P _ H _ # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > v o i dq s o r t s i m p (v o i d *a ,s i z e _ te l e m _ s z ,i n tl e n ,i n t ( * c m p )( v o i d * , v o i d * )) ; v o i ds h u t d o w n _ q s o r t s i m p ( ) ; # e n d i f/ *Q S O R T S I M P _ H _* / / / / * q s o r t s i m p . c * a u t h o r:a n o n y m o u s * / # i n c l u d e" q s o r t s i m p . h " # i n c l u d e < s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e < s t r i n g . h > s t a t i cv o i d*s w a p _ b u f= 0 ; s t a t i ci n tb u f s z=0 ; v o i ds w a p (v o i d *a ,i n ti ,i n tj ,s i z e _ te l e m _ s z ){ i f( i = = j ) r e t u r n ; i f( b u f s z= =0| |b u f s z<e l e m _ s z ){ s w a p _ b u f=r e a l l o c ( s w a p _ b u f ,e l e m _ s z ) ; b u f s z = e l e m _ s z ; } m e m c p y (s w a p _ b u f ,a + i * e l e m _ s z ,e l e m _ s z ) ; m e m c p y (a + i * e l e m _ s z ,a + j * e l e m _ s z ,e l e m _ s z ) ; m e m c p y (a + j * e l e m _ s z ,s w a p _ b u f ,e l e m _ s z ) ; } v o i ds h u t d o w n _ q s o r t s i m p ( ){ i f( s w a p _ b u f ){ f r e e ( s w a p _ b u f ) ; } } i n tp a r t i t i o n (v o i d *a ,s i z e _ te l e m _ s z ,i n tl e n ,i n t( * c m p ) ( v o i d * , v o i d * )){ i n ti=1 ; i n tj=l e n 1 ; v o i d *v=a+j*e l e m _ s z ; f o r ( ; ; ){ w h i l e (( * c m p ) ( a++ + i*e l e m _ s z,v )<0 ) ; w h i l e(( * c m p ) ( v ,a+j*e l e m _ s z )<0)i f( j = = 0 )b r e a k; i f (i > = j ) b r e a k ; s w a p ( a ,i ,j ,e l e m _ s z ) ; } s w a p (a ,i ,l e n 1 ,e l e m _ s z ) ; r e t u r ni ; } v o i dq s o r t s i m p (v o i d *a ,s i z e _ te l e m _ s z ,i n tl e n ,i n t ( * c m p )( v o i d * , v o i d * )){ i f(l e n>2 ){ i n tp=p a r t i t i o n ( a ,e l e m _ s z ,l e n ,c m p ) ;

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q s o r t s i m p (a ,e l e m _ s z ,p ,c m p ) ; q s o r t s i m p (a + ( p + 1 ) * e l e m _ s z ,e l e m _ s z ,l e n-p1 ,c m p) ; } }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

/ / / * N a m e :w o r d s _ q u i c k s o r t . c A u t h o r :a n o n y m o u s V e r s i o n : C o p y r i g h t : D e s c r i p t i o n:q u i c ks o r tt h ew o r d si nm o b yd i c ki nC ,A n s i s t y l e = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = * / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< c t y p e . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # i n c l u d e" q s o r t s i m p . h " v o i dp r i n t A r r a y ( c o n s tc h a r *a [ ] ,i n tn ){ i n ti ; f o r ( i = 0 ;i<n ;+ + i ){ i f ( i ! = 0& &i %5= =0 ){ p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; } i f( i % 1 0 0 0 0 0 0= = 0 ){ f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r , " p r i n t e d% dw o r d s \ n " ,i ) ; } p r i n t f ( " % s " ,a [ i ] ) ; } p r i n t f ( " \ n " ) ; } c o n s ti n tM A X C H A R S = 2 5 0 ; c h a r* *w o r d l i s t = 0 ; i n tn w o r d s = 0 ; i n tr e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k ; c o n s ts i z e _ tN W O R D S _ P E R _ B L O C K=1 0 0 0 ; / / c o n s tc h a r *s p a c e s = "\ t \ n \ r " ; / / i n l i n ei s s p a c e ( c o n s tc h a rc h ){ / / i n ti = 0 ; / / w h i l e ( s p a c e s [ i ] ! = ' \ 0 ' ){ / / i f ( s p a c e s [ i + + ]= =c h ) / / r e t u r n1 ; / / } / / r e t u r n0 ; / / } v o i df r e e M e m ( ){ i n ti=n w o r d s ; w h i l e ( i>0){ f r e e ( w o r d l i s t [ i ] ) ; } f r e e ( w o r d l i s t ) ; } s t a t i cc h a r*f n a m e = " ~ / D o w n l o a d s / b o o k s / p g 2 7 0 1 m o b y d i c k . t x t " ; v o i dg e t W o r d s ( ){ c h a rb u f f e r [ M A X C H A R S ] ; F I L E *f=f o p e n ( f n a m e , " r " ) ; i n ts t a t e = 0 ; i n tc h ; i n ti ; w h i l e( ( c h = f g e t c ( f ) ) ! = E O F ){ i f( i s a l n u m ( c h )& &s t a t e = = 0 ){ s t a t e = 1 ; i = 0 ; b u f f e r [ i + + ] = c h ; }e l s ei f( i s a l n u m ( c h ) & &i<M A X C H A R S 1 ){ b u f f e r [ i + + ] = c h ; }e l s ei f( s t a t e= =1 ){ s t a t e= 0 ; b u f f e r [ i + + ] =' \ 0 ' ; c h a r *d y n b u f=m a l l o c ( i ) ; i n tj ; f o r ( j = 0 ;j<i ;+ + j ){

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d y n b u f [ j ]=b u f f e r [ j ] ; } i = 0 ; i f( w o r d l i s t= =0){

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

w o r d l i s t=c a l l o c ( N W O R D S _ P E R _ B L O C K ,s i z e o f ( c h a r * ) ) ; r e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k=N W O R D S _ P E R _ B L O C K ; }e l s ei f(r e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k= =0 ){ w o r d l i s t=r e a l l o c ( w o r d l i s t ,( N W O R D S _ P E R _ B L O C K+n w o r d s ) *s i z e o f ( c h a r * ) ) ; r e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k=N W O R D S _ P E R _ B L O C K ; f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r , " a l l o c a t e db l o c k% d,n w o r d s=% d \ n " ,r e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k ,n w o r d s ) ; } w o r d l i s t [ n w o r d s + + ] =d y n b u f ; r e m a i n i n g _ b l o c k ; } } f c l o s e ( f ) ; } v o i dt e s t P r i n t A r r a y ( ){ i n ti ; f o r ( i = 0 ;i<n w o r d s ; + + i ){ p r i n t f ( " % s|" ,w o r d l i s t [ i ] ) ; } p u t c h a r ( ' \ n ' ) ; p r i n t f ( " s t o r e d% dw o r d s .\ n " , n w o r d s ) ; } i n tc m p _ s t r _ 1 (v o i d *a ,v o i d* b ){ i n tr=s t r c a s e c m p (* ( ( c h a r * * ) a ) , * ( ( c h a r * * ) b ) ) ; r e t u r nr ; } i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r *a r g v [ ] ){ i f( a r g c>1 ){ f n a m e=a r g v [ 1 ] ; } g e t W o r d s ( ) ; t e s t P r i n t A r r a y ( ) ; q s o r t s i m p ( w o r d l i s t ,s i z e o f ( c h a r * ) ,n w o r d s ,& c m p _ s t r _ 1 ) ; t e s t P r i n t A r r a y ( ) ; s h u t d o w n _ q s o r t s i m p ( ) ; f r e e M e m ( ) ; p u t s ( " ! ! ! H e l l oW o r l d ! ! ! " ) ;/ *p r i n t s! ! ! H e l l oW o r l d ! ! !* / r e t u r nE X I T _ S U C C E S S ; }

IndepthCideas Arrays
ArraysinCacttostorerelateddataunderasinglevariablenamewithanindex,alsoknownasa subscript .[Link],arraysoftenhelpaprogrammer organizecollectionsofdataefficientlyandintuitively. Laterwewillconsidertheconceptofa pointer,fundamentaltoC,whichextendsthenatureofthearray(arraycanbetermedasaconstantpointer).Fornow,wewillconsiderjusttheirdeclarationandtheiruse.

Arrays
Ifwewantan2Darrayofsixintegers(ornumbers),wewriteinC:
i n tn u m b e r s [ 3 ] [ 2 ] ;

ForaSIXcharacterarraycalledletters,
c h a rl e t t e r s [ 6 ] ;

andsoon.

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Ifwewishtoinitializeaswedeclare,wewrite:
i n tp o i n t [ 6 ] = { 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 } ;

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Thoughwhenthearrayisinitializedasinthiscase,thearraydimensionmaybeomitted,andthearraywillbeautomaticallysizedtoholdtheinitialdata:
i n tp o i n t [ ] = { 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 } ;

Thisisveryusefulinthatthesizeofthearraycanbecontrolledbysimplyaddingorremovinginitializerelementsfromthedefinitionwithouttheneedtoadjustthedimension. Ifthedimensionisspecified,butnotallelementsinthearrayareinitialized,[Link],especiallywhenwehaveverylargearrays.
i n tn u m b e r s [ 2 0 0 0 ] = { 2 4 5 } ;

Theaboveexamplesetsthefirstvalueofthearrayto245,andtherestto0. Ifwewanttoaccessavariablestoredinanarray,forexamplewiththeabovedeclaration,thefollowingcodewillstorea1inthevariable x
i n tx ; x=p o i n t [ 2 ] ;

ArraysinCareindexedstartingat0,[Link] p o i n t [ 0 ] .[Link] [Link](thoughthebestcompilersdo):

c h a ry ; i n tz=9 ; c h a rp o i n t [ 6 ]={1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6} ; / / e x a m p l e so fa c c e s s i n go u t s i d et h ea r r a y .Ac o m p i l ee r r o ri sn o ta l w a y sr a i s e d y=p o i n t [ 1 5 ] ; y=p o i n t [ 4 ] ; y=p o i n t [ z ] ;

Duringprogramexecution,[Link][1].Toalleviateindexingproblems,thesizeof()expressioniscommonlyusedwhen codingloopsthatprocessarrays.
i n ti x ; s h o r ta n A r r a y [ ] ={3 ,6 ,9 ,1 2 ,1 5} ; f o r( i x = 0 ;i x <( s i z e o f ( a n A r r a y ) / s i z e o f ( s h o r t ) ) ;+ + i x ){ D o S o m e t h i n g W i t h ( " % d " ,a n A r r a y [ i x ]) ; }

Noticeintheaboveexample,[Link],andbecauseofthesizeof expressioninthe f o r loop,[Link] size,andstorethenumberofelementsinthearrayinit. size=sizeof(anArray)/sizeof(short) Calsosupportsmultidimensionalarrays(or,rather,arraysofarrays).[Link].Togetachararraywith3rowsand5columnswewriteinC

c h a rt w o _ d [ 3 ] [ 5 ] ;

Toaccess/modifyavalueinthisarrayweneedtwosubscripts:
c h a rc h ; c h=t w o _ d [ 2 ] [ 4 ] ;

or
t w o _ d [ 0 ] [ 0 ]=' x ' ;

Similarly,amultidimensionalarraycanbeinitializedlikethis:
i n tt w o _ d [ 2 ] [ 3 ]={ {5 ,2 ,1} , {6 ,7 ,8} } ;

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Theamountofcolumnsmustbeexplicitlystatedhowever,thecompilerwillfindtheappropriateamountofrowsbasedontheinitializerlist. Therearealsoweirdnotationspossible:
i n ta [ 1 0 0 ] ; i n ti=0 ; i f( a [ i ] = = i [ a ] ) { p r i n t f ( " H e l l ow o r l d ! \ n " ) ; }

a[i]andi[a]refertothesamelocation.(ThisisexplainedlaterinthenextChapter.)

Strings
Chasnostringhandlingfacilitiesbuiltinconsequently,[Link], [Link],tostorethestring"Merkkijono",wewouldwrite
c h a rs t r i n g [ ]=" M e r k k i j o n o " ;

String"Merkkijono"storedinmemory

or
c h a rs t r i n g [ ]={ ' M ' ,' e ' ,' r ' ,' k ' ,' k ' ,' i ' ,' j ' ,' o ' ,' n ' ,' o ' ,' \ 0 ' } ;

Inthefirstexample,thestringwillhaveanullcharacterautomaticallyappendedtotheendbythecompilerbyconvention,[Link],andas suchthenullterminatorneedstobeaddedmanually. [Link],astringofcharacterscanbecreateddirectlyasanunnamedstringthatisuseddirectly(aswiththeprintffunctions.) Tocreateanextralongstring,youwillhavetosplitthestringintomultiplesections,byclosingthefirstsectionwithaquote,andrecommencingthestringonthenextline(alsostartingandendinginaquote):

c h a rs t r i n g [ ]=" T h i si sav e r y ,v e r yl o n g" " s t r i n gt h a tr e q u i r e st w ol i n e s . " ;

Whilestringsmayalsospanmultiplelinesbyputtingthebackslashcharacterattheendoftheline,thismethodisdeprecated. Thereisausefullibraryofstringhandlingroutineswhichyoucanusebyincludinganotherheaderfile.
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / / n e wh e a d e rf i l e

Thisstandardstringlibrarywillallowvarioustaskstobeperformedonstrings,andisdiscussedintheStringschapter.

Pointersandarrays
A pointerisavaluethatdesignatestheaddress(i.e.,thelocationinmemory),[Link]: Howtodeclarethem Howtoassigntothem Howtoreferencethevaluetowhichthepointerpoints(knownas dereferencing)and Howtheyrelatetoarrays We'llalsodiscusstherelationshipofpointerswithtextstringsandthemoreadvancedconceptoffunctionpointers. [Link]'* '.Pointerscanreferenceanydatatype,evenfunctions. ThevastmajorityofarraysinCaresimplelists,alsocalled"1dimensionalarrays".Wewillbrieflycovermultidimensionalarraysinalaterchapter.

Declaringpointers
Considerthefollowingsnippetofcodewhichdeclarestwopointers:
[Link] thatbstoresnumber,whereasa storesaddressofbinmemory (1462)

y S t r u c t{ 1 . s t r u c tM _ a N u m b e r 2 . i n t m ; u m 2 3 . f l o a tn ; 4 . } ;

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5 . J 2 6 . i n t *p ; y S t r u c t*p A n I t e m 7 . s t r u c tM ;

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Lines14defineastructure.Line6declaresavariablewhichpointstoan i n t ,[Link],ratherthancontainssome type,theasterisk(* )isplacedbeforethevariablename. Inthefollowing,line1declares v a r 1 asapointertoalongand v a r 2 asalongandnotapointertoalong.Inline2, p 3 isdeclaredasapointertoapointertoanint.

a r 1 a r 2 1 .l o n g * v ,v ; 3 2 . i n t * *p ;

[Link],inordertoallowafunctiontomodifyavaluefromthecalling routine,[Link]. Moreaboutpointersasfunctionargumentslater.

i n tM y F u n c t i o n (s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* p S t r u c t) ;

Assigningvaluestopointers
Sofarwe'[Link],the & or'addressof'operatorisused.
i n t m y I n t ; i n t * p P o i n t e r ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t d v o r a k ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t * p K e y b o a r d ; p P o i n t e r=& m y I n t ; p K e y b o a r d=& d v o r a k ;

Here,pPointerwillnowreferencemyIntandpKeyboardwillreferencedvorak. [Link]()andcalloc()functionsareoftenwhatareusedtodothis.
# i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > / *. . .* / s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* p K e y b o a r d ; / *. . .* / p K e y b o a r d=m a l l o c ( s i z e o f* p K e y b o a r d ) ;

Themallocfunctionreturnsapointertodynamicallyallocatedmemory(orNULLifunsuccessful).ThesizeofthismemorywillbeappropriatelysizedtocontaintheMyStructstructure. Thefollowingisanexampleshowingonepointerbeingassignedtoanotherandofapointerbeingassignedareturnvaluefromafunction.
s t a t i cs t r u c tM y S t r u c tv a l 1 ,v a l 2 ,v a l 3 ,v a l 4 ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* A S i l l y F u n c t i o n (i n tb) { s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* m y R e t u r n ; i f( b= =1 )m y R e t u r n=& v a l 1 ; e l s ei f( b = = 2 )m y R e t u r n=& v a l 2 ; e l s ei f( b = = 3 )m y R e t u r n=& v a l 3 ; e l s em y R e t u r n=& v a l 4 ; r e t u r nm y R e t u r n ; } s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* s t r P o i n t e r ; i n t * c ,* d ; i n t j ; c=& j ; / *p o i n t e ra s s i g n e du s i n g&o p e r a t o r* / d=c ; / *a s s i g no n ep o i n t e rt oa n o t h e r * / s t r P o i n t e r=A S i l l y F u n c t i o n (3) ;/ *p o i n t e rr e t u r n e df r o maf u n c t i o n .* /

Whenreturningapointerfromafunction,[Link],the [Link].

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Pointerdereferencing
Toaccessavaluetowhichapointerpoints,the * [Link],the > [Link]'sashortexample.
i n t c ,d ; i n t * p j ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c ta s t r u c t ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* b b ; c =1 0 ; p j =& c ; d =* p j ; p j =& d ; * p j=1 2 ; / *p jp o i n t st oc* / / *di sa s s i g n e dt h ev a l u et ow h i c hp jp o i n t s ,1 0* / / *n o wp o i n t st od* / / *di sn o w1 2* / Thepointerp pointstothevariablea .

b b=& a s t r u c t ; ( * b b ) . m _ a N u m b e r=3 ; / *a s s i g n s3t ot h em _ a N u m b e rm e m b e ro fa s t r u c t* / b b > n u m 2=4 4 . 3 ; / *a s s i g n s4 4 . 3t ot h en u m 2m e m b e ro fa s t r u c t * / * p j=b b > m _ a N u m b e r ; / *e q i v a l e n tt od=a s t r u c t . m _ a N u m b e r ; * /

Theexpression b b > m _ a N u m b e r isentirelyequivalentto ( * b b ) . m _ a N u m b e r .Theybothaccessthe m _ a N u m b e r elementofthestructurepointedtoby b b .Thereisonemorewayofdereferencingapointer,whichwillbediscussedinthefollowingsection. Whendereferencingapointerthatpointstoaninvalidmemorylocation,[Link] tryingtodereferenceit. Cisknownforgivingyoujustenoughropetohangyourself,[Link],that [Link],evenif99executionsallowyourprogramtorunwithoutfault,that100thexecutionmaybethetimewhenyour"memorypilfering"iscaughtby [Link]! Thedeclaration v o i d* s o m e P o i n t e r ; [Link],[Link] validwith v o i d* pointers.

PointersandArrays
Uptonow,we'[Link]: [Link],itpointstothefirstelementofthearray. Apointercanbeindexedlikeanarrayname. [Link],[Link] [Link]'[Link],thecalltocalloc()effectivelyallocatesanarrayofstructMyStructitems.
f l o a tK r a z y F u n c t i o n (s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* p a r m 1 ,i n tp 1 s i z e ,i n tb b) { i n ti x ;/ / d e c l a r i n ga ni n t e g e rv a r i a b l e / / f o r( i x = 0 ;i x < p 1 s i z e ;i x + + ){ i f( p a r m 1 [ i x ] . m _ a N u m b e r= =b b) r e t u r np a r m 1 [ i x ] . n u m 2 ; } r e t u r n0 . 0 f ; } / *. . .* / s t r u c tM y S t r u c tm y A r r a y [ 4 ] ; # d e f i n eM Y _ A R R A Y _ S I Z E( s i z e o f ( m y A r r a y ) / s i z e o f ( * m y A r r a y ) ) f l o a tv 3 ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* s e c o n d A r r a y ; i n t s o m e S i z e ; i n t i x ; / *i n i t i a l i z a t i o no fm y A r r a y. . .* / v 3=K r a z y F u n c t i o n (m y A r r a y ,M Y _ A R R A Y _ S I Z E ,4) ; / *. . .* / s e c o n d A r r a y=c a l l o c (s o m e S i z e ,s i z e o f ( m y A r r a y )) ; f o r( i x = 0 ;i x < s o m e S i z e ;i x + + ){ s e c o n d A r r a y [ i x ] . m _ a N u m b e r=i x* 2 ; s e c o n d A r r a y [ i x ] . n u m 2=. 3 0 4*i x*i x ; }

[Link] K r a z y F u n c t i o n above,you couldhoweverassignanewvaluetoparm1,[Link] returnapointertoalocalvariable,eventhoughthecompilerwillprobablynotcomplain. Whendeclaringparameterstofunctions,[Link].

/ *t w oe q u i v a l e n tf u n c t i o nd e f i n i t i o n s* / i n tL i t t l e F u n c t i o n (i n t* p a r a m N) ;

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i n tL i t t l e F u n c t i o n (i n tp a r a m N [ ]) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Nowwe'[Link]/[Link],theexpression * ( m y A r r a y + j ) ,wherejisaninteger,isequivalentto m y A r r a y [ j ] .Soforinstanceinthe aboveexamplewherewehadtheexpressionsecondArray[i].num2,wecouldhavewrittenthatas * ( s e c o n d A r r a y + i ) . n u m 2 ormoresimply ( s e c o n d A r r a y + i ) > n u m 2 . Notethatforadditionandsubtractionofintegersandpointers,thevalueofthepointerisnotadjustedbytheintegeramount,butisadjustedbytheamountmultipliedbythesize(inbytes)[Link] subtractedfromanother,providedtheypointtoelementsofthesamearray(orthepositionjustbeyondtheendofthearray).Ifyouhaveapointerthatpointstoanelementofanarray,theindexoftheelementistheresultwhenthearraynameis [Link]'sanexample.

s t r u c tM y S t r u c ts o m e A r r a y [ 2 0 ] ; s t r u c tM y S t r u c t* p 2 ; i n ti d x ; . / *a r r a yi n i t i a l i z a t i o n. .* / . f o r( p 2=s o m e A r r a y ;p 2<s o m e A r r a y + 2 0 ; + + p 2 ){ i f( p 2 > n u m 2>t e s t V a l u e )b r e a k ; } i d x=p 2-s o m e A r r a y ;

[Link]'[Link](f l o a tA [ D 1 ] [ D 2 ] ; )[Link] A[0][0],then*(pf+1)isequivalenttoA[0][1]and*(pf+D2)isequivalenttoA[1][0].Theelementsofthearrayarestoredinrowmajororder.

f l o a tA [ 6 ] [ 8 ] ; f l o a t* p f ; p f=& A [ 0 ] [ 0 ] ; * ( p f + 1 )=1 . 3 ; / *a s s i g n s1 . 3t oA [ 0 ] [ 1 ]* / * ( p f + 8 )=2 . 3 ; / *a s s i g n s2 . 3t oA [ 1 ] [ 0 ]* /

Let'[Link],butwedon'[Link] [Link]'ssomeapplicablecode:
f l o a t l i n e a r A [ 3 0 ] ; f l o a t* A [ 6 ] ; A [ 0 ]=l i n e a r A ; A [ 1 ]=l i n e a r A+5 ; A [ 2 ]=l i n e a r A+1 1 ; A [ 3 ]=l i n e a r A+1 5 ; A [ 4 ]=l i n e a r A+2 1 ; A [ 5 ]=l i n e a r A+2 5 ; A [ 3 ] [ 2 ]=3 . 6 6 ; A [ 3 ] [ 3 ]=1 . 4 4 ; / * 5-0=5e l e m e n t si nr o w * / / *1 1-5=6e l e m e n t si nr o w * / / *1 5-1 1=4e l e m e n t si nr o w* / / *2 1-1 5=6e l e m e n t s * / / *2 5-2 1=4e l e m e n t s * / / *3 0-2 5=5e l e m e n t s * / / *a s s i g n s3 . 6 6t ol i n e a r A [ 1 7 ] ; * / / *r e f e r st ol i n e a r A [ 1 2 ] ; n e g a t i v ei n d i c e sa r es o m e t i m e su s e f u l .B u ta v o i du s i n gt h e ma sm u c ha sp o s s i b l e .* /

[Link][idx]isequivalenttoidx[myArray].Thefirstisequivalentto*(myArray+idx),andthesecondisequivalentto* (idx+myArray).Theseturnouttobethesame,sincetheadditioniscommutative. Pointerscanbeusedwithpreincrementorpostdecrement,whichissometimesdonewithinaloop,[Link],[Link],*pArray++is equivalentto*(pArray++).

l o n g m y A r r a y [ 2 0 ] ; l o n g * p A r r a y ; i n t i ; / *A s s i g nv a l u e st ot h ee n t r i e so fm y A r r a y* / p A r r a y=m y A r r a y ; f o r( i = 0 ;i < 1 0 ;+ + i ){ * p A r r a y + +=5+3 * i+1 2 * i * i ; * p A r r a y + +=6+2 * i+7 * i * i ; }

PointersinFunctionArguments
[Link],[Link] circumstancetoobtainapointervalue,[Link],thevariable p S t r u c t ,apointer,isaparametertofunction F u n c t T w o , andispassedasanargumentto F u n c t O n e .Thesecondparameterto F u n c t O n e [Link] function F u n c t T w o ,m V a l u e isapointertoanint,thepointermustfirstbedereferencedusingthe*operator,hencethesecondargumentinthecallis * m V a l u e .Thethirdparametertofunction F u n c t O n e [Link] p A A isitselfapointertoalong, noampersandisneededwhenitisusedasthethirdargumenttothefunction.
i n tF u n c t O n e (s t r u c tS o m e S t r u c t* p V a l u e ,i n ti V a l u e ,l o n g* l V a l u e) {

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/ * d os o m es t u f f. . .* / r e t u r n0 ; } i n tF u n c t T w o (s t r u c ts o m e S t r u c t* p S t r u c t ,i n t* m V a l u e) { i n tj ; l o n g A n A r r a y [ 2 5 ] ; l o n g* p A A ; p A A=& A n A r r a y [ 1 3 ] ; j=F u n c t O n e (p S t r u c t ,* m V a l u e ,p A A) ; r e t u r nj ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

PointersandTextStrings
Historically,textstringsinChavebeenimplementedasarraysofcharacters,withthelastbyteinthestringbeingazero,orthenullcharacter'\0'.[Link] [Link]"string.h". Astaticallydeclared,initializedstringwouldlooksimilartothefollowing:
s t a t i cc o n s tc h a r* m y F o r m a t=" T o t a lA m o u n tD u e :% d " ;

Thevariable m y F o r m a t [Link]('\0')tackedontotheendofthestringafterthe'd'[Link]:
s t a t i cc o n s tc h a rm y F l o w e r [ ]={' P ' ,' e ' ,' t ' ,' u ' ,' n ' ,' i ' ,' a ' ,' \ 0 '} ;

Aninitializedarrayofstringswouldtypicallybedoneasfollows:
s t a t i cc o n s tc h a r* m y C o l o r s [ ]={ " R e d " ," O r a n g e " ," Y e l l o w " ," G r e e n " ," B l u e " ," V i o l e t "} ;

Theinitilizationofanespeciallylongstringcanbesplitacrosslinesofsourcecodeasfollows.
s t a t i cc h a r* l o n g S t r i n g=" H e l l o .M yn a m ei sR u d o l p ha n dIw o r ka sar e i n d e e r" " a r o u n dC h r i s t m a st i m eu pa tt h eN o r t hP o l e . M yb o s si sar e a l l ys w e l lg u y . " "H el i k e st og i v ee v e r y b o d yg i f t s . " ;

Thelibraryfunctionsthatareusedwithstringsarediscussedinalaterchapter.

PointerstoFunctions
[Link]'sanexamplethatusesafunctionpointer,andavoid*pointertoimplementwhat's [Link] D o S o m e t h i n g N i c e functioninvokesacallersuppliedfunction T a l k J i v e [Link] D o S o m e t h i n g N i c e reallydoesn'tknowanythingaboutwhat d a t a P o i n t e r refersto.
t y p e d e f i n t( * M y F u n c t i o n T y p e ) (i n t ,v o i d* ) ; # d e f i n eT H E _ B I G G E S T1 0 0 i n tD o S o m e t h i n g N i c e (i n ta V a r i a b l e ,M y F u n c t i o n T y p ea F u n c t i o n ,v o i d* d a t a P o i n t e r) { i n tr v=0 ; i f( a V a r i a b l e<T H E _ B I G G E S T ){ / *i n v o k ef u n c t i o nt h r o u g hf u n c t i o np o i n t e r( o l ds t y l e )* / r v=( * a F u n c t i o n ) ( a V a r i a b l e ,d a t a P o i n t e r) ; }e l s e{ / *i n v o k ef u n c t i o nt h r o u g hf u n c t i o np o i n t e r( n e ws t y l e )* / r v=a F u n c t i o n ( a V a r i a b l e ,d a t a P o i n t e r) ; } ; r e t u r nr v ; } t y p e d e fs t r u c t{ i n t c o l o r S p e c ; c h a r * p h r a s e ; }D a t a I N e e d ; i n tT a l k J i v e (i n tm y N u m b e r ,v o i d* s o m e S t u f f) { / *r e c a s tv o i d*t op o i n t e rt y p es p e c i f i c a l l yn e e d e df o rt h i sf u n c t i o n* / D a t a I N e e d* m y D a t a=s o m e S t u f f ; / *t a l kj i v e .* / r e t u r n5 ; / *at y p e d e ff o raf u n c t i o np o i n t e r* /

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} s t a t i cD a t a I N e e d s i l l y S t u f f={B L U E ," W h a t c h at a l k i n' b o u tW i l l i s ? "} ; / *. . .* / D o S o m e t h i n g N i c e (4 1 ,& T a l k J i v e , & s i l l y S t u f f) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

SomeversionsofCmaynotrequireanampersandprecedingthe T a l k J i v e argumentinthe D o S o m e t h i n g N i c e [Link] M y F u n c t i o n T y p e type,eventhoughthefunctionsignatureexacly matchesthatofthetypedef. [Link] [Link],andstaticvariableofthetypeofthefirststructure,containingtheaddressesofthefunctionsthatare [Link]/Ofunctionsarecalled. [Link],[Link] [Link] [Link],theappropriatefunctioniscalledthroughafunctionpointerinthecurrentstate.

PracticaluseoffunctionpointersinC
[Link]:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n ta d d ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n ts u b ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n tm u l ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n td i v ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n tm a i n ( ) { i n ti ,r e s u l t ; i n ta = 1 0 ; i n tb = 5 ; p r i n t f ( " E n t e rt h ev a l u eb e t w e e n0a n d3:" ) ; s c a n f ( " % d " , & i ) ; s w i t c h ( i ) { c a s e0 : r e s u l t=a d d ( a , b ) ;b r e a k ; c a s e1 : r e s u l t=s u b ( a , b ) ;b r e a k ; c a s e2 : r e s u l t=m u l ( a , b ) ;b r e a k ; c a s e3 : r e s u l t=d i v ( a , b ) ;b r e a k ; } } i n ta d d ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i + j ) ; } i n ts u b ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i j ) ; } i n tm u l ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i * j ) ; } i n td i v ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i / j ) ; }

Withoutusingaswitchstatement:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > i n ta d d ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n ts u b ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n tm u l ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n td i v ( i n ta ,i n tb ) ; i n t( * o p e r [ 4 ] ) ( i n ta ,i n tb )={ a d d ,s u b ,m u l ,d i v } ; i n tm a i n ( ) { i n ti , r e s u l t ; i n ta = 1 0 ; i n tb = 5 ; p r i n t f ( " E n t e rt h ev a l u eb e t w e e n0a n d3:" ) ; s c a n f ( " % d " , & i ) ; r e s u l t=o p e r [ i ] ( a , b ) ; } i n ta d d ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i + j ) ; } i n ts u b ( i n ti ,i n tj ) {

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r e t u r n( i j ) ; } i n tm u l ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i * j ) ; } i n td i v ( i n ti ,i n tj ) { r e t u r n( i / j ) ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Functionpointersmaybeusedtocreateastructmemberfunction:
t y p e d e fs t r u c t { i n t( * o p e n ) ( v o i d ) ; v o i d( * c l o s e ) ( v o i d ) ; i n t( * r e g i s t e r ) ( v o i d ) ; }d e v i c e ; i n tm y _ d e v i c e _ o p e n ( v o i d ) { / *. . .* / } v o i dm y _ d e v i c e _ c l o s e ( v o i d ) { / *. . .* / } v o i dr e g i s t e r _ d e v i c e ( v o i d ) { / *. . .* / } d e v i c ec r e a t e ( v o i d ) { d e v i c em y _ d e v i c e ; m y _ d e v i c e . o p e n=m y _ d e v i c e _ o p e n ; m y _ d e v i c e . c l o s e=m y _ d e v i c e _ c l o s e ; m y _ d e v i c e . r e g i s t e r=r e g i s t e r _ d e v i c e ; m y _ d e v i c e . r e g i s t e r ( ) ; r e t u r nm y _ d e v i c e ; }

Usetoimplementthispointer(followingcodemustbeplacedinlibrary).
s t a t i cs t r u c td e v i c e _ d a t a { / *. . .h e r eg o e sd a t ao fs t r u c t u r e. . .* / } ; s t a t i cs t r u c td e v i c e _ d a t ao b j ; t y p e d e fs t r u c t { i n t( * o p e n ) ( v o i d ) ; v o i d( * c l o s e ) ( v o i d ) ; i n t( * r e g i s t e r ) ( v o i d ) ; }d e v i c e ; s t a t i cs t r u c td e v i c e _ d a t ac r e a t e _ d e v i c e _ d a t a ( v o i d ) { s t r u c td e v i c e _ d a t am y _ d e v i c e _ d a t a ; / *. . .h e r eg o e sc o n s t r u c t o r. . .* / r e t u r nm y _ d e v i c e _ d a t a ; } / *h e r eIo m i tt h em y _ d e v i c e _ o p e n ,m y _ d e v i c e _ c l o s ea n dr e g i s t e r _ d e v i c ef u n c t i o n s* / d e v i c ec r e a t e _ d e v i c e ( v o i d ) { d e v i c em y _ d e v i c e ; m y _ d e v i c e . o p e n=m y _ d e v i c e _ o p e n ; m y _ d e v i c e . c l o s e=m y _ d e v i c e _ c l o s e ; m y _ d e v i c e . r e g i s t e r=r e g i s t e r _ d e v i c e ; m y _ d e v i c e . r e g i s t e r ( ) ; r e t u r nm y _ d e v i c e ; }

Examplesofpointerconstructs
Belowaresomeexampleconstructswhichmayaidincreatingyourpointer.

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i n ti ; / /i n t e g e rv a r i a b l e' i ' i n t* p ; / /p o i n t e r' p 't oa ni n t e g e r i n ta [ ] ; / /a r r a y' a 'o fi n t e g e r s i n tf ( ) ; / /f u n c t i o n' f 'w i t hr e t u r nv a l u eo ft y p ei n t e g e r i n t* * p p ; / /p o i n t e r' p p 't oap o i n t e rt oa ni n t e g e r i n t( * p a ) [ ] ; / /p o i n t e r' p a 't oa na r r a yo fi n t e g e r i n t( * p f ) ( ) ; / /p o i n t e r' p f 't oaf u n c t i o nw i t hr e t u r nv a l u ei n t e g e r i n t* a p [ ] ; / /a r r a y' a p 'o fp o i n t e r st oa ni n t e g e r i n t* f p ( ) ; / /f u n c t i o n' f p 'w h i c hr e t u r n sap o i n t e rt oa ni n t e g e r i n t* * * p p p ; / /p o i n t e r' p p p 't oap o i n t e rt oap o i n t e rt oa ni n t e g e r i n t( * * p p a ) [ ] ;/ /p o i n t e r' p p a 't oap o i n t e rt oa na r r a yo fi n t e g e r s i n t( * * p p f ) ( ) ;/ /p o i n t e r' p p f 't oap o i n t e rt oaf u n c t i o nw i t hr e t u r nv a l u eo ft y p ei n t e g e r i n t* ( * p a p ) [ ] ;/ /p o i n t e r' p a p 't oa na r r a yo fp o i n t e r st oa ni n t e g e r i n t* ( * p f p ) ( ) ;/ /p o i n t e r' p f p 't of u n c t i o nw i t hr e t u r nv a l u eo ft y p ep o i n t e rt oa ni n t e g e r i n t* * a p p [ ] ; / /a r r a yo fp o i n t e r s' a p p 't h a tp o i n tt op o i n t e r st oi n t e g e rv a l u e s i n t( * a p a [ ] ) [ ] ; / /a r r a yo fp o i n t e r s' a p a 't oa r r a y so fi n t e g e r s i n t( * a p f [ ] ) ( ) ; / /a r r a yo fp o i n t e r s' a p f 't of u n c t i o n sw i t hr e t u r nv a l u e so ft y p ei n t e g e r i n t* * * f p p ( ) ; / /f u n c t i o n' f p p 'w h i c hr e t u r n sap o i n t e rt oap o i n t e rt oap o i n t e rt oa ni n t i n t( * f p a ( ) ) [ ] ; / /f u n c t i o n' f p a 'w i t hr e t u r nv a l u eo fap o i n t e rt oa r r a yo fi n t e g e r s i n t( * f p f ( ) ) ( ) ; / /f u n c t i o n' f p f 'w i t hr e t u r nv a l u eo fap o i n t e rt of u n c t i o nw h i c hr e t u r n sa ni n t e g e r

sizeof
Thesizeofoperatorisoftenusedtorefertothesizeofastaticarraydeclaredearlierinthesamefunction. Tofindtheendofanarray(examplefromwikipedia:Bufferoverflow):
/ *b e t t e r . c-d e m o n s t r a t e so n em e t h o do ff i x i n gt h ep r o b l e m* / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* a r g v [ ] ) { c h a rb u f f e r [ 1 0 ] ; i f( a r g c<2 ) { f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r ," U S A G E :% ss t r i n g \ n " ,a r g v [ 0 ] ) ; r e t u r n1 ; } s t r n c p y ( b u f f e r ,a r g v [ 1 ] ,s i z e o f ( b u f f e r ) ) ; b u f f e r [ s i z e o f ( b u f f e r )-1 ]=' \ 0 ' ; r e t u r n0 ; }

Toiterateovereveryelementofanarray,use
# d e f i n eN U M _ E L E M ( x )( s i z e o f( x )/s i z e o f( * ( x ) ) ) f o r (i=0 ;i<N U M _ E L E M ( a r r a y ) ;i + +) { / *d os o m e t h i n gw i t ha r r a y [ i ]* / ; }

Notethatthe s i z e o f [Link],the b u f f e r wasdeclaredasanarrayof10char'searlierinthesamefunction,andthecompiler replaces s i z e o f ( b u f f e r ) withthenumber10atcompiletime(equivalenttoushardcoding10intothecodeinplaceof s i z e o f ( b u f f e r ) ).Theinformationaboutthelengthof b u f f e r isnotactuallystoredanywhereinmemory(unlesswekeeptrackofitseparately) andcannotbeprogrammaticallyobtainedatruntimefromthearray/pointeritself. [Link],

/ *b r o k e n . c-d e m o n s t r a t e saf l a w* / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # d e f i n eN U M _ E L E M ( x )( s i z e o f( x )/s i z e o f( * ( x ) ) ) i n ts u m (i n ti n p u t _ a r r a y [ ]) { i n ts u m _ s o _ f a r=0 ; i n ti ; f o r (i=0 ;i<N U M _ E L E M ( i n p u t _ a r r a y ) ;i + +)/ /W O N ' TW O R K-i n p u t _ a r r a yw a s n ' td e f i n e di nt h i sf u n c t i o n . { s u m _ s o _ f a r+ =i n p u t _ a r r a y [ i ] ; } ; r e t u r n (s u m _ s o _ f a r) ; }

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i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* a r g v [ ] ) { i n tl e f t _ a r r a y [ ]={1 ,2 ,3} ; i n tr i g h t _ a r r a y [ ]={1 0 ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1} ; i n tt h e _ s u m=s u m (l e f t _ a r r a y) ; p r i n t f (" t h es u mo fl e f t _ a r r a yi s :% d " ,t h e _ s u m) ; t h e _ s u m=s u m (r i g h t _ a r r a y) ; p r i n t f (" t h es u mo fr i g h t _ a r r a yi s :% d " ,t h e _ s u m) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Unfortunately,(inCandC++)thelengthofthearraycannotbeobtainedfromanarraypassedinatruntime,because(asmentionedabove)[Link]() routineneedstohandlemorethanjustoneconstantlengthofanarray. Therearesomecommonwaystoworkaroundthisfact: Writethefunctiontorequire,foreacharrayparameter,a"length"parameter(whichhastype"size_t").(Typicallyweusesizeofatthepointwherethisfunctioniscalled). Useofaconvention,suchasanullterminatedstringtomarktheendofthearray. Insteadofpassingrawarrays,passastructurethatincludesthelengthofthearray(suchas".length")aswellasthearray(orapointertothefirstelement)similartothe s t r i n g or v e c t o r classesinC++.

/ *f i x e d . c-d e m o n s t r a t e so n ew o r k a r o u n d* / # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # d e f i n eN U M _ E L E M ( x )( s i z e o f( x )/s i z e o f( * ( x ) ) ) i n ts u m (i n ti n p u t _ a r r a y [ ] ,s i z e _ tl e n g t h) { i n ts u m _ s o _ f a r=0 ; i n ti ; f o r (i=0 ;i<l e n g t h ;i + +) { s u m _ s o _ f a r+ =i n p u t _ a r r a y [ i ] ; } ; r e t u r n (s u m _ s o _ f a r) ; } i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* a r g v [ ] ) { i n tl e f t _ a r r a y [ ]={1 ,2 ,3 ,4} ; i n tr i g h t _ a r r a y [ ]={1 0 ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1} ; i n tt h e _ s u m=s u m (l e f t _ a r r a y ,N U M _ E L E M ( l e f t _ a r r a y )) ;/ /w o r k sh e r e ,b e c a u s el e f t _ a r r a yi sd e f i n e di nt h i sf u n c t i o n p r i n t f (" t h es u mo fl e f t _ a r r a yi s :% d " ,t h e _ s u m) ; t h e _ s u m=s u m (r i g h t _ a r r a y ,N U M _ E L E M ( r i g h t _ a r r a y )) ;/ /w o r k sh e r e ,b e c a u s er i g h t _ a r r a yi sd e f i n e di nt h i sf u n c t i o n p r i n t f (" t h es u mo fr i g h t _ a r r a yi s :% d " ,t h e _ s u m) ; r e t u r n0 ; }

It'sworthmentioningthatsizeofoperatorhastwovariations: s i z e o f( t y p e ) (forinstance: s i z e o f( i n t ) or s i z e o f( s t r u c ts o m e _ s t r u c t u r e ) )and s i z e o fe x p r e s s i o n (forinstance: s i z e o fs o m e _ v a r i a b l e . s o m e _ f i e l d or s i z e o f1 ).

ExternalLinks
CReferenceCard(ANSI)([Link] "CommonPointerPitfalls"([Link] "Furtherinsightsintosize_t"([Link] "PointerFunwithBinky"

Memorymanagement
InC,[Link],butyoumayhavealreadynoticedsomelimitations: thesizeofthearraymustbeknownbeforehand thesizeofthearraycannotbechangedinthedurationofyourprogram DynamicmemoryallocationinCisawayofcircumventingtheseproblems.

EXAMPLE
# i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > v o i d* c a l l o c ( s i z e _ tn m e m b ,s i z e _ ts i z e ) ; v o i df r e e ( v o i d* p t r ) ; v o i d* m a l l o c ( s i z e _ ts i z e ) ; v o i d* r e a l l o c ( v o i d* p t r ,s i z e _ ts i z e ) ;

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TheCfunction m a l l o c [Link].h,[Link] [Link],andifbotharesupported,youshoulduse<stdlib.h>,sincethatisANSIC,andwhatwewillusehere. Thecorrespondingcalltoreleaseallocatedmemorybacktotheoperatingsystemis f r e e . Whendynamicallyallocatedmemoryisnolongerneeded, f r e e [Link] frequently,[Link],theoperatingsystemisabletofreealldynamicallyallocatedmemoryassociatedwiththeprocess. Let'slookathowdynamicmemoryallocationcanbeusedforarrays. Normallywhenwewishtocreateanarrayweuseadeclarationsuchas

i n ta r r a y [ 1 0 ] ;

Recall a r r a y canbeconsideredapointerwhichweuseasanarray.Wespecifythelengthofthisarrayis10 i n t [Link] a r r a y [ 0 ] ,nineotherintegershavespacetobestoredconsecutively. [Link] declareapointer,andinvoke m a l l o c whenwewishtomakespacefortheelementsinourarray, or,wecantell m a l l o c [Link]. Wealsoneedtoknowhowmuchaninttakesupinmemoryinordertomakeroomforitfortunatelythisisnotdifficult,wecanuseC'sbuiltin s i z e o f [Link],if s i z e o f ( i n t ) yields4,thenone i n t [Link], 2 * s i z e o f ( i n t ) ishow muchmemoryweneedfor2 i n t s,andsoon. Sohowdowe m a l l o c anarrayoften i n t slikebefore?Ifwewishtodeclareandmakeroominonehit,wecansimplysay
i n t* a r r a y=m a l l o c ( 1 0 * s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ;

Weonlyneedtodeclarethepointer m a l l o c givesussomespacetostorethe10 i n t s,andreturnsthepointertothefirstelement,whichisassignedtothatpointer. Importantnote! m a l l o c does not initializethearraythismeansthatthearraymaycontainrandomorunexpectedvalues!Likecreatingarrayswithoutdynamicallocation,[Link] sureyoudoso,too.(Seelaterthefunction m e m s e t forasimplemethod.) Itisnotnecessarytoimmediatelycall m a l l o c [Link] m a l l o c ,asfollows:
i n t* a r r a y=N U L L ; p r i n t f ( " H e l l oW o r l d ! ! ! " ) ; / *m o r es t a t e m e n t s* / a r r a y=m a l l o c ( 1 0 * s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ;/ *d e l a y e da l l o c a t i o n* / / *u s et h ea r r a y* /

Errorchecking
Whenwewanttouse m a l l o c ,wehavetobemindfulthatthepoolofmemoryavailabletotheprogrammeris [Link],wecanconceivablyrunoutofmemory!Inthiscase, m a l l o c willreturn N U L L .Inordertostoptheprogramcrashingfromhavingno morememorytouse,oneshouldalwayscheckthatmallochasnotreturned N U L L beforeattemptingtousethememorywecandothisby
i n t* p t=m a l l o c ( 3*s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ; i f ( p t= =N U L L ) { f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r ," O u to fm e m o r y ,e x i t i n g \ n " ) ; e x i t ( 1 ) ; }

Ofcourse,suddenlyquittingasintheaboveexampleisnotalwaysappropriate,[Link],iftheprogramisasmall,noncriticalapplicationthat's [Link],[Link] allocationfailureinanembeddedprocessor,suchasmightbeinawashingmachine,[Link],manyembeddedsystemsdesignersavoiddynamicmemoryallocationaltogether.

Thec a l l o c function
The c a l l o c [Link] m A r r a y=c a l l o c (c o u n t ,s i z e o f ( s t r u c tV ) ) allocates c o u n t objects,eachofwhosesizeissufficienttocontainaninstanceofthestructure s t r u c tV .Thespaceis [Link],iftheallocationfails, N U L L .

Ther e a l l o c function
v o i d*r e a l l o c(v o i d*p t r ,s i z e _ ts i z e) ;

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The r e a l l o c functionchangesthesizeoftheobjectpointedtoby p t r tothesizespecifiedby s i z e .[Link],thevalueofthenewlyallocatedportionof

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The r e a l l o c functionchangesthesizeoftheobjectpointedtoby p t r tothesizespecifiedby s i z e .[Link],thevalueofthenewlyallocatedportionof [Link] p t r isanullpointer,the r e a l l o c functionbehaveslikethe m a l l o c [Link],if p t r doesnotmatchapointerearlierreturnedbythe c a l l o c , m a l l o c ,or r e a l l o c function,orifthespacehasbeen deallocatedbyacalltothe f r e e or r e a l l o c function,[Link],theobjectpointedtoby p t r [Link] s i z e iszeroand p t r isnotanullpointer,[Link] r e a l l o c functionreturns eitheranullpointerorapointertothepossiblymovedallocatedobject.

Thef r e e function
Memorythathasbeenallocatedusing m a l l o c , r e a l l o c ,or c a l l o c [Link],whichcouldresultinaneventualmemory [Link] f r e e [Link] f r e e areasinthefollowingexample.
i n t* m y S t u f f=m a l l o c (2 0*s i z e o f ( i n t ) ) ; i f( m y S t u f f! =N U L L ) { / *m o r es t a t e m e n t sh e r e* / / *t i m et or e l e a s em y S t u f f* / f r e e (m y S t u f f) ; }

freewithrecursivedatastructures
Itshouldbenotedthat f r e e [Link].
t y p e d e fs t r u c tB S T N o d e { i n tv a l u e ; s t r u c tB S T N o d e *l e f t ; s t r u c tB S T N o d e *r i g h t ; }B S T N o d e ; / /L a t e r :. . . B S T N o d e *t e m p=( B S T N o d e * )c a l l o c ( 1 ,s i z e o f ( B S T N o d e ) ) ; t e m p > l e f t=( B S T N o d e * )c a l l o c ( 1 ,s i z e o f ( B S T N o d e ) ) ; / /L a t e r :. . . f r e e ( t e m p ) ;/ /W R O N G !d o n ' td ot h i s !

Thestatement" f r e e ( t e m p ) ; "will notfree t e m p > l e f t ,causingamemoryleak. BecauseCdoesnothaveagarbagecollector,Cprogrammersareresponsibleformakingsurethereisa f r e e ( ) exactlyonceforeachtimethereisa m a l l o c ( ) .Ifatreehasbeenallocatedonenodeatatime,thenitneedstobefreedonenodeatatime.

Don'tfreeundefinedpointers
Furthermore,using f r e e whenthepointerinquestionwasneverallocatedinthefirstplaceoftencrashesorleadstomysteriousbugsfurtheralong. Toavoidthisproblem,[Link] m a l l o c atthepointtheyaredeclared(asinmostexamplesinthischapter),orsetthemto N U L L whentheyaredeclared(asinthe"delayedallocation"exampleinthis chapter). [17]

References
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link]

Strings
A [Link]: ' \ 0 ' .So,astringwiththecontents,say, " a b c " hasfourcharacters: ' a ' , ' b ' , ' c ' ,andtheterminatingnullcharacter. Theterminatingnullcharacterhasthevaluezero.

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C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Syntax
InC,stringconstants(literals)aresurroundedbydoublequotes("),e.g."Helloworld!"andarecompiledtoanarrayofthespecified c h a r valueswithanadditionalnullterminatingcharacter(0valued)[Link] constantis c h a r* . Stringliteralsmaynotdirectlyinthesourcecodecontainembeddednewlinesorothercontrolcharacters,orsomeothercharactersofspecialmeaninginstring. Toincludesuchcharactersinastring,thebackslashescapesmaybeused,likethis: Escape Meaning
\ \ \ " \ ' \ n \ r \ b \ t \ f \ a \ v \ ? \ nnn \ x hh

Literalbackslash Doublequote Singlequote Newline(linefeed) Carriagereturn Backspace Horizontaltab Formfeed Alert(bell) Verticaltab Questionmark(usedtoescapetrigraphs) Characterwithoctalvalue nnn Characterwithhexadecimalvalue hh

Widecharacterstrings
Csupportswidecharacterstrings,definedasarraysofthetype w c h a r _ t ,16bit(atleast)[Link]
w c h a r _ t* p=L " H e l l o w o r l d ! " ;

Thisfeatureallowsstringswheremorethan256differentpossiblecharactersareneeded(althoughalsovariablelength c h a r stringscanbeused).Theyendwithazerovalued w c h a r _ t .Thesestringsarenotsupportedbythe < s t r i n g . h > [Link] havetheirownfunctions,declaredin < w c h a r . h > .

Characterencodings
Whatcharacterencodingthe c h a r and w c h a r _ t representisnotspecifiedbytheCstandard,[Link] [Link]. Therearethreemajortypesofencodings: [Link].Thereisalimitof255differentcharactersplusthezeroterminationcharacter. Variablelength c h a r strings,[Link] c h a r basedarrays.TheseencodingsarenormallyASCIIbasedandexamplesareUTF8orShiftJIS. [Link] w c h a r _ t values.UTF16isthemostcommonsuchencoding,anditisalsovariablelength,meaningthatacharactercanbetwo w c h a r _ t .

The< s t r i n g . h > StandardHeader

Becauseprogrammersfindrawstringscumbersometodealwith,theywrotethecodeinthe < s t r i n g . h > [Link]. First,threetypesoffunctionsexistinthestringlibrary: the m e m functionsmanipulatesequencesofarbitrarycharacterswithoutregardtothenullcharacter the s t r functionsmanipulatenullterminatedsequencesofcharacters the s t r n functionsmanipulatesequencesofnonnullcharacters.

Themorecommonlyusedstringfunctions
Theninemostcommonlyusedfunctionsinthestringlibraryare:
s t r c a t concatenatetwostrings

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s t r c h r stringscanningoperation s t r c m p comparetwostrings s t r c p y copyastring s t r l e n getstringlength s t r n c a t concatenateonestringwithpartofanother s t r n c m p comparepartsoftwostrings s t r n c p y copypartofastring s t r r c h r stringscanningoperation

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The s t r c a t function
c h a r* s t r c a t ( c h a r*r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r*r e s t r i c ts 2 ) ;

Somepeoplerecommendusing s t r n c a t ( ) or s t r l c a t ( ) insteadofstrcat,inordertoavoidbufferoverflow. The s t r c a t ( ) functionshallappendacopyofthestringpointedtoby s 2 (includingtheterminatingnullbyte)totheendofthestringpointedtoby s 1 .Theinitialbyteof s 2 overwritesthenullbyteattheendof s 1 .Ifcopyingtakesplacebetweenobjectsthat overlap,[Link] s 1 . [Link](s 1 )havethespaceneededtostorebothstrings. Example:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > . . . s t a t i cc o n s tc h a r* c o l o r s [ ]={ " R e d " , " O r a n g e " , " Y e l l o w " , " G r e e n " , " B l u e " , " P u r p l e "} ; s t a t i cc o n s tc h a r* w i d t h s [ ]={ " T h i n " , " M e d i u m " , " T h i c k " , " B o l d "} ; . . . c h a rp e n T e x t [ 2 0 ] ; . . . i n tp e n C o l o r=3 ,p e n T h i c k n e s s=2 ; s t r c p y ( p e n T e x t ,c o l o r s [ p e n C o l o r ] ) ; s t r c a t ( p e n T e x t ,w i d t h s [ p e n T h i c k n e s s ] ) ; p r i n t f ( " M yp e ni s% s \ n " ,p e n T e x t ) ;/ /p r i n t s' M yp e ni sG r e e n T h i c k '

Beforecalling s t r c a t ( ) ,thedestinationmustcurrentlycontainanullterminatedstringorthefirstcharactermusthavebeeninitializedwiththenullcharacter(e.g. p e n T e x t [ 0 ]=' \ 0 ' ; ). Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r c a t :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r c a t* / c h a r* ( s t r c a t ) ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ) { c h a r* s=s 1 ; / *M o v ess ot h a ti tp o i n t st ot h ee n do fs 1 . * / w h i l e( * s! =' \ 0 ' ) s + + ; / *C o p yt h ec o n t e n t so fs 2i n t ot h es p a c ea tt h ee n do fs 1 . * / s t r c p y ( s ,s 2 ) ; r e t u r ns 1 ; }

The s t r c h r function
c h a r* s t r c h r ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,i n tc ) ;

The s t r c h r ( ) functionshalllocatethefirstoccurrenceof c (convertedtoa c h a r )inthestringpointedtoby s .[Link],oranullpointerifthe characterwasnotfound. Thisfunctionisusedtofindcertaincharactersinstrings. Atonepointinhistory,thisfunctionwasnamed i n d e x .The s t r c h r name,howevercryptic,fitsthegeneralpatternfornaming. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r c h r :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r c h r* / c h a r* ( s t r c h r ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,i n tc ) { / *S c a nsf o rt h ec h a r a c t e r . W h e nt h i sl o o pi sf i n i s h e d , sw i l le i t h e rp o i n tt ot h ee n do ft h es t r i n go rt h e

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c h a r a c t e rw ew e r el o o k i n gf o r . * / w h i l e( * s! =' \ 0 '& &* s! =( c h a r ) c ) s + + ; r e t u r n(( * s= =c )?( c h a r* )s:N U L L) ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The s t r c m p function
i n ts t r c m p ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) ;

Arudimentaryformofstringcomparisonisdonewiththestrcmp()[Link],avaluegreaterthanzeroifthefirstislexographically greaterthanthesecond,[Link](ascii)valueofthechararacters,characterbycharacter. [Link]() consideringthestring"Alpha2"greaterthan"Alpha12".(Inthepreviousexample,"Alpha2"comparesgreaterthan"Alpha12"because'2'comesafter'1'inthecharacterset.)Whatwe'resayingis,don'tusethis s t r c m p ( ) aloneforgeneralstringsortinginany commercialorprofessionalcode. The s t r c m p ( ) functionshallcomparethestringpointedtoby s 1 tothestringpointedtoby s 2 .Thesignofanonzeroreturnvalueshallbedeterminedbythesignofthedifferencebetweenthevaluesofthefirstpairofbytes(bothinterpretedastype u n s i g n e d c h a r )[Link], s t r c m p ( ) shallreturnanintegergreaterthan,equalto,orlessthan0,ifthestringpointedtoby s 1 isgreaterthan,equalto,orlessthanthestringpointedtoby s 2 ,respectively. Sincecomparingpointersbythemselvesisnotpracticallyusefulunlessoneiscomparingpointerswithinthesamearray,thisfunctionlexicallycomparesthestringsthattwopointerspointto. Thisfunctionisusefulincomparisons,e.g.
i f( s t r c m p ( s ," w h a t e v e r " )= =0 )/ *d os o m e t h i n g* / ;

Thecollatingsequenceusedby s t r c m p ( ) isequivalenttothemachine'[Link] ' 0 ' to ' 9 ' areinconsecutiveorder. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r c m p :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r c m p* / i n t( s t r c m p ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) { u n s i g n e dc h a ru c 1 ,u c 2 ; / *M o v es 1a n ds 2t ot h ef i r s td i f f e r i n gc h a r a c t e r s i ne a c hs t r i n g ,o rt h ee n d so ft h es t r i n g si ft h e y a r ei d e n t i c a l . * / w h i l e( * s 1! =' \ 0 '& &* s 1= =* s 2 ){ s 1 + + ; s 2 + + ; } / *C o m p a r et h ec h a r a c t e r sa su n s i g n e dc h a ra n d r e t u r nt h ed i f f e r e n c e . * / u c 1=( * ( u n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 1 ) ; u c 2=( * ( u n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 2 ) ; r e t u r n( ( u c 1<u c 2 )?1:( u c 1>u c 2 ) ) ; }

The s t r c p y function
c h a r* s t r c p y ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ) ;

Somepeoplerecommendalwaysusing s t r n c p y ( ) insteadofstrcpy,toavoidbufferoverflow. The s t r c p y ( ) functionshallcopytheCstringpointedtoby s 2 (includingtheterminatingnullbyte)intothearraypointedtoby s 1 .Ifcopyingtakesplacebetweenobjectsthatoverlap,[Link] s 1 .Thereisnovalueused toindicateanerror:iftheargumentsto s t r c p y ( ) arecorrect,andthedestinationbufferislargeenough,thefunctionwillneverfail. Example:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *. . .* / s t a t i cc o n s tc h a r* p e n T y p e = " r o u n d " ; / *. . .* / c h a rp e n T e x t [ 2 0 ] ; / *. . .* / s t r c p y ( p e n T e x t ,p e n T y p e ) ;

Important:Youmustensurethatthedestinationbuffer(s 1 )isabletocontainallthecharactersinthesourcearray,[Link], s t r c p y ( ) willoverwritememorypasttheendofthebuffer,causingabufferoverflow,which cancausetheprogramtocrash,orcanbeexploitedbyhackerstocompromisethesecurityofthecomputer.

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Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r c p y :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r c p y* / c h a r* ( s t r c p y ) ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ) { c h a r* d s t=s 1 ; c o n s tc h a r* s r c=s 2 ; / *D ot h ec o p y i n gi nal o o p . * / w h i l e( ( * d s t + +=* s r c + + )! =' \ 0 ' ) ; / *T h eb o d yo ft h i sl o o pi sl e f te m p t y .* / / *R e t u r nt h ed e s t i n a t i o ns t r i n g . * / r e t u r ns 1 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The s t r l e n function
s i z e _ ts t r l e n ( c o n s tc h a r* s ) ;

The s t r l e n ( ) functionshallcomputethenumberofbytesinthestringtowhich s points,[Link]. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r l e n :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r l e n* / s i z e _ t( s t r l e n ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s ) { c o n s tc h a r* p=s ; / *L o o po v e rt h ed a t ai ns . * / w h i l e( * p! =' \ 0 ' ) p + + ; r e t u r n( s i z e _ t ) ( p-s ) ; }

The s t r n c a t function
c h a r* s t r n c a t ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The s t r n c a t ( ) functionshallappendnotmorethan n bytes(anullbyteandbytesthatfollowitarenotappended)fromthearraypointedtoby s 2 totheendofthestringpointedtoby s 1 .Theinitialbyteof s 2 overwritesthenullbyteattheendof s 1 .A [Link],[Link] s 1 . Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r n c a t :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r n c a t* / c h a r* ( s t r n c a t ) ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { c h a r* s=s 1 ; / *L o o po v e rt h ed a t ai ns 1 . * / w h i l e( * s! =' \ 0 ' ) s + + ; / *sn o wp o i n t st os 1 ' st r a i l i n gn u l lc h a r a c t e r ,n o wc o p y u pt onb y t e sf r o ms 1i n t oss t o p p i n gi fan u l lc h a r a c t e r i se n c o u n t e r e di ns 2 . I ti sn o ts a f et ou s es t r n c p yh e r es i n c ei tc o p i e sE X A C T L Yn c h a r a c t e r s ,N U L Lp a d d i n gi fn e c e s s a r y . * / w h i l e( n! =0& &( * s=* s 2 + + )! =' \ 0 ' ){ n ; s + + ; } i f( * s! =' \ 0 ' ) * s=' \ 0 ' ; r e t u r ns 1 ; }

The s t r n c m p function
i n ts t r n c m p ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The s t r n c m p ( ) functionshallcomparenotmorethan n bytes(bytesthatfollowanullbytearenotcompared)fromthearraypointedtoby s 1 tothearraypointedtoby s 2 .Thesignofanonzeroreturnvalueisdeterminedbythesignofthedifferencebetween thevaluesofthefirstpairofbytes(bothinterpretedastype u n s i g n e dc h a r )[Link] s t r c m p foranexplanationofthereturnvalue. Thisfunctionisusefulincomparisons,asthe s t r c m p functionis. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r n c m p :

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# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r n c m p* / i n t( s t r n c m p ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { u n s i g n e dc h a ru c 1 ,u c 2 ; / *N o t h i n gt oc o m p a r e ? R e t u r nz e r o . * / i f( n= =0 ) r e t u r n0 ; / *L o o p ,c o m p a r i n gb y t e s . * / w h i l e( n ->0& &* s 1= =* s 2 ){ / *I fw e ' v er u no u to fb y t e so rh i tan u l l ,r e t u r nz e r o s i n c ew ea l r e a d yk n o w* s 1= =* s 2 . * / i f( n= =0| |* s 1= =' \ 0 ' ) r e t u r n0 ; s 1 + + ; s 2 + + ; } u c 1=( * ( u n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 1 ) ; u c 2=( * ( u n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 2 ) ; r e t u r n( ( u c 1<u c 2 )?1:( u c 1>u c 2 ) ) ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The s t r n c p y function
c h a r* s t r n c p y ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The s t r n c p y ( ) functionshallcopynotmorethan n bytes(bytesthatfollowanullbytearenotcopied)fromthearraypointedtoby s 2 tothearraypointedtoby s 1 .Ifcopyingtakesplacebetweenobjectsthatoverlap,[Link] pointedtoby s 2 isastringthatisshorterthan n bytes,nullbytesshallbeappendedtothecopyinthearraypointedtoby s 1 ,until n bytesinallarewritten.Thefunctionshallreturns1noreturnvalueisreservedtoindicateanerror. Itispossiblethatthefunctionwill notreturnanullterminatedstring,whichhappensifthe s 2 stringislongerthan n bytes. Thefollowingisapublicdomainversionof s t r n c p y :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r n c p y* / c h a r* ( s t r n c p y ) ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { c h a r* d s t=s 1 ; c o n s tc h a r* s r c=s 2 ; / *C o p yb y t e s ,o n ea tat i m e . * / w h i l e( n>0 ){ n ; i f( ( * d s t + +=* s r c + + )= =' \ 0 ' ){ / *I fw eg e th e r e ,w ef o u n dan u l lc h a r a c t e ra tt h ee n d o fs 2 ,s ou s em e m s e tt op u tn u l lb y t e sa tt h ee n do f s 1 . * / m e m s e t ( d s t ,' \ 0 ' ,n ) ; b r e a k ; } } r e t u r ns 1 ; }

The s t r r c h r function
c h a r* s t r r c h r ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,i n tc ) ; s t r r c h r issimilarto s t r c h r ,exceptthestringissearchedrighttoleft.

The s t r r c h r ( ) functionshalllocatethelastoccurrenceof c (convertedtoa c h a r )inthestringpointedtoby s .[Link] s t r c h r 'sreturnvalue. Atonepointinhistory,thisfunctionwasnamed r i n d e x .The s t r r c h r name,howevercryptic,fitsthegeneralpatternfornaming. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r r c h r :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r r c h r* / c h a r* ( s t r r c h r ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s ,i n tc ) { c o n s tc h a r* l a s t=N U L L ; / *I ft h ec h a r a c t e rw e ' r el o o k i n gf o ri st h et e r m i n a t i n gn u l l , w ej u s tn e e dt ol o o kf o rt h a tc h a r a c t e ra st h e r e ' so n l yo n e o ft h e mi nt h es t r i n g . * / i f( c= =' \ 0 ' ) r e t u r ns t r c h r ( s ,c ) ; / *L o o pt h r o u g h ,f i n d i n gt h el a s tm a t c hb e f o r eh i t t i n gN U L L . * / w h i l e( ( s=s t r c h r ( s ,c ) )! =N U L L ){ l a s t=s ; s + + ;

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} r e t u r n( c h a r* )l a s t ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Thelesscommonlyusedstringfunctions
Thelessusedfunctionsare:
m e m c h r Findabyteinmemory m e m c m p Comparebytesinmemory m e m c p y Copybytesinmemory m e m m o v e Copybytesinmemorywithoverlappingareas m e m s e t Setbytesinmemory s t r c o l l Comparebytesaccordingtoalocalespecificcollatingsequence s t r c s p n Getthelengthofacomplementarysubstring s t r e r r o r Geterrormessage s t r p b r k Scanastringforabyte s t r s p n Getthelengthofasubstring s t r s t r Findasubstring s t r t o k Splitastringintotokens s t r x f r m Transformstring

Copyingfunctions
Them e m c p y function
v o i d* m e m c p y ( v o i d*r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tv o i d*r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The m e m c p y ( ) functionshallcopy n bytesfromtheobjectpointedtoby s 2 intotheobjectpointedtoby s 1 .Ifcopyingtakesplacebetweenobjectsthatoverlap,[Link] s 1 . Becausethefunctiondoesnothavetoworryaboutoverlap,itcandothesimplestcopyitcan. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof m e m c p y :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *m e m c p y* / v o i d* ( m e m c p y ) ( v o i d*r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tv o i d*r e s t r i c ts 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { c h a r* d s t=s 1 ; c o n s tc h a r* s r c=s 2 ; / *L o o pa n dc o p y . * / w h i l e( n -! =0 ) * d s t + +=* s r c + + ; r e t u r ns 1 ; }

Them e m m o v e function
v o i d* m e m m o v e ( v o i d* s 1 ,c o n s tv o i d* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The m e m m o v e ( ) functionshallcopy n bytesfromtheobjectpointedtoby s 2 intotheobjectpointedtoby s 1 .Copyingtakesplaceasifthe n bytesfromtheobjectpointedtoby s 2 arefirstcopiedintoatemporaryarrayof n bytesthatdoesnotoverlaptheobjects pointedtoby s 1 and s 2 ,andthenthe n bytesfromthetemporaryarrayarecopiedintotheobjectpointedtoby s 1 .Thefunctionreturnsthevalueof s 1 . Theeasywaytoimplementthiswithoutusingatemporaryarrayistocheckforaconditionthatwouldpreventanascendingcopy,andiffound,doadescendingcopy. Thefollowingisapublicdomain,thoughnotcompletelyportable,implementationof m e m m o v e :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *m e m m o v e* / v o i d* ( m e m m o v e ) ( v o i d* s 1 ,c o n s tv o i d* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { / *n o t e :t h e s ed o n ' th a v et op o i n tt ou n s i g n e dc h a r s* / c h a r* p 1=s 1 ; c o n s tc h a r* p 2=s 2 ; / *t e s tf o ro v e r l a pt h a tp r e v e n t sa na s c e n d i n gc o p y* / i f( p 2<p 1& &p 1<p 2+n ){ / *d oad e s c e n d i n gc o p y* / p 2+ =n ; p 1+ =n ;

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w h i l e( n -! =0 ) * p 1=* p 2 ; }e l s e w h i l e( n -! =0 ) * p 1 + +=* p 2 + + ; r e t u r ns 1 ; }

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Comparisonfunctions
Them e m c m p function
i n tm e m c m p ( c o n s tv o i d* s 1 ,c o n s tv o i d* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The m e m c m p ( ) functionshallcomparethefirst n bytes(eachinterpretedas u n s i g n e dc h a r )oftheobjectpointedtoby s 1 tothefirst n bytesoftheobjectpointedtoby s 2 .Thesignofanonzeroreturnvalueshallbedeterminedbythesignofthedifference betweenthevaluesofthefirstpairofbytes(bothinterpretedastype u n s i g n e dc h a r )thatdifferintheobjectsbeingcompared. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof m e m c m p :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *m e m c m p* / i n t( m e m c m p ) ( c o n s tv o i d* s 1 ,c o n s tv o i d* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) { c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* u s 1=( c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 1 ; c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* u s 2=( c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* )s 2 ; w h i l e( n -! =0 ){ i f( * u s 1! =* u s 2 ) r e t u r n( * u s 1<* u s 2 )?1:+ 1 ; u s 1 + + ; u s 2 + + ; } r e t u r n0 ; }

Thes t r c o l l ands t r x f r m functions

i n ts t r c o l l ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) ; s i z e _ ts t r x f r m ( c h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

TheANSICStandardspecifiestwolocalespecificcomparisonfunctions. The s t r c o l l functioncomparesthestringpointedtoby s 1 tothestringpointedtoby s 2 ,bothinterpretedasappropriatetothe L C _ C O L L A T E [Link] s t r c m p . The s t r x f r m functiontransformsthestringpointedtoby s 2 andplacestheresultingstringintothearraypointedtoby s 1 .Thetransformationissuchthatifthe s t r c m p functionisappliedtothetwotransformedstrings,itreturnsavaluegreaterthan,equalto, orlessthanzero,correspondingtotheresultofthe s t r c o l l [Link] n charactersareplacedintotheresultingarraypointedtoby s 1 ,[Link] n iszero, s 1 ispermitted [Link],[Link]. Thesefunctionsarerarelyusedandnontrivialtocode,sothereisnocodeforthissection. Searchfunctions
Them e m c h r function
v o i d* m e m c h r ( c o n s tv o i d* s ,i n tc ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The m e m c h r ( ) functionshalllocatethefirstoccurrenceof c (convertedtoan u n s i g n e dc h a r )intheinitial n bytes(eachinterpretedas u n s i g n e dc h a r )oftheobjectpointedtoby s .If c isnotfound, m e m c h r returnsanullpointer. Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof m e m c h r :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *m e m c h r* / v o i d* ( m e m c h r ) ( c o n s tv o i d* s ,i n tc ,s i z e _ tn ) { c o n s tu n s i g n e dc h a r* s r c=s ; u n s i g n e dc h a ru c=c ; w h i l e( n -! =0 ){ i f( * s r c= =u c ) r e t u r n( v o i d* )s r c ; s r c + + ; } r e t u r nN U L L ; }

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Thes t r c s p n ,s t r p b r k ,ands t r s p n functions
s i z e _ ts t r c s p n ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) ; c h a r* s t r p b r k ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) ; s i z e _ ts t r s p n ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

The s t r c s p n functioncomputesthelengthofthemaximuminitialsegmentofthestringpointedtoby s 1 whichconsistsentirelyofcharacters notfromthestringpointedtoby s 2 . The s t r p b r k functionlocatesthefirstoccurrenceinthestringpointedtoby s 1 ofanycharacterfromthestringpointedtoby s 2 ,returningapointertothatcharacteroranullpointerifnotfound. The s t r s p n functioncomputesthelengthofthemaximuminitialsegmentofthestringpointedtoby s 1 whichconsistsentirelyofcharactersfromthestringpointedtoby s 2 . Allofthesefunctionsaresimilarexceptinthetestandthereturnvalue. Thefollowingarepublicdomainimplementationsof s t r c s p n , s t r p b r k ,and s t r s p n :
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r c s p n* / s i z e _ t( s t r c s p n ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) { c o n s tc h a r* s c 1 ; f o r( s c 1=s 1 ;* s c 1! =' \ 0 ' ;s c 1 + + ) i f( s t r c h r ( s 2 ,* s c 1 )! =N U L L ) r e t u r n( s c 1-s 1 ) ; r e t u r ns c 1-s 1 ; / *t e r m i n a t i n gn u l l sm a t c h* / } # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r p b r k* / c h a r* ( s t r p b r k ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) { c o n s tc h a r* s c 1 ; f o r( s c 1=s 1 ;* s c 1! =' \ 0 ' ;s c 1 + + ) i f( s t r c h r ( s 2 ,* s c 1 )! =N U L L ) r e t u r n( c h a r* ) s c 1 ; r e t u r nN U L L ; / *t e r m i n a t i n gn u l l sm a t c h* / } # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r s p n* / s i z e _ t( s t r s p n ) ( c o n s tc h a r* s 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* s 2 ) { c o n s tc h a r* s c 1 ; f o r( s c 1=s 1 ;* s c 1! =' \ 0 ' ;s c 1 + + ) i f( s t r c h r ( s 2 ,* s c 1 )= =N U L L ) r e t u r n( s c 1-s 1 ) ; r e t u r ns c 1-s 1 ; / *t e r m i n a t i n gn u l l sd o n ' tm a t c h* / }

Thes t r s t r function
c h a r* s t r s t r ( c o n s tc h a r* h a y s t a c k ,c o n s tc h a r* n e e d l e ) ;

The s t r s t r ( ) functionshalllocatethefirstoccurrenceinthestringpointedtoby h a y s t a c k ofthesequenceofbytes(excludingtheterminatingnullbyte)inthestringpointedtoby n e e d l e .Thefunctionreturnsthepointertothematchingstringin h a y s t a c k ora [Link] n e e d l e isanemptystring,thefunctionreturns h a y s t a c k . Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof s t r s t r :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r s t r* / c h a r* ( s t r s t r ) ( c o n s tc h a r* h a y s t a c k ,c o n s tc h a r* n e e d l e ) { s i z e _ tn e e d l e l e n ; / *C h e c kf o rt h en u l ln e e d l ec a s e . * / i f( * n e e d l e= =' \ 0 ' ) r e t u r n( c h a r* )h a y s t a c k ; n e e d l e l e n=s t r l e n ( n e e d l e ) ; f o r( ;( h a y s t a c k=s t r c h r ( h a y s t a c k ,* n e e d l e ) )! =N U L L ;h a y s t a c k + + ) i f( s t r n c m p ( h a y s t a c k ,n e e d l e ,n e e d l e l e n )= =0 ) r e t u r n( c h a r* )h a y s t a c k ; r e t u r nN U L L ; }

Thes t r t o k function

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c h a r* s t r t o k ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c td e l i m i t e r s ) ;

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Asequenceofcallsto s t r t o k ( ) breaksthestringpointedtoby s 1 intoasequenceoftokens,eachofwhichisdelimitedbyabytefromthestringpointedtoby d e l i m i t e r s .Thefirstcallinthesequencehas s 1 asitsfirstargument,andisfollowedbycallswitha [Link] d e l i m i t e r s maybedifferentfromcalltocall. Thefirstcallinthesequencesearchesthestringpointedtoby s 1 forthefirstbytethatisnotcontainedinthecurrentseparatorstringpointedtoby d e l i m i t e r s .Ifnosuchbyteisfound,thentherearenotokensinthestringpointedtoby s 1 and s t r t o k ( ) shall [Link],itisthestartofthefirsttoken. The s t r t o k ( ) functionthensearchesfromthereforabyte(ormultiple,consecutivebytes)[Link],thecurrenttokenextendstotheendofthestringpointedtoby s 1 ,andsubsequentsearches [Link],itisoverwrittenbyanullbyte,[Link] s t r t o k ( ) functionsavesapointertothefollowingbyte,fromwhichthenextsearchforatokenshallstart. Eachsubsequentcall,withanullpointerasthevalueofthefirstargument,startssearchingfromthesavedpointerandbehavesasdescribedabove. The s t r t o k ( ) [Link]. Becausethe s t r t o k ( ) functionmustsavestatebetweencalls,andyoucouldnothavetwotokenizersgoingatthesametime,theSingleUnixStandarddefinedasimilarfunction, s t r t o k _ r ( ) ,[Link]:
c h a r* s t r t o k _ r ( c h a r* s ,c o n s tc h a r* d e l i m i t e r s ,c h a r* * l a s t s ) ;

The s t r t o k _ r ( ) functionconsidersthenullterminatedstring s asasequenceofzeroormoretexttokensseparatedbyspansofoneormorecharactersfromtheseparatorstring d e l i m i t e r s .Theargumentlastspointstoauserprovidedpointerwhichpointsto storedinformationnecessaryfor s t r t o k _ r ( ) tocontinuescanningthesamestring. Inthefirstcallto s t r t o k _ r ( ) , s pointstoanullterminatedstring, d e l i m i t e r s toanullterminatedstringofseparatorcharacters,andthevaluepointedtoby l a s t s [Link] s t r t o k _ r ( ) functionshallreturnapointertothefirstcharacterofthefirsttoken, writeanullcharacterinto s immediatelyfollowingthereturnedtoken,andupdatethepointertowhich l a s t s points. Insubsequentcalls, s isanullpointerand l a s t s shallbeunchangedfromthepreviouscallsothatsubsequentcallsshallmovethroughthestring s ,[Link] d e l i m i t e r s maybedifferentfrom [Link] s ,aNULLpointershallbereturned. Thefollowingpublicdomaincodefor s t r t o k and s t r t o k _ r codestheformerasaspecialcaseofthelatter:
# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *s t r t o k _ r* / c h a r* ( s t r t o k _ r ) ( c h a r* s ,c o n s tc h a r* d e l i m i t e r s ,c h a r* * l a s t s ) { c h a r* s b e g i n ,* s e n d ; s b e g i n=s?s:* l a s t s ; s b e g i n+ =s t r s p n ( s b e g i n ,d e l i m i t e r s ) ; i f( * s b e g i n= =' \ 0 ' ){ * l a s t s=" " ; r e t u r nN U L L ; } s e n d=s b e g i n+s t r c s p n ( s b e g i n ,d e l i m i t e r s ) ; i f( * s e n d! =' \ 0 ' ) * s e n d + +=' \ 0 ' ; * l a s t s=s e n d ; r e t u r ns b e g i n ; } / *s t r t o k* / c h a r* ( s t r t o k ) ( c h a r* r e s t r i c ts 1 ,c o n s tc h a r* r e s t r i c td e l i m i t e r s ) { s t a t i cc h a r* s s a v e=" " ; r e t u r ns t r t o k _ r ( s 1 ,d e l i m i t e r s ,& s s a v e ) ; }

Miscellaneousfunctions Thesefunctionsdonotfitintooneoftheabovecategories.
Them e m s e t function
v o i d* m e m s e t ( v o i d* s ,i n tc ,s i z e _ tn ) ;

The m e m s e t ( ) functionconverts c into u n s i g n e dc h a r ,thenstoresthecharacterintothefirst n bytesofmemorypointedtoby s . Thefollowingisapublicdomainimplementationof m e m s e t :

# i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > / *m e m s e t* / v o i d* ( m e m s e t ) ( v o i d* s ,i n tc ,s i z e _ tn ) { u n s i g n e dc h a r* u s=s ; u n s i g n e dc h a ru c=c ; w h i l e( n -! =0 ) * u s + +=u c ; r e t u r ns ; }

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Thes t r e r r o r function
c h a r* s t r e r r o r ( i n te r r o r c o d e ) ;

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[Link],thisfunctioncouldbetrivialtoimplement,butthisauthorwillnotdothatasitvaries. TheSingleUnixSystemVersion3hasavariant, s t r e r r o r _ r ,withthisprototype:

i n ts t r e r r o r _ r ( i n te r r c o d e ,c h a r* b u f ,s i z e _ tb u f l e n ) ;

Thisfunctionstoresthemessagein b u f ,whichhasalengthofsize b u f l e n .

Examples
Todeterminethenumberofcharactersinastring,the s t r l e n ( ) functionisused:
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > . . . i n tl e n g t h ,l e n g t h 2 ; c h a r* t u r k e y ; s t a t i cc h a r* f l o w e r =" b e g o n i a " ; s t a t i cc h a r* g e m s t o n e = " r u b y" ; l e n g t h=s t r l e n ( f l o w e r ) ; p r i n t f ( " L e n g t h=% d \ n " ,l e n g t h ) ;/ /p r i n t s' L e n g t h=7 ' l e n g t h 2=s t r l e n ( g e m s t o n e ) ; t u r k e y=m a l l o c (l e n g t h+l e n g t h 2+1 ) ; i f( t u r k e y ){ s t r c p y (t u r k e y ,g e m s t o n e ) ; s t r c a t (t u r k e y ,f l o w e r ) ; p r i n t f (" % s \ n " ,t u r k e y ) ;/ /p r i n t s' r u b yb e g o n i a ' f r e e (t u r k e y) ; }

Notethattheamountofmemoryallocatedfor'turkey'[Link],whichisnotcountedinthelengthsofthestrings.

Exercises
1. [Link]? 2. Whatfunctionsarepossiblymissingfromthelibraryasitstandsnow?

Furtherreading
ALittleCPrimer/CStringFunctionLibrary C++Programming/Code/IO/Streams/string Becausesomanyfunctionsinthestandard s t r i n g . h libraryarevulnerabletobufferoverflowerrors,somepeople([Link] s t r i n g . h libraryand"Cstylestrings"andinsteadusingadynamicstringAPI, suchastheoneslistedintheStringlibrarycomparison([Link] There'satinypublicdomainconcat()function,whichwillallocatememoryandsafelyconcatenateanynumberofstringsinportableC/C++code([Link]

Complextypes
[Link] CcomplextypesallowusgreaterflexibilityinmanagingdatainourCprogram.

Datastructures
Adatastructure("struct")[Link](calleda"member")canbeaccessedbythenameofthevariable,followedbya'.',thenthenameofthemember.(Anotherwaytoaccessamemberisusingthemember operator'>').Themembervariablesofastructcanbeofanydatatypeandcanevenbeanarrayorapointer.

Pointers
Pointersarevariablesthatdon'[Link],
i n t* p o i n t e r=& v a r i a b l e ;

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definesapointertoan i n t ,andalsomakesitpointtotheparticularintegercontainedin v a r i a b l e . The'*'[Link],usetheform

p o i n t e r=& s a n d w i c h e s ;

Where&isthe addressof [Link](astandardmacrodefinedas0or(void*)0)likethis:

p o i n t e r=N U L L ;

Thistellsusthatthepointerisn'tcurrentlypointingtoanyreallocation. Additionally,todereference(accessthethingbeingpointedat)thepointer,usetheform:
v a l u e=* p o i n t e r ;

Structs
[Link] s t r u c t [Link],
s t r u c tm y s t r u c t { i n ti n t _ m e m b e r ; d o u b l ed o u b l e _ m e m b e r ; c h a rs t r i n g _ m e m b e r [ 2 5 ] ; }v a r i a b l e ;
v a r i a b l e isaninstanceof m y s t r u c t .Youcanomititfromtheendofthe s t r u c t declarationanddeclareitlaterusing:

s t r u c tm y s t r u c tv a r i a b l e ;

Itisoftencommonpracticetomakea typesynonymsowedon'thavetotype"structmystruct"[Link] t y p e d e f statement,whichaliasesatype:

t y p e d e fs t r u c t { . . . }M y s t r u c t ;

The s t r u c t itselfhasnoname(bytheabsenceofanameonthefirstline),butitisaliasedas M y s t r u c t .Thenyoucanuse

M y s t r u c ts t r u c t u r e ;

Notethatitiscommonplace,andgoodstyletocapitalizethe [Link] tagsowecanrefertoit:wemayhavea [Link] lists,[Link],[Link],itisnecessarytoletthecompilerknowthenamerightfromthestart(Notethatthe structkeywordisused onlyinsidethestructure!Afterthedeclaration,thecompiler knowsthatthetypesynonymreferstoa struct):

t y p e d e fs t r u c tM y s t r u c t { . . . s t r u c tM y s t r u c t*p M y s t r u c t }M y s t r u c t ;

Unions
[Link],themembersoccupydifferentareasofmemory,butinaunion,[Link],inthefollowingtype,for example:
u n i o n{ i n ti ; d o u b l ed ; }u ;

Theprogrammercanaccesseither u . i or u . d ,[Link] u . i and u . d occupythesameareaofmemory,modifyingonemodifiesthevalueoftheother,sometimesinunpredictableways.

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Thesizeofaunionisthesizeofitslargestmember.

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Typemodifiers
For"register","volatile","auto"and"extern",seeCProgramming/Variables#Other_Modifiers.

NetworkinginUNIX
NetworkprogrammingunderUNIXisrelativelysimpleinC. ThisguideassumesyoualreadyhaveagoodgeneralideaaboutC,UNIXandnetworks.

Asimpleclient
Tostartwith,we'lllookatoneofthesimplestthingsyoucando:initializeastreamconnectionandreceiveamessagefromaremoteserver.
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # i n c l u d e< u n i s t d . h > # i n c l u d e< a r p a / i n e t . h > # i n c l u d e< s y s / t y p e s . h > # i n c l u d e< n e t i n e t / i n . h > # i n c l u d e< s y s / s o c k e t . h > # d e f i n eM A X R C V L E N5 0 0 # d e f i n eP O R T N U M2 3 4 3 i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* a r g v [ ] ) { c h a rb u f f e r [ M A X R C V L E N+1 ] ;/ *+ 1s ow ec a na d dn u l lt e r m i n a t o r* / i n tl e n ,m y s o c k e t ; s t r u c ts o c k a d d r _ i nd e s t ; m y s o c k e t=s o c k e t ( A F _ I N E T ,S O C K _ S T R E A M ,0 ) ; m e m s e t ( & d e s t ,0 ,s i z e o f ( d e s t ) ) ; / *z e r ot h es t r u c t* / d e s t . s i n _ f a m i l y=A F _ I N E T ; d e s t . s i n _ a d d r . s _ a d d r=i n e t _ a d d r ( " 1 2 7 . 0 . 0 . 1 " ) ;/ *s e td e s t i n a t i o nI Pn u m b e r* / d e s t . s i n _ p o r t=h t o n s ( P O R T N U M ) ; / *s e td e s t i n a t i o np o r tn u m b e r* / c o n n e c t ( m y s o c k e t ,( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r* ) & d e s t ,s i z e o f ( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r ) ) ; l e n=r e c v ( m y s o c k e t ,b u f f e r ,M A X R C V L E N ,0 ) ; / *W eh a v et on u l lt e r m i n a t et h er e c e i v e dd a t ao u r s e l v e s* / b u f f e r [ l e n ]=' \ 0 ' ; p r i n t f ( " R e c e i v e d% s( % db y t e s ) . \ n " ,b u f f e r ,l e n ) ; c l o s e ( m y s o c k e t ) ; r e t u r nE X I T _ S U C C E S S ; }

Thisistheverybarebonesofaclientinpractice,wewouldcheckeveryfunctionthatwecallforfailure,however,errorcheckinghasbeenleftoutforclarity. Asyoucansee,thecodemainlyrevolvesaround d e s t whichisastructoftype s o c k a d d r _ i n .Thisstructstoresinformationaboutthemachinewewanttoconnectto.

m y s o c k e t=s o c k e t ( A F _ I N E T ,S O C K _ S T R E A M ,0 ) ;

The s o c k e t ( ) functiontellsourOSthatwewantafiledescriptorforasocketwhichwecanuseforanetworkstreamconnectionwhattheparametersmeanismostlyirrelevantfornow.
m e m s e t ( & d e s t ,0 ,s i z e o f ( d e s t ) ) ; / *z e r ot h es t r u c t* / d e s t . s i n _ f a m i l y=A F _ I N E T ; d e s t . s i n _ a d d r . s _ a d d r=i n e t _ a d d r ( " 1 2 7 . 0 . 0 . 1 " ) ;/ *s e td e s t i n a t i o nI Pn u m b e r* / d e s t . s i n _ p o r t=h t o n s ( P O R T N U M ) ; / *s e td e s t i n a t i o np o r tn u m b e r* /

Nowwegetontotheinterestingpart: Thefirstlineuses m e m s e t ( ) tozerothestruct. [Link] s o c k e t ( ) formostpurposes A F _ I N E T willserve.

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[Link] d e s t . s i n _ a d d r . s _ a d d r isjustanintegerstoredinBigEndianformat,butwedon'thavetoknowthatasthe i n e t _ a d d r ( ) functionwilldotheconversionfromstringintoBig

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[Link] d e s t . s i n _ a d d r . s _ a d d r isjustanintegerstoredinBigEndianformat,butwedon'thavetoknowthatasthe i n e t _ a d d r ( ) functionwilldotheconversionfromstringintoBig Endianintegerforus. [Link] h t o n s ( ) [Link] d e s t . s i n _ p o r t=2 1 would [Link],forportabilityreasons h t o n s ( ) shouldalwaysbeused. Nowthatallofthepreliminaryworkisdone,wecanactuallymaketheconnectionanduseit:
c o n n e c t ( m y s o c k e t ,( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r* ) & d e s t ,s i z e o f ( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r ) ) ;

ThistellsourOStousethesocket m y s o c k e t tocreateaconnectiontothemachinespecifiedin d e s t .
l e n=r e c v ( m y s o c k e t ,b u f f e r ,M A X R C V L E N ,0 ) ;

Nowthisreceivesupto M A X R C V L E N [Link] r e c v ( ) .Itisimportanttonotethatthedatareceivedwillnotautomaticallybenullterminatedwhen storedinthebuffer,soweneedtodoitourselveswith b u f f e r [ i n p u t l e n ]=' \ 0 ' . Andthat'saboutit! [Link]'[Link] s e n d ( ) function,whichusesthesameparametersas r e c v ( ) .Ifinourpreviousexample b u f f e r hadthetextwewantedtosendanditslengthwasstoredin l e n wewouldwrite s e n d ( m y s o c k e t ,b u f f e r ,l e n ,0 ) . s e n d ( ) [Link] s e n d ( ) ,forvariousreasons,maynotbeabletosendallof thebytes,[Link].

Asimpleserver
# i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< s t r i n g . h > # i n c l u d e< u n i s t d . h > # i n c l u d e< a r p a / i n e t . h > # i n c l u d e< s y s / t y p e s . h > # i n c l u d e< n e t i n e t / i n . h > # i n c l u d e< s y s / s o c k e t . h > # d e f i n eP O R T N U M2 3 4 3 i n tm a i n ( i n ta r g c ,c h a r* a r g v [ ] ) { c h a rm s g [ ]=" H e l l oW o r l d! \ n " ; s t r u c ts o c k a d d r _ i nd e s t ;/ *s o c k e ti n f oa b o u tt h em a c h i n ec o n n e c t i n gt ou s* / s t r u c ts o c k a d d r _ i ns e r v ;/ *s o c k e ti n f oa b o u to u rs e r v e r* / i n tm y s o c k e t ; / *s o c k e tu s e dt ol i s t e nf o ri n c o m i n gc o n n e c t i o n s* / s o c k l e n _ ts o c k s i z e=s i z e o f ( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r _ i n ) ; m e m s e t ( & s e r v ,0 ,s i z e o f ( s e r v ) ) ; / *z e r ot h es t r u c tb e f o r ef i l l i n gt h ef i e l d s* / s e r v . s i n _ f a m i l y=A F _ I N E T ; / *s e tt h et y p eo fc o n n e c t i o nt oT C P / I P* / s e r v . s i n _ a d d r . s _ a d d r=h t o n l ( I N A D D R _ A N Y ) ;/ *s e to u ra d d r e s st oa n yi n t e r f a c e* / s e r v . s i n _ p o r t=h t o n s ( P O R T N U M ) ; / *s e tt h es e r v e rp o r tn u m b e r* / m y s o c k e t=s o c k e t ( A F _ I N E T ,S O C K _ S T R E A M ,0 ) ; / *b i n ds e r vi n f o r m a t i o nt om y s o c k e t* / b i n d ( m y s o c k e t ,( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r* ) & s e r v ,s i z e o f ( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r ) ) ; / *s t a r tl i s t e n i n g ,a l l o w i n gaq u e u eo fu pt o1p e n d i n gc o n n e c t i o n* / l i s t e n ( m y s o c k e t ,1 ) ; i n tc o n s o c k e t=a c c e p t ( m y s o c k e t ,( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r* ) & d e s t ,& s o c k s i z e ) ; w h i l e ( c o n s o c k e t ) { p r i n t f ( " I n c o m i n gc o n n e c t i o nf r o m% s-s e n d i n gw e l c o m e \ n " ,i n e t _ n t o a ( d e s t . s i n _ a d d r ) ) ; s e n d ( c o n s o c k e t ,m s g ,s t r l e n ( m s g ) ,0 ) ; c o n s o c k e t=a c c e p t ( m y s o c k e t ,( s t r u c ts o c k a d d r* ) & d e s t ,& s o c k s i z e ) ; } c l o s e ( c o n s o c k e t ) ; c l o s e ( m y s o c k e t ) ; r e t u r nE X I T _ S U C C E S S ; }

Superficially,[Link] s o c k a d d r _ i n withinformationaboutthemachinewe'reconnectingto,wecreateitwithinformationabouttheserver,andthenwe b i n d ( ) ittothesocket. Thisallowsthemachinetoknowthedatareceivedontheportspecifiedinthe s o c k a d d r _ i n shouldbehandledbyourspecifiedsocket. The l i s t e n ( ) [Link] l i s t e n ( ) [Link] [Link] a c c e p t ( ) [Link] a c c e p t ( ) [Link] "session"socket,[Link](m y s o c k e t )continuestolistenonthespecifiedportforfurtherconnections.

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Oncewehave"session"socketwecanhandleitinthesamewayaswiththeclient,using s e n d ( ) and r e c v ( ) tohandledatatransfers. Notethatthisservercanonlyacceptoneconnectionatatimeifyouwanttosimultaneouslyhandlemultipleclientsthenyou'llneedto f o r k ( ) offseparateprocesses,orusethreads,tohandletheconnections.

Usefulnetworkfunctions
i n tg e t h o s t n a m e ( c h a r* h o s t n a m e ,s i z e _ ts i z e ) ;

[Link],itfindsthehostnameandstoresitinthearray.Onfailureitreturns1.
s t r u c th o s t e n t* g e t h o s t b y n a m e ( c o n s tc h a r* n a m e ) ;

Thisfunctionobtainsinformationaboutadomainnameandstoresitina h o s t e n t [Link] h o s t e n t structureisthe ( c h a r * * )h _ a d d r _ l i s t field,[Link] h _ a d d r isapointertothefirstIPaddressinthe h _ a d d r _ l i s t [Link] N U L L onfailure.

FAQs
Whataboutstatelessconnections?
Ifyoudon'twanttoexploitthepropertiesofTCPinyourprogramandwouldratherjustuseaUDPconnection,thenyoucanjustreplace S O C K _ S T R E A M with S O C K _ D G R A M inyourcallto s o c k e t ( ) [Link] UDPdoesnotguaranteedeliveryofpacketsandorderofdelivery,socheckingisimportant. IfyouwanttoexploitthepropertiesofUDP,thenyoucanuse s e n d t o ( ) and r e c v f r o m ( ) ,whichoperatelike s e n d ( ) and r e c v ( ) exceptyouneedtoprovideextraparametersspecifyingwhoyouarecommunicatingwith.

HowdoIcheckforerrors?
Thefunctions s o c k e t ( ) , r e c v ( ) and c o n n e c t ( ) allreturn1onfailureanduseerrnoforfurtherdetails.

Commonpractices
Withitsextensiveuse,[Link] [Link],andsomearecontroversial,eachoftheseenjoyswideuse.

Dynamicmultidimensionalarrays
Althoughonedimensionalarraysareeasytocreatedynamicallyusingmalloc,andfixedsizemultidimensionalarraysareeasytocreateusingthebuiltinlanguagefeature,[Link] tocreatethem,[Link]: Theycanbeallocatedasasingleblockofmemory,[Link] rectangular([Link]).Thedisadvantageisthatthesyntaxof [Link],ifonewantedtocreateanarrayofintsof3columnsand r o w s rows,onewoulddo
i n t( * m u l t i _ a r r a y ) [ 3 ]=m a l l o c ( r o w s*s i z e o f ( i n t [ 3 ] ) ) ;

(Notethathere m u l t i _ a r r a y isapointertoanarrayof3ints.) Becauseofarraypointerinterchangeability,youcanindexthisjustlikestaticmultidimensionalarrays,i.e. m u l t i _ a r r a y [ 5 ] [ 2 ] istheelementatthe6throwand3rdcolumn. Theycanbeallocatedbyfirstallocatinganarrayofpointers,andthenallocatingsubarraysandstoringtheiraddressesinthearrayofpointers(thisapproachisalsoknownasanIliffevector).Thesyntaxforaccessingelementsisthesameasfor multidimensionalarraysdescribedabove(eventhoughtheyarestoredverydifferently).Thisapproachhastheadvantageoftheabilitytomakeraggedarrays([Link]).However,italsousesmorespaceandrequires morelevelsofindirectiontoindexinto,[Link],eachofwhichcanbeexpensive. Formoreinformation,[Link],question6.16([Link] Insomecases,[Link],acommontechniquewastodefineamultidimensionalarray,whereeachcolumncontaineddifferent [Link],columnsofatwodimensionalcharacterarraymightcontainlastname,firstname,address,etc. Incaseslikethis,itisbettertodefineastructurethatcontainstheinformationthatwasstoredinthecolumns,[Link],such [Link],itisbettertocreateastructureforthealbumthatcontainsinformationaboutthealbum,[Link] usedtostorethecollection. [Link],a2dimensionalarraywithsizesxandyhasx*yelements,thereforecanbecreatedby
i n td y n a m i c _ m u l t i _ a r r a y [ x * y ] ;

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Theindexisslightlytrickierthanbefore,butcanstillbeobtainedbyy*i+[Link]
s t a t i c _ m u l t i _ a r r a y [ i ] [ j ] ; d y n a m i c _ m u l t i _ a r r a y [ y * i + j ] ;

Somemoreexampleswithhigherdimensions:
i n td i m 1 [ w ] ; i n td i m 2 [ w * x ] ; i n td i m 3 [ w * x * y ] ; i n td i m 4 [ w * x * y * z ] ; d i m 1 [ i ] d i m 2 [ w * j + i ] ; d i m 3 [ w * ( x * i + j ) + k ]/ /i n d e xi sk+w * j+w * x * i d i m 4 [ w * ( x * ( y * i + j ) + k ) + l ]/ /i n d e xi sw * x * y * i+w * x * j+w * k+l

Notethatw*(x*(y*i+j)+k)+lisequaltow*x*y*i+w*x*j+w*k+l,butusesfeweroperations(seeHorner'sMethod([Link] shouldnotbeanyslowertouse. Theadvantagetousingthismethodisthatthearraycanbepassedfreelybetweenfunctionswithoutknowingthesizeofthearrayatcompiletime(sinceCseesitasa1dimensionalarray,althoughsomewayofpassingthedimensionsisstillnecessary), andtheentirearrayiscontiguousinmemory,[Link].

Constructorsanddestructors
Inmostobjectorientedlanguages,[Link],[Link] [Link],calledattheendofanobject'slifetime,areimportantinsystemswhereanobjectholdsexclusiveaccesstosomeresource,anditisdesirableto ensurethatitreleasestheseresourcesforusebyotherobjects. SinceCisnotanobjectorientedlanguage,[Link],thisleadstoapotentialforerrors,sinceoperationson [Link],possiblytakinginitializationparameters,asinthisexample:
s t r u c ts t r i n g{ s i z e _ ts i z e ; c h a r* d a t a ; } ;

s t r u c ts t r i n g* c r e a t e _ s t r i n g ( c o n s tc h a r* i n i t i a l ){ a s s e r t( i n i t i a l! =N U L L ) ; s t r u c ts t r i n g* n e w _ s t r i n g=m a l l o c ( s i z e o f ( * n e w _ s t r i n g ) ) ; i f( n e w _ s t r i n g! =N U L L ){ n e w _ s t r i n g > s i z e=s t r l e n ( i n i t i a l ) ; n e w _ s t r i n g > d a t a=s t r d u p ( i n i t i a l ) ; } r e t u r nn e w _ s t r i n g ; }

Similarly,ifitislefttotheclienttodestroyobjectscorrectly,theymayfailtodoso,[Link],suchasthisone:
v o i df r e e _ s t r i n g ( s t r u c ts t r i n g* s ){ a s s e r t( s! =N U L L ) ; f r e e ( s > d a t a ) ; / *f r e em e m o r yh e l db yt h es t r u c t u r e* / f r e e ( s ) ; / *f r e et h es t r u c t u r ei t s e l f* / }

Itisoftenusefultocombinedestructorswith #Nullingfreedpointers. [Link],thestructureisdefinedinthesourcefile(oraprivateheaderfilenotavailabletousers)insteadoftheheaderfile,andaforward declarationisputintheheaderfile:

s t r u c ts t r i n g ; s t r u c ts t r i n g* c r e a t e _ s t r i n g ( c o n s tc h a r* i n i t i a l ) ; v o i df r e e _ s t r i n g ( s t r u c ts t r i n g* s ) ;

Nullingfreedpointers
Asdiscussedearlier,after f r e e ( ) hasbeencalledonapointer,[Link],mostmodernplatformscannotdetectwhensuchapointerisusedbeforebeingreassigned. Onesimplesolutiontothisistoensurethatanypointerissettoanullpointerimmediatelyafterbeingfreed: [18]

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f r e e ( p ) ; p=N U L L ;

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Unlikedanglingpointers,[Link],programscanincludeerrorchecksforthenullvalue,[Link] locations,amacrocanbeused:
# d e f i n eF R E E ( p ) d o{f r e e ( p ) ;( p )=N U L L ;}w h i l e ( 0 )

(Toseewhythemacroiswrittenthisway,see #Macroconventions.)Also,whenthistechniqueisused,destructorsshouldzerooutthepointerthattheyarepassed,[Link],here'sthe destructorfrom #Constructorsanddestructorsupdated:

v o i df r e e _ s t r i n g ( s t r u c ts t r i n g* * s ){ a s s e r t ( s! =N U L L & & * s! =N U L L ) ; F R E E ( ( * s ) > d a t a ) ; / *f r e em e m o r yh e l db yt h es t r u c t u r e* / F R E E ( * s ) ; / *f r e et h es t r u c t u r ei t s e l f* / * s = N U L L ; / *z e r ot h ea r g u m e n t* / }

Unfortunately,[Link],someCexpertsregardthisidiomasdangerousduetocreatingafalsesenseofsecurity.

Macroconventions
BecausepreprocessormacrosinCworkusingsimpletokenreplacement,theyarepronetoanumberofconfusingerrors,someofwhichcanbeavoidedbyfollowingasimplesetofconventions: 1. [Link],iftheyareexpressions,[Link]: Wrong: # d e f i n es q u a r e ( x )x * x Better: # d e f i n es q u a r e ( x )( x ) * ( x ) 2. [Link],thisavoidschangesinmeaningduetotheorderofoperations. Wrong: # d e f i n es q u a r e ( x )( x ) * ( x ) Better: # d e f i n es q u a r e ( x )( ( x ) * ( x ) ) Dangerous,[Link] s q u a r e( x + + ) ,afterthemacroinvocationwillxbeincrementedby2 3. Ifamacroproducesmultiplestatements,ordeclaresvariables,itcanbewrappedina do{...} while(0)loop,[Link],suchasthebodyofanif statement,[Link]'sarguments. Wrong: # d e f i n eF R E E ( p )f r e e ( p ) ;p=N U L L ; Better: # d e f i n eF R E E ( p )d o{f r e e ( p ) ;p=N U L L ;}w h i l e ( 0 ) 4. Avoidingusingamacroargumenttwiceormoreinsideamacro,ifpossiblethiscausesproblemswithmacroargumentsthatcontainsideeffects,suchasassignments. 5. Ifamacromaybereplacedbyafunctioninthefuture,consideringnamingitlikeafunction.

Furtherreading
1. Severalprogrammersrecommend"[Link]."[1]([Link] ([Link] tabs,makesureyoukeepitconsistentwithprojectsyouareworkingon,becausemixingtabsandspacescancausecodetobecomeunreadable. 2. [5]([Link] 3. [[Link] 4. "CodingConventionsforC++andJava"([Link] Thisdeliberatechoicewasmadebecausealigningthoseprettystarsisalargewasteoftimeanddiscouragesthemaintenanceofinlinecomments.", 5. wiki:BigBlocksOfAsterisks,"Codecraft"([Link] id=i4zCzpkrt4sC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=programming+comment+block+waste+time+lining+up&source=bl&ots=TUpTMIHBnh&sig=NeZm23WPmvnw2aKMnIRUeQoHmJg&hl=en&ei=pri3SevGIYGyNMn9jd4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result) byPeteGoodliffepage82,Falvotech"CProgrammingStyleGuide"([Link] ThereareahugenumberofCstyleguidelines. "CandC++StyleGuides"([Link] TheMotorIndustrySoftwareReliabilityAssociation(MISRA)publishes"MISRAC:GuidelinesfortheuseoftheClanguageincriticalsystems".(Wikipedia:MISRAC[7]([Link]

Candbeyond Languageextensions
MostCcompilershaveoneormore"extensions"tothestandardClanguage,todothingsthatareinconvenienttodoinstandard,portableC.

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Someexamplesoflanguageextensions: inlineassemblylanguage interruptserviceroutines

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variablelengthdatastructure(astructurewhoselastitemisa"zerolengtharray"). [19] resizeablemultidimensionalarrays various"#pragma"settingstocompilequickly,togeneratefastcode,ortogeneratecompactcode. bitmanipulation,especiallybitrotationsandthingsinvolvingthe"carry"bit storagealignment Arrayswhoselengthiscomputedatruntime.

Externallinks
GNUC:ExtensionstotheCLanguage([Link] C/C++interpreterChextensionstotheClanguageforscripting([Link] SDCC:StorageClassLanguageExtensions([Link] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. GCC:"Optimizecommonrotateconstructs"([Link] "CleanupsinROTL/ROTRDAGcombinercode"([Link] "replaceprivatecopyofbitrotationroutines"([Link] CFAQ([Link] UnderstandingC++/CPreprocessor DavidHart,JonReid."9CodeSmellsofPreprocessorUse"([Link] HPCCompilerReferenceManual([Link] C++reference:Predefinedpreprocessorvariables([Link] "CompileTimeAssertionsinC"([Link] Wikipedia:C++0x#Staticassertions Wirzenius,[Link]([Link] Meyers,Randy(May2001)."TheNewC:XMacros". [Link]'sJournal.[Link] Beal,Stephan(August2004). Supermacros.[Link] KeithSchwarz."AdvancedPreprocessorTechniques"([Link] Wirzenius,[Link]([Link] C996.2.5/15 "Bug478901...libpng1.2.34andearliermightfreeundefinedpointers"([Link] [Link]:"Whyisn'tapointernullaftercallingfree?"([Link] [Link]:Question2.6([Link] definedsolution."

Mixinglanguages
Assembler
SeeEmbeddedSystems/MixedCandAssemblyProgramming

Cg
Makethemainprogram(forCPU)inC,whichloadsandruntheCgprogram(forGPU). [1][2][3]

HeaderFiles
AddtoCprogram: [4]
# i n c l u d e< C g / c g . h >/ *T oi n c l u d et h ec o r eC gr u n t i m eA P Ii n t oy o u r p r o g r a m* / # i n c l u d e< C g / c g G L . h > / *t oi n c l u d et h eO p e n G L s p e c i f i cC gr u n t i m eA P I* /

Java
UsingtheJavanativeinterface(JNI),JavaapplicationscancallClibraries. Seealso

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Perl
TomixPerlandC,[Link](oraClibrary)whichonewishestousewithPerl. [Link]"h2xs"application(e.g."h2xsAnModulename").[Link],[Link] [Link],let'ssay:
v o i d h e l l o ( ) C O D E : p r i n t f ( " H e l l o ,w o r l d ! \ n " ) ;

andwecansuccessfullyuseournewcommandatPerlside,afterrunninga"[Link]"and"make". Furtherdetailscanbefoundontheperlxstut([Link]

Python Forfurtherreading
EmbeddedSystems/MixedCandAssemblyProgramming

References
1. 2. 3. 4. Lesson:47fromNeHeProductions([Link] CgBumpmappingbyRazvanSurdulescuatGameDev([Link] [[Link] [Link]

Codelibrary
ThefollowingisanimplementationoftheStandardC99versionof < a s s e r t . h > :
/ *a s s e r t . hh e a d e r* / # u n d e fa s s e r t # i f d e fN D E B U G # d e f i n ea s s e r t ( _ I g n o r e )( ( v o i d ) 0 ) # e l s e v o i d_ A s s e r t f a i l ( c h a r* ,c h a r* ,i n t ,c h a r* ) ; # d e f i n ea s s e r t ( _ T e s t )( ( _ T e s t ) ? ( ( v o i d ) 0 ) : _ A s s e r t f a i l ( # _ T e s t , _ _ F I L E _ _ , _ _ L I N E _ _ , _ _ f u n c _ _ ) ) # e n d i f / *E N DO FF I L E* / / *x a s s e r t f a i l . c-_ A s s e r t f a i lf u n c t i o n* / # i n c l u d e< s t d l i b . h > # i n c l u d e< s t d i o . h > # i n c l u d e< a s s e r t . h > v o i d _ A s s e r t f a i l ( c h a r* t e s t ,c h a r* f i l e n a m e ,i n tl i n e _ n u m b e r ,c h a r* f u n c t i o n _ n a m e ) { f p r i n t f ( s t d e r r ," A s s e r t i o nf a i l e d :% s ,f u n c t i o n% s ,f i l e% s ,l i n e% d . " , t e s t ,f u n c t i o n _ n a m e ,f i l e n a m e ,l i n e _ n u m b e r ) ; a b o r t ( ) ; } / *E N DO FF I L E* /

ComputerProgramming
ThefollowingarticlesareCadaptationsfromarticlesoftheComputerprogrammingbook.

Statements
A statementisacommandgiventothecomputerthatinstructsthecomputertotakeaspecificaction,suchasdisplaytothescreen,[Link].

p u t s( " H it h e r e ! " ) ;

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p u t s( " H it h e r e ! " ) ; p u t s( " S t r a n g et h i n g sa r ea f o o t . . . " ) ;

CReferenceTables
ThissectionhassometablesandlistsofCentities.

ReferenceTables
ListofKeywords
ANSIC(C89)/ISOC(C90)keywords:

a u t o b r e a k c a s e c h a r c o n s t c o n t i n u e d e f a u l t d o

d o u b l e e l s e e n u m e x t e r n f l o a t f o r g o t o i f

i n t l o n g r e g i s t e r r e t u r n s h o r t s i g n e d s i z e o f s t a t i c

s t r u c t s w i t c h t y p e d e f u n i o n u n s i g n e d v o i d v o l a t i l e w h i l e

KeywordsaddedtoISOC(C99)(Supportedonlyinnewcompilers):

_ B o o l _ C o m p l e x

_ I m a g i n a r y i n l i n e

r e s t r i c t( h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / R e s t r i c t )

Specificcompilersmay(inanonstandardcompliantmode)alsotreatsomeotherwordsaskeywords,including a s m , c d e c l , f a r , f o r t r a n , h u g e , i n t e r r u p t , n e a r , p a s c a l , t y p e o f . VeryoldcompilersmaynotrecognizesomeoralloftheC89keywords c o n s t , e n u m , s i g n e d , v o i d , v o l a t i l e aswellastheC99keywords. Seealsothelistofreservedidentifiers([Link]

ListofStandardHeaders
ANSIC(C89)/ISOC(C90)headers:

< a s s e r t . h > < c t y p e . h > < e r r n o . h > < f l o a t . h >

< l i m i t s . h > < l o c a l e . h > < m a t h . h > < s e t j m p . h >

< s i g n a l . h > < s t d a r g . h > < s t d d e f . h > < s t d i o . h >

< s t d l i b . h > < s t r i n g . h > < t i m e . h >

Veryoldcompilersmaynotincludesomeorallofthefollowingheaders: HeadersaddedtoISOC(C94/C95)inAmendment1(AMD1):

< i s o 6 4 6 . h >

< w c h a r . h >

< w c t y p e . h >

HeadersaddedtoISOC(C99)(Supportedonlyinnewcompilers):

< c o m p l e x . h > < f e n v . h >

< i n t t y p e s . h > < s t d b o o l . h >

< s t d i n t . h > < t g m a t h . h >

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TableofOperators
Operatorsinthesamerowofthistablehavethesame precedenceandtheorderofevaluationisdecidedbythe associativity(lefttoright or righttoleft ).Operatorsclosertothetopofthistablehave higherprecedencethanthoseinasubsequent group. Operators Description Postfixoperators ExampleUsage Associativity

( ) [ ]

functioncalloperator arrayindexoperator memberaccessoperator foranobjectofstruct/uniontype orareferencetoit memberaccessoperator forapointertoanobjectof struct/uniontype

s w a p( x ,y ) a r r[ i ]

Lefttoright

o b j . m e m b e r

>

p t r > m e m b e r

UnaryOperators
! ~

logicalnotoperator bitwisenotoperator unaryplus/minusoperators

! e o f _ r e a c h e d ~ m a s k n u m

[1] ++ ++ +& * s i z e o f s i z e o f ( ) ( t y p e )

postincrement/decrementoperators n u m + + preincrement/decrementoperators + + n u m addressofoperator indirectionoperator sizeofoperator forexpressions sizeofoperator fortypes castoperator

& d a t a * p t r s i z e o f1 2 3 s i z e o f( i n t ) ( f l o a t ) i

Righttoleft

MultiplicativeOperators
*/%

multiplication,divisionand modulusoperators

Lefttoright
c e l s i u s _ d i f f*9 . 0/5 . 0

AdditiveOperators
+-

Lefttoright
e n d-s t a r t+1

additionandsubtractionoperators

BitwiseShiftOperators Lefttoright
< < > >

leftshiftoperator rightshiftoperator

b i t s< <s h i f t _ l e n b i t s> >s h i f t _ l e n

RelationalInequalityOperators

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<>< => =

C Programming/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

lessthan,greaterthan,lessthanor i<n u m _ e l e m e n t s equalto,greaterthanorequalto operators Lefttoright

RelationalEqualityOperators
= =! =

equalto,notequalto

Lefttoright

c h o i c e! =' n '

BitwiseAndOperator
& b i t s&c l e a r _ m a s k _ c o m p l e m e n t

Lefttoright

BitwiseXorOperator
^ b i t s^i n v e r t _ m a s k

Lefttoright

BitwiseOrOperator
| b i t s|s e t _ m a s k

Lefttoright

LogicalAndOperator
& & a r r! =0& &a r r > l e n! =0

Lefttoright

LogicalOrOperator
| |

seeLogicalExpressions ConditionalOperator

Lefttoright
a r r= =0| |a r r > l e n= =0

Righttoleft
? : s i z e! =0?s i z e:0

AssignmentOperators
= + ==* =/ = % =& =| =^ = < < => > =

assignmentoperator shorthandassignmentoperators (f o oo p =b a r represents

f o o=f o oo pb a r )

i=0

Righttoleft
n u m/ =1 0

CommaOperator
, i=0 ,j=i+1 ,k=0

Lefttoright

TableofOperatorsFootnotes
[1]Veryoldcompilersmaynotrecognizetheunary + operator.

TableofDataTypes
Type SizeinBits Comments PrimitiveTypesinANSIC(C89)/ISOC(C90) AlternativeNames

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s i z e o f givesthesizeinunitsof c h a r [Link]"Cbytes"neednotbe8bitbytes(thoughcommonlytheyare)thenumberofbitsis

givenbythe C H A R _ B I T macrointhe l i m i t s . h header.

c h a r

Signednessisimplementationdefined. Anyencodingof8bitsorless([Link])canbeusedtostorecharacters. Integeroperationscanbeperformedportablyonlyfortherange0~127. Allbitscontributetothevalueofthe char,[Link]"holes"or"padding"bits.

s i g n e dc h a r

sameas c h a r

Charactersstoredlikefortype c h a r . Canstoreintegersintherange127~127portably[1].

u n s i g n e dc h a r

sameas c h a r

Charactersstoredlikefortype c h a r . Canstoreintegersintherange0~255portably.

s h o r t

16,sizeof c h a r

Canstoreintegersintherange32767~32767portably[2]. Usedtoreducememoryusage(althoughtheresultingexecutablemaybelargerandprobablyslowerascomparedtousing i n t .

s h o r ti n t , s i g n e ds h o r t , s i g n e ds h o r t i n t

u n s i g n e ds h o r t

sameas s h o r t

Canstoreintegersintherange0~65535portably. Usedtoreducememoryusage(althoughtheresultingexecutablemaybelargerandprobablyslowerascomparedtousing i n t .

u n s i g n e ds h o r ti n t

i n t

16,sizeof s h o r t

Representsthe"normal"sizeofdatatheprocessordealswith(thewordsize)thisistheintegraldatatypeusednormally. Canstoreintegersintherange32767~32767portably[2].

s i g n e d , s i g n e di n t

u n s i g n e di n t

sameas i n t

Canstoreintegersintherange0~65535portably.

u n s i g n e d

l o n g

32,sizeof i n t

Canstoreintegersintherange2147483647~2147483647portably[3].

l o n gi n t , s i g n e dl o n g , s i g n e dl o n gi n t

u n s i g n e dl o n g

sameas l o n g

Canstoreintegersintherange0~4294967295portably.

u n s i g n e dl o n gi n t

f l o a t

sizeof c h a r

Usedtoreducememoryusagewhenthevaluesuseddonotvarywidely. ThefloatingpointformatusedisimplementationdefinedandneednotbetheIEEEsingleprecisionformat. u n s i g n e d cannotbespecified.

d o u b l e

sizeof f l o a t

Representsthe"normal"sizeofdatatheprocessordealswiththisisthefloatingpointdatatypeusednormally. ThefloatingpointformatusedisimplementationdefinedandneednotbetheIEEEdoubleprecisionformat. u n s i g n e d cannotbespecified.

l o n gd o u b l e

sizeof d o u b l e

u n s i g n e d cannotbespecified.

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PrimitiveTypesaddedtoISOC(C99)
l o n gl o n gi n t , s i g n e dl o n gl o n g , s i g n e d l o n gl o n gi n t

l o n gl o n g

64,sizeof l o n g

Canstoreintegersintherange9223372036854775807~9223372036854775807portably[4].

u n s i g n e dl o n gl o n g

sameas l o n gl o n g

Canstoreintegersintherange0~18446744073709551615portably.

u n s i g n e dl o n gl o n gi n t

i n t m a x _ t

themaximumwidthsupportedby theplatform

Canstoreintegersintherange(1<<n1)+1~(1<<n1)1,with'n'thewidthofintmax_t. Usedbythe"j"lengthmodifierintheCProgramming/FileIO#Formattedoutputfunctions:theprintffamilyoffunctions.

u i n t m a x _ t

sameas i n t m a x _ t

Canstoreintegersintherange0~(1<<n)1,with'n'thewidthofuintmax_t.

UserDefinedTypes

s t r u c t

sumofsizeofeachmember

Saidtobean aggregatetype.

u n i o n

sizeofthelargestmember

Saidtobean aggregatetype.

e n u m

sizeof c h a r

Enumerationsareaseparatetypefrom i n t s,thoughtheyaremutuallyconvertible.

t y p e d e f

sameasthetypebeinggivena name

t y p e d e f hassyntaxsimilartoastorageclasslike s t a t i c , r e g i s t e r or e x t e r n .

DerivedTypes[5]

0 alwaysrepresentsthenullpointer(anaddresswherenodatacanbeplaced),irrespectiveofwhatbitsequencerepresentsthe

t y p e *

sizeof c h a r (pointer)

valueofanullpointer. Pointerstodifferenttypesmayhavedifferentrepresentations,[Link] convertibletooneanother. Eveninanimplementationwhichguarantessalldatapointerstobeofthesamesize,functionpointersanddatapointersarein generalincompatiblewitheachother. Forfunctionstakingvariablenumberofarguments,theargumentspassedmustbeofappropriatetype,soeven 0 mustbecast totheappropriatetypeinsuchfunctioncalls.

[ 6 ] t y p e[ i n t e g e r ]

Thebrackets([ ] ) followtheidentifiernameinadeclaration. integersizeof t y p e Inadeclarationwhichalsoinitializesthearray(includingafunctionparameterdeclaration),thesizeofthearray(the integer)can

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beomitted. t y p e[ ] isnotthesameas t y p e * .Onlyundersomecircumstancesonecanbeconvertedtotheother.

t y p e( c o m m a d e l i m i t e dl i s to f t y p e s / d e c l a r a t i o n s )

Functionsdeclaredwithoutanystorageclassare e x t e r n . Theparentheses(( ) ) followtheidentifiernameinadeclaration,e.g.a2argfunctionpointer: i n t( *f p t r )( i n ta r g 1 ,i n ta r g 2 ) .

(function)

TableofDataTypesFootnotes
[1]128canbestoredintwo'scomplementmachines([Link]).Veryoldcompilersmaynotrecognizethe s i g n e d keyword. [2]32768canbestoredintwo'scomplementmachines([Link]).Veryoldcompilersmaynotrecognizethe s i g n e d keyword. [3]2147483648canbestoredintwo'scomplementmachines([Link]).Veryoldcompilersmaynotrecognizethe s i g n e d keyword. [4]9223372036854775808canbestoredintwo'scomplementmachines([Link]). [5]Theprecedencesinadeclarationare:
[ ] , ( ) (leftassociative)Highest * (rightassociative)Lowest

[6]ThestandardsdoNOTplaceanyrestrictiononthesize/typeoftheinteger,it'[Link]

allocated,andassuchthelimitonintegerwillbesize_of_max_block/sizeof(type).

Compilers

Free(orwithafreeversion)
Ch_interpreter([Link] lccwin32([Link] GNUCompilerCollection([Link] MinGW([Link] OpenWatcom([Link] HostPlatforms:Win32systems(IDEandcommandline),32bitOS/2(IDEandcommandline),DOS(commandline),andWindows3.x(IDE) TargetPlatforms:DOS(16bit),Windows3.x(16bit),OS/21.x(16bit),ExtendedDOS,Win32s,Windows95/98/Me,WindowsNT/2000/XP,32bitOS/2,andNovellNLMs Experimental/Development:Linux,BSD,*nix,PowerPC,AlphaAXP,MIPS,andSparcv8 TinyCCompiler PortableCCompiler([Link] SmallDeviceCCompiler(SDCC) targetplatforms:Intel8051compatiblesFreescale(Motorola)HC08MicrochipPIC16andPIC18. [Link]:FPGAhardwareviaXNForVHDLfiles. InteractiveC([Link] targetplatform:HandyBoard(Freescale68HC11)LegoRCX Ccompilersformanydigitalsignalprocessors(DSPs),manyofthemfree,[Link]([Link]

Commercial
IntelCCompiler([Link] MicrosoftVisualC++([Link] ImpulseCTargetplatform:FPGAhardwareviaHardwareDescriptionLanguage(HDL)files. Retrievedfrom"[Link]

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