- the vibration from a body are called frequencies frequencies - cycles per second (cps) or vibrations per second

d (vps) and the compressions and rarefactions are called sound waves

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ACOUSTICS AND LIGHTING

SOUND - is a physical wave or simply a series of pressure vibrations - for airborne sound, the medium is air - for structure borne sound, the medium is building materials such as concrete, steel, wood, glass or combinations of all these - it is always assumed that the hearer has a pair of healthy young ears with the direction range of 20 to 20,000 Hz PROPERTIES OF SOUND speed of velocity - 1125 ft/sec at 20F, the velocity increases 1ft/sec for every 10 rise in temperature (in Fahrenheit) where: v = velocity F = frequency d = distance of the medium through which the sound travels frequency - is the number of cycles of vibrations executed per second. Humans can hear sounds within the 40 vps to 16,000 vps range

ACOUSTICS - is a branch of science that deals with the control and propagation of sound. Objectives of acoustics 1. to reinforce needed sound 2. to eliminate unwanted sound 3. to prevent unwanted sound to be transmitted into an enclosed space

THE NATURE OF SOUND sound - originates from a vibrating body. It is pressure have in an elastic medium. It is not restricted, it spreads outward from its source in all directions diminishing in intensity inversely as the square of the distance from the source increases - these vibrations from the body come outward as compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding air rarefaction - the instantaneous, local reduction in density of a gas resulting from passage of a sound wave, or the region in which the density is reduced at some instant - elongation of sound

molecular absorption - a sound maybe covered up or absorbed by another sound. This phenomena is called masking of sound and this is very useful in acoustics - the sound masking is usually of lower frequency than the sound it masks soporific effect - that effect brought about by a low-steady sound - distance between two crests of a sound wave - low frequency sounds have longer wavelengths than high frequency sounds. The wavelength is also the distance traveled by sound in one second divided by the frequency of the wave - example: the wavelength of a 100 cycle wave is a little of eleven feet long and a five hundred cycle wave WL = distance traveled by sound wave in one second / the frequency of the wave

REFLECTION OF SOUND ON A SURFACE A surface that is rigid, flat and smooth usually reflects sound. The reflection of sound on a surface follows the behavior of reflected light, meaning that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection GEOMETRY OF REFLECTED SOUND

WAVELENGTH

One characteristic of sound is that, like light, it can bend around an obstruction known as diffraction of sound. Low frequency sounds are diffracted more easily than high frequency sounds

BEHAVIOR OF SOUND IN A ROOM When a sound wave in a room strikes a surface in a room, part of the energy is reflected, part is absorbed by the surface and part is transmitted to the surface

When the wavelength of a sound is just the same as one of the rooms dimensions, a standing wave is created. When a sound comes from a source, the hearer of the sound actually hears two types of sounds: 1. direct or original sound - from the source and directly delivered to the hearer 2. reflected sound - from all directions of the room

for a sound to be heard by a listener comfortably, the reflected sound must come to him not later than 0.05 of a second or in terms of distance, the direct sound and the path of the reflected sound should not exceed 57 ft

When the reflected sound, which reaches an observer, is delayed more than about 0.058 seconds relative to the direct sounds, they are distinguished as echoes. Reverberation consist of successive reflections of sounds in a room, and since sound travels only about 1130 ft or 344 m/sec, these usually will be a rather long succession of these reflections before the sound dies away to inaudibility Thus, the speed of sound plays a significant role in architectural acoustics RESONANCE Is what happens to a body when another vibrating body vibrates and initiates. The other body to vibrate in harmony with it Resonance can be useful to reinforce sounds at some specific frequencies This happens only however, if the resonating body or resonator has a dimension which is a multiple of the wavelength of the sound wave from the originating body

VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION Sound travels at different velocities, depending upon the medium. On air, at sea level, sound velocity is 344 m/sec or 1130 fps, slow compared to light at 186,000 miles per second. Sound travels much faster in liquids and solids than it does on air. SOUND PROPAGATION VELOCITY IN VARIOUS MEDIA VELOCITY meter per second 344 1410 3300 3600 3700 4900 5000 5800 At 22C

medium Air Water Wood Brick Concrete Steel Glass Aluminum

feet per second 1130 4625 10,825 11,800 12,100 16,000 16,400 19,000 At 72F Low frequencies have more resonance than the high frequencies because low frequencies have longer wavelengths and therefore more multipliers to the dimensions of the room than high frequencies

SPEED OF SOUND As sound travels much slower than the speed of light, the resulting defects in many rooms are echoes and reverberations

Yet, there are sounds that require less resonance to give presence to the sounds SOUND ABSORPTION The sound phenomenon that happens to sound when it strikes a surface is that the sound is absorbed by the surface. Actually, what really happens is, when sound wave strikes an absorbent surface, the sound waves through friction on the pores of the surface are transformed into heat energy THE TYPES OF ABSORBENT SURFACES ARE: soft and porous surfaces - such as corkboard, foam or Styrofoam or any material which has this property like draperies on the walls and carpets on the floor panel absorber - consisting of two layers of materials with an airspace between them. The outer layer, being of porous type and the inner layer of solid background

containing the sound waves. This type of absorber is effective only at the resonant frequency, meaning it can only absorb some sounds When the sound wave is transformed into heat energy, the sound will no longer be reflected. The sound heard is only the direct sound This sound absorption efficiency of a material is measured in terms of units known as sobius, in which one sabin means perfect absorption and 0 means no absorption Number 1 absorption - open window or door - a line of pillows - two closets facing each other and sandwiching a wall DECIBEL - measurement of the intensity of sound - abbreviated (db) 40db - limit for comfortable hearing 100-120 db - can no longer be comfortable, that is painful to the ear ECHO - reflected sound REVERBERATION - is a series of echoes coming from the same source REVERBERATION TIME - is the time in seconds that a reflected sound diminishes for the case by 60db after the original sound has stopped - formula RT = 0.05V a1s1 where: V = volume of room in cubic feet s1 = area of an absorbent surface a1 = coefficient of absorption of a surface - example

cavity resonator - Consisting of an enclosed body of air which is connected by a narrow passage with the space

materials Wood Plaster Metal Glass Seats

an auditorium with a volume of 80,800 is to be acoustically treated to serve an acceptable reverberation time with or without audience. The auditorium has been provided with the following materials such as: area in feet coefficient of absorption in (s1) absorption sabins (a1) 6,928 .03 208 7,440 .033 246 628 .01 6.3 408 .025 10.2 550 .017 93.5 504.01 units in sabins RT = 0.05V a1s1 RT = .05(80,800) 504 = 4040 504 = 8.0 seconds add 200 auditors at 4.17 each 200 x 4.17 = 834 + 504 1338 RT = .05(80,800) 1338 = 3.0 seconds from table: the ideal RT is from 1 to 1.5 seconds 1.5 = .05(80,800) (1338 + x) 1.5(1338 + x) = .05(80,800) x = 1355.3

TRANSIENT SOUND - is the term applied to the direct sound which if the originating body stops, vibrating also stops. SOUND FIELDS IN AN ENCLOSED SPACE When a sound propagated in an enclosed space reaches a wall or other large (with respect to wavelength) obstruction, part is reflected and part is absorbed. The sound at any point in the room is then the combination of direct sound from walls and other obstructions. DIFFUSION When the reflections are so large that the sound level becomes uniform throughout the room. (no acoustical shadow). Most rooms dont have such a high level of reflection that a diffuse field is created: 1. near field near the source 2. free field at a distance 3. reverberant field near the walls

-computation

-corrections

1. ordered 2. disordered SOUND FIELDS CAN BE RECOGNIZED AS FOLLOWS near field - generally within one wavelength of the lowest frequency of sound produced by the source. - the maximum wavelength for the male human voice is 3.30mts or 11 ft reverberant field - near large obstructions such as walls - is dominant and approaches a diffused condition free field - exist between the near and reverberant field - the intensity varies as pressure squared and inversely with the distance in an ordered sound, the instantaneous pressure follows a regular pattern in a disordered sound, the peak of acoustic power occur more or less at random, the periodic qualities of ordered sound are lacking. THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOUNDS IN A BUILDING 1. noise unwanted sound 2. music generally not always made up of ordered sound 3. speech consists of both ordered and disordered sound THE HEALING POWER OF SOUND In many ancient cultures, the power of sound played a major role in developing the spiritual and physical well being of the people. Today, due to the growing interest of alternative medicine. The use sound for therapeutic purpose is once again regaining popular acceptance. Sound waves from the outside enter the ear and are converted into nerve impulses. They are transmitted to the brain which interprets them as sounds that we hear. Cheering during a basketball game heightens emotions and develops a sense of group unity Jazz and classical music generally provides a feeling of relaxation Noise from the rush hour traffic causes anxiety and tension These are only few instances where sound only becomes a part of our everyday life, but also affects it as well. MUSIC THERAPHY SOUNDS MAYBE CLASSIFIED AS:

INVERSE SQUARE LAW States that the intensity of sound is inversely proportional to distance from the source.

Music makes a powerful impact on the senses. Often touching feelings too deep or too difficult to express in words. The approach of music therapy practitioners can be classified into two: The response approach - focuses on the therapeutic power of music heard from an external source and the body and minds reaction to such music. The expression approach - identifies musics power to come not only form its reception but also from its creation. Music allows us to express a wide range of emotions from frustrations to extreme joy; music also reveals deep feelings and problems This psychotherapeutic effect is the reason why music therapy has become popular in treating the mentally ill and the mentally handicapped. Playing music is also encourage among the physically disabled people who need to improve their movement and control. DESIGN OF ROOMS FOR SPEECH WITHOUT THE USE OF SOUND SYSTEM 1. The main objective in the design of rooms of this kind to insure that every member of the audience can clearly hear what the speaker says. 2. Another aim is to preserve the natural qualities of a speakers voice so that each member of the audience can appreciate the dramatic effect intended by the speaker. NATURE OF SPEECH SOUNDS AND EFFECTS OF ROOM ACOUSTICS 1. Speech should consist of a flow of various combinations of vowel and consonant sounds. The consonant sounds are merely of a transient nature, meaning they are short and rapidly changing. Generally, it is the recognition of the consonant sounds which is a factor in speech intelligibly in an auditorium.

2. If every member of an audience is to hear well, the sound in each seat must be loud enough, this being the case, there should be a minimum of background noises which will tend to mask the wanted sound. 3. Reverberation time should also be reduced to a tolerable level because the reverberations of the previous syllables will obscure the sound of each syllable.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH 1. The direct sound shall be as strong as possible because the sound weakens as the distance from the source increases. 2. It is also important that the direct sound shall not be obstructed by any means. 3. The best way to insure that the direct sound will go to every seat is either: The source of the sound should be located higher than any head in the audience. By seating the audience in such a way that at least 3 inches is provided between the sight from one row and the sight from the next. 4. Because speech is directional, in plan, the seats should be positioned so that none falls outside an angle of 140, the sound intensity will decay rapidly. 5. In order for the direct sound to be reinforced by the reverberant sound, reflectors should be used and angled towards that part of the audience farthest from the speaker.

40,000 ft3 100,000 ft3 400,000 ft3 6. The reflected paths should not exceed 50ft more than the direct sound path.

0.82 of a second 0.9 of a second 1.0 of a second

If the reverberation time of the structure is larger or longer than the acceptable level, then the only way to remedy the fault is to provide sound absorbent materials on those surfaces that reflected sound. CLOUDS - pieces of cloth hung on the ceiling to absorb sound not less than 2 ft in depth; 2 ft because the wavelength of low frequency sound is usually 2 ft - the best location for the sound absorbents in a room intended for speech is at the end of the room away from the speaker and also to those surfaces which might produce unwanted echoes, like the rear of the wall of the hall, especially if the wall is concave. THE DESIGN OF ROOM FOR MUSIC Factors that affect good production of music

Note: 140 covers both the horizontal and vertical 7. It has been found out that the best volume for rooms of this kind is 100 ft3 per seat. 8. After the size and shape of the room has been determined, the next step is to design the surface so that the reverberation time will be suitable. Recommended reverberation times for various volume levels 10,000 ft3 0.7 of a second 20,000 ft3 0.78 of a second

1. definition - refers to hearing clearly each type of musical instrument so that they are readily distinguished from each other. 2. balance - is the correct loudness ratio between the various sections of the orchestra. 3. blend - is the hearing of a body of instruments as a homogeneous source rather than as a collection of individual sources. 4. a low level of intruding noise

How to achieve fullness of tone This can be achieved again if the first reflectors assist the direct sound. How to achieve balance This can be achieved by the proper location of the various sections of the orchestra. Weaker instruments should not be hidden behind stronger instruments.

ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ROOMS FOR MUSIC All the reflections of the original sound will blend into the direct sound and gives body to the music. These are known as first reflections and should arrive after the direct sound is not more than 0.35 second. All the other reverberant sounds which come later, this time will produce a muffled effect to the original sound. These are the sounds that should be eliminated especially if among these sounds, there are one to two reflected sounds that stick out above the others and these are the echoes. How to achieve good definition 1. The direct and the first reflected sounds must be maintained at a high intensity. 2. The shape of the room should be considered in terms of the factors related to the design of rooms intended for speech. 3. There should be a reflector above the stage to throw reflected sounds towards the rear of the audience. If balcony is part of the design, then the soffit will provide as a reflector to that part of the audience under the balcony.

ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS 1. All the acoustical design will depend on whether speech or music is considered the more important element on the nature of the religious service. 2. If speech is of first importance, the church will be designed in accordance with the principles in the design of speech. If the music is of primary importance, then the design should be in accordance with the principles for the design of rooms for music. 3. A church which has separate cell fro transept or chapel which opens off to the main body of the church has the acoustical disadvantages that the reverberation in the cells may be different from the main bodys. Some particular notes may continue in the cells long after the main reverberation has stopped. SPEECH REINFORCEMENTSYSTEM OR SOUND SYSTEMS AID TO THE NATURAL SOUND Reasons for using sound reinforcement system 1. The original sound may not be loud enough to be heard by every member of the audience therefore sound system may be used. 2. There might be too much noise coming from outside as well as within the audience that tends to cover the original sound.

3. The acoustics of the building itself maybe poor and well interfere with the unaided speech sound and for this reason, reinforcement system is required to reduce bad acoustics IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM 1. The audience must hear the words clearly without distortion and in a reasonable loudness. 2. for realistic effect, the speech should appear to be coming from the human speaker and not from any loud speaker. MICROPHONES Two types of microphone 1. omnidirectional microphone - equally sensitive sound to sounds arriving at it from any direction 2. directional microphone - receives sound from one direction. For speaking purposes, the directional microphone is better to use because it reduces the feedback LOUDSPEAKER - to give natural as much as possible as well as to make the sound louder - diffuses low frequency sounds, projects directionally high frequency sounds - should be placed one at the left, the other at the right For good reaction of the microphone, the man speaking should be from 18 to 2 ft from the microphone. If too close, the low frequency sounds will be accentuated. If farther away, the reverberant sounds will be picked up For good hearing and reception, the main speaker should stay in a fixed position and should not vary substantially the distance between his mouth and the microphone

An ideal situation in the used of speech reinforcement system is that the listener will hear not only the natural sound but also the sound coming from a loudspeaker Under this condition, the hearing of the natural and the loudspeaker merely magnifies the sound Another effect to consider is that the listener should be able to know the location of the source of sound, that is, that the sound appears to come from the original source and not from the loudspeaker. To achieve this effect, the natural sound should be heard first by the listener before the sound of the loudspeaker and this is known as time delayed sound in which thru mechanical means, the loudspeaker sound should be made to come out a little bit later than the natural sound, usually at an interval of 0.035 of a second

DESIGN OF ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS 1. in general, rooms intended for speech or music should be designed by an architect in such a way that future use of the room with the aid of speech reinforcement system should be incorporated into the design rather than designing the room

without this consideration and then using reinforcement systems later on 2. rooms which have good acoustical requirements are usually better rooms for speech reinforcement system TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS WITH RESPECT TO LEVELS OF SOUND 1. The high-level system - which consists of a single loudspeaker with a high level of sound. This is most applicable for rooms with good acoustics 2. Low-level system - consists of several loudspeaker placed at strategic locations in the room and operating at low volume of sound. This is most useful for rooms with bad acoustic like churches and cathedrals If the high level system is used in a room with a flat or level floor, it is good practice to place the loudspeaker above the head of the main speaking and direct it towards the center of the audience If the loudspeaker will be placed behind the speaker, the mans voice will be heard seconds before that, that came from the loudspeaker PRINCIPLES OF SOUND INSULATION AND NOISE CONTROL Definitions 1. noise an unwanted sound 2. sound insulation a process or method of making a room invulnerable against the entry of noise 3. noise control process of elimination or limiting the propagation of noise PROPAGATION OF NOISE OUTDOORS Defenses against noise in the open air: 1. to increase the distance between the source of noise and the room to be protected

2. to put a screen or obstacles between the source and the room 3. to design or position the room to resist the noise

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROPAGATION OF NOISE 1. distance the farther from the source the lesser is the intensity of noise 2. molecular absorption of sound by air high frequency sounds are absorbed more by air than the low frequency sounds 3. wind gradient refers to the differences in the velocity of air in terms of distance from the ground and generally near the ground is slower than that farther above this effects the propagation of sound

4. temperature gradient refers to the differences in the temperature of air with respect to the distance from the ground, it is higher than in the upper

layers. The reverse is true at nighttime. At night the air near the surface of the earth is cooler

5. any absorption such as a wall, will reduce the propagation of sound outdoors as long as the length of the wall and its width should be more than the wavelength of the sound

SOURCE OF NOISE INDOORS 1. like all types of sound, the noise in a room is made up of two parts: the direct sound and the reverberant sound. The direct sound decreases in intensity as the distance increases, whereas the reverberant sound is uniform more or less throughout the room, especially if the room is small and square.

6. sound absorbent materials may effectively reduce the effect of the reflected sound outdoors 7. if the source of the noise and its receiver are all above the ground. The noise may increase due to the reflection from the ground

If the designers interest is to prevent the transmission of sound to an adjacent room, then it is usually the reverberant sound that is to be controlled. If the interest is merely on the effect of sound inside the room, then it is the direct sound that is primarily to be controlled. 2. nothing that is done to the room can alter the direct sound. 3. the use of screen may also help in reducing the effect of the direct sound especially if the sound is directional. The usual practice is to put sound absorbent materials at the side of the screen facing the sound source. The screen absorbs the sound and if the dimension of the screen is large compared to the wavelength of the sound, the person behind the screen cannot hear the sound. As for the reverberant sounds, the use of sound absorbent materials in the room will somehow reduce its intensity.

4. in long and low ceiling rooms, the reverberant sound will not be uniform anymore. In some parts of the room, the reverberant sound is louder than in the other parts. The direct sound falls off with increase in distance. This is practical in factories where noisy processes may be placed in one end of the room. SOUND INSULATION Refers to treating a room acoustically so that the sound coming from it will not be transmitted to the adjacent rooms 2 TYPES OF SOUND INSULATION 1. air borne sound insulation - insulation against noise is originating in the air. Ex. voices 2. impact sound insulation - insulation against impact noises. Ex. footsteps and falling objects

TRANSMISSION OF NOISE IN AND OUT OF THE BUILDING Noise from outside to inside via an opening At concessions inside the building but close to the opening, the noise level is almost the same as if there were no building at all. Noise level farther away from the opening depends on the area of the opening in relation to the area of sound absorbent materials the smaller the opening and the greater the area of the sound absorbents, the lesser is the noise level. NOISE FROM INSIDE TO OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING With openings, the noise level just outside the opening is the same as the reverberant sound level of the room, farther away, the noise level depends on the area of the openings and the distance from it. VIBRATIION CONTROL VIBRATION To and from movement of the structure Some ways to reduce vibration 1. confine the building within its own 2. create a structurally massive foundation 3. use resiliency principle of wright VIBRATION PRINCIPLE The more massive the building, the less the vibration Light frame construction (steel, wood, etc.) can transmit sound as well as vibration RESILIENCY PRINCIPLE A greater resistance to vibration includes a greater damage, therefore the structure should go with the vibration, like in Frank Llyod Wrights Imperial Hotel, it survived the earthquake.

LIGHTING AND ILLUMINATION Functions of lighting 1. to afford visibility of objects 2. to secure pleasing and decorative effects 1. 2. 3. Factors to consider in lighting system the method that they are used the properties and capabilities of various equipment the effect of the lighting system on the space where it is used as well as on the occupants

THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING Definition of terms 1. photometry - the science that deals with the measurement of light 2. candle power - refers to the unit of intensity of light of one standard candle whose light is concentrated at a point and the light source is assumed to be placed at the center of a hollow sphere of one foot radius the illumination at any point on the sphere is one foot candle (abbreviated ft-s), the unit for the power or intensity of light. 3. standard candle -is the brightness of a black body at the temperature of freezing platinum 4. lumen (abbreviated L) -is the unit of luminous flux, amount f light falling on a surface from the source RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LUMEN AND FOOT CANDLE OR CANDLE POWER When 1 lumen of flux is uniformly distributed over 1 square foot of area, the illumination at any point on the area is one-foot candle. FORMULA FOR ILLUMINATION Illumination (E) = I / D2 Where: I = the candle power of the source D=the distance from the source in feet For example: What is the illumination on a surface which is 12 ft from a lamp of 80 candle power (cp)? Answer:

Like acoustics, lighting should be incorporated into the design of the building Light may either be: a. natural daylight b. artificial 1. incandescent - stimulating effect, conducive to drinking, induces sleep. Best for bars and nightclubs 2. fluorescent - emits a light similar to daylight, conducive to eating, reading, studying, etc. 3. mercury 4. neon A good architect should use the daylight or natural lighting, as this is the cheapest kind of light.

E= I / D2 E= 80cp / (12ft)2 = 5 / 9 ft-c or 0.555 ft-c

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT 1. diffusion -light rays leaving the source strike a rough, opaque surface which spreads the light in various directions -in addition, light is broken up while in reflection, the light bounces back at a different direction 2. polarization -light ray striking a polarized glass causes the illumination of the horizontal light rays and allows the vertical rays to penetrate the glass (resulting in soft lighting) 3. transmission -light rays strike a plain (surface) transparent glass which allows the rays to proceed farther 4. reflection -light striking a silvered surface is reflected back with no diffusion and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of deflection 5. refraction -light rays striking a clear glass placed at an angle with respect to the rays are reflected at an angle within the glass and continues at another angle on the far side of the glass CANDLE POWER DISTRIBUTION CURVE Is a graphic representation of the distribution of light intensity of a luminaries (container of a source light) Those at the center of the sphere receives more light than at the edges Each kind of light will have its own distribution curve. source: The Architectscube Team Visit us for more info: www.architectscube.com Email: [email protected] Skype: architectscube