Q1 : State the meaning of Fail-Safe Design and Fool-Proof Design.
Fail-safe when it fails, the failure will not cause any damage (or minimum
damage) to others.
Fool-proof it will not have any failure upon human mistake.
Reference for answer:
~ The term fail-safe is used to describe:
A device which, if (or when) it fails, fails in a way that will cause no harm or at
least a minimum of harm to other devices or danger to personnel. Examples
include:
o Toughened glass (tempered safety glass) used in modern automobile side
and rear windows, designed to shatter into small pieces rather than in the
long jagged shards created when common window glass breaks.
o Luggage carts in airports in which the hand-brake must be held down at all
times. If it is released, the cart will stop. See dead man's switch.
o Air brakes on railway trains and trucks. The brakes are held in the 'off'
position by air pressure created in the brake system. Should a brake line
split, or a carriage become de-coupled, the air pressure will be lost and the
brakes applied. It is impossible for the train to be driven with a leak in the
brake system.
o Avionics using redundant systems to perform the same computation with
voting logic to determine the "safe" result.
o Motorized gates - In case of power outage the gate can be pushed open by
hand with no crank or key required. See also fail-secure.
An operation which ensures that a failure of equipment, process, or system does
not propagate beyond the immediate environs of the failing entity.
The automatic protection of programs and/or processing systems when a hardware
or software failure is detected in a computer system. See fail-safe (computer).
A control operation or function that prevents improper system functioning or
catastrophic degradation in the event of circuit malfunction or operator error.
A system which has been structured such that it cannot fail (or that the probability
of such failure is extremely low) to accomplish its assigned mission regardless of
environmental factors. Examples include:
o The hardening of a nuclear missile bunker or the dispersion of nuclear
bombers to multiple secret locations
~ fail-safe (fl'sf')
adj.
1. Capable of compensating automatically and safely for a failure, as of a
mechanism or power source.
fail safe
Same as fault tolerant.
fault tolerance (flt tlrns)
(systems engineering) The capability of a system to perform in accordance with design
specifications even when undesired changes in the internal structure or external
environment occur.
foolproof (fl'prf')
adj.
1. Designed so as to be impervious to human incompetence, error, or misuse: a
foolproof detonator; a foolproof safety lock.
2. Effective; infallible: a foolproof scheme.
The adjective foolproof has one meaning:
Meaning #1: not liable to failure
The verb foolproof has one meaning:
Meaning #1: proof against human misuse, error, etc.
Q2 : State the meaning of MTBF and MTTR.
MTBF Mean time between failure
MTTR Mean time to recovery
Reference for answer:
~ Mean-time-between-failure (MTBF) is the "average" time between failures, the
reciprocal of the failure rate in the special case when failure rate is constant. Calculations
of MTBF assume that a system is "renewed", i.e. fixed, after each failure, and then
returned to service immediately after failure. The average time between failure and being
returned to service is termed Mean Down Time (MDT).
A common misconception about the MTBF is that it specifies the time (on average) when
the likelihood of failure equals the likelihood of not having a failure. This is only true for
certain symmetric distributions. In many cases, such as the (non-symmetric) exponential
distribution, this is not true. In particular, for an exponential failure distribution, the
probability that an item will fail by the MTBF is approximately 0.63. For typical
distributions with some variance, MTBF only represents a top-level statistic, thus is not
suitable for predicting detailed time of failure, as the uncertainty in actual failure
distribution manifests itself in variability in the time to failure distribution.
~ Mean time to recovery (MTTR) is the average time that a device will take to recover
from a non-terminal failure. Examples of such devices range from self-resetting fuses
(where the MTTR would be very short, probably seconds), up to whole systems which
have to be replaced.
The MTTR would usually be part of a maintenance contract, where the user would pay
more for a system whose MTTR was 24 hours, than for one of, say, 7 days. This does not
mean the supplier is guaranteeing to have the system up and running again within 24
hours (or 7 days) of being notified of the failure. It does mean the average repair time will
tend towards 24 hours (or 7 days). A more useful maintenance contract measure is the
maximum time to recovery which can be easily measured and the supplier held
accountable.
Note that some suppliers will interpret MTTR to mean 'mean time to respond', and others
will take it to mean 'mean time to replace/repair/recover/resolve'. The former indicates
that the supplier will acknowledge a problem and initiate mitigation within a certain
timeframe. Some systems may have a MTTR of zero, which means that they have
redundant components which can take over the instant the primary one fails, see RAID
for example. That said however, the failed device involved in this redundant
configuration still needs to be returned to service and hence the device itself has a non-
zero MTTR even if the system as a whole (through redundancy) has a MTTR of zero.
Q3 : List more than 5 types of flow instruments.
Thermal Mass
Coriolis Mass
Rotameter
Positive Displacement
Vortex shedding
Multiphase
Turbine
Reference for answer:
~ Flow measurement can be described by
Q = A v, which means that the volume of fluid passing through a flowmeter is equal to
the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A) times the average velocity of the fluid (v); and
W = r Q, which means that the mass flow of fluid passing through a flowmeter (A) is
equal to the fluid density (r) times the volume of the fluid (Q).
Volumetric flowmeters directly measure the volume of fluid (Q) passing through the
flowmeter. The only flowmeter technology that measures volume directly is the positive
displacement flowmeter.
Velocity flowmeters utilize techniques that measure the velocity (v) of the flowing stream
to determine the volumetric flow. Examples of flowmeter technologies that measure
velocity include magnetic, turbine, ultrasonic, and vortex shedding and fluidic
flowmeters.
Mass flowmeters utilize techniques that measure the mass flow (W) of the flowing
stream. Examples of flowmeter technologies that measure mass flow include Coriolis
mass and thermal flowmeters.
Inferential flowmeters do not measure volume, velocity or mass, but rather measure flow
by inferring its value from other measured parameters. Examples of flowmeter
technologies that measure inferentially include differential pressure, target and variable
area flowmeters.
Flow computers are often used to compensate flow measurements for actual process
conditions, such as pressure, temperature, viscosity, and composition.
Additional flowmeter technologies include flowmeters that measure liquid flowing in an
open channel, and insertion flowmeters that measure flow at one location in a pipe and
use this measurement to infer the flow in the entire pipe. Insertion flow measurement
systems often use a flow computer to compensate for hydraulic effects.
Q4 : List 3 types of flow instruments that no straight run is required.
Coriolis Mass Flowmeter
Rotameter
Positive Displacement Flowmeters
Differential Pressure Flowmeter (V-cone style only)
Reference for answer:
~ Coriolis Mass Flowmeter - This meter uses the Coriolis effect to measure the amount
of mass moving through the element. The substance to be measured runs through a U-
shaped tube that is caused to vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the flow. Fluid forces
running through the tube interact with the vibration, causing it to twist. The greater the
angle of the twist, the greater the flow
~ ROTAMETERs (Variable Area Meters) are named after ROTA, one of the European
inventors of this flow principle in the beginning of the century. ROTA invented the
rotating float, which is self-guiding and has less friction in the pipe so that a more precise
measurement is possible.
~ Positive Displacement Flowmeters
These meters are used for water applications when no straight pipe is available and
turbine meters and paddlewheel sensor would see too much turbulence. The positive
displacement are also used for viscous liquids.
~ With its unique ability to self-condition flow, the V-Cone Flow Meter is a real space-
saver, eliminating the need for up/down stream straight pipe runs required by other DP
technologies, such as orifice plates and venturi tubes.
Q5 : List process data required for sizing the D/P type flow meter for gas service.
Gas/Vapor Pressure, Flowrate, Gas density, Temperature
Reference for answer:
~ 3.2 General Calculations
~ 3.3 Calculations for Liquids
~ 3.4 Calculations for Compressible Fluids (gases and vapors)
Q6 : Choose correct instrument type that are able to measure the interface liquid
level
Radar Type (yes), D/p Type (yes), Float Type (yes), Ultrasonic Type (yes), Displacer
Type (yes)
Reference for answer:
~ When detecting the interface between two liquids, such as the hydrocarbon/brine
interface in a salt dome storage well, the transducer is lowered down to the bottom of the
well. The ultrasonic pulse is sent up through the heavy brine layer to the interface. The
time it takes for the echo to return is an indication of the location of the interface (Figure
9-4C).
~ Contact radar gages send a pulse down a wire to the vapor-liquid interface. There, a
sudden change in the dielectric constant causes the signal to be partially reflected. The
time-of-flight is then measured (Figure 9-2B).
~ The level transmitter, with its probe installed at an angle into the bottom portion of the
tank, is an innovative way to detect accumulation of water, separated from oil, and to
control withdrawal of product only. Moreover, by measuring the water-oil interface level,
the LT provides a means of correcting precisely for the water level, which would
incorrectly be measured as product.
Though the DP transmitter is most commonly used to measure hydrostatic pressure for
level measurement, other methods should be mentioned. One newer system uses a
pressure transmitter in the form of a stainless steel probe that looks much like a
thermometer bulb. The probe is simply lowered into the tank toward the bottom,
supported by plastic tubing or cable that carries wiring to a meter mounted externally on
or near the tank. The meter displays the level data and can transmit the information to
another receiver for remote monitoring, recording, and control.
~A special application of float type sensors is the determination of interface level in oil-
water separation systems. Two floats can be used with each float sized to match the
specific gravity of the oil on one hand, and the water on the other. Another special
application of a stem type float switch is the installation of temperature or pressure
sensors to create a multi-parameter sensor. Magnetic float switches are popular for
simplicity, dependability and low cost.
~ Here, we will look at the advantages and disadvantages associated with the three main
methods most commonly employed for interface level measurement, namely: displacers,
capacitance probes and differential pressure transmitters.
Displacer type transmitters rely on the principle of buoyancy and consists of a large
chamber flanged to the separation stack.
A float or element of a known specific gravity will float at the point of interface.
A series of moving part linkages attached to the float indicate the float's position to a
transmitter, informing it of where the interface is.
Although relatively straightforward, this technique has a number of key disadvantages.
First, petrochemical and chemical applications are often characterised by aggressive
conditions, demanding the use of exotic materials, which can add substantially to the cost
of the transmitter system.
The mechanical linkages can also stick, fouling the measurement and requiring frequent
maintenance.
The overall accuracy of these devices is also often questionable - in some cases,
customers have reported accuracies of just 10% at best.
Capacitance probes comprise a long metallic probe, which normally enters the top of the
separator vessel and extends to its lowest point.
Liquid level and interface are detected by measuring the capacitance value between the
wall of the vessel holding the liquid and the probe itself.
Again, the aggressive nature of most chemical and petrochemical applications will
require the use of exotic materials, adding to the cost of the installation.
Another complication associated with this technology is the measurement of sticky
substances, which can coat the metal, resulting in measurement uncertainties and poor
readings.
Other factors such as foam on the liquid surface or vibration of the tank can also conspire
to reduce measurement certainty or even render the probe inoperable.
Remote seal differential pressure transmitters probably offer the best solution for the
measurement of liquid interface levels.
With this technique, when the distance between the taps on the separation stack is filled
only with the lighter liquid, the differential pressure is minimum value or the lowest
range value (LRV) of the transmitter.
When it is filled with the heavier liquid, the differential pressure is at its maximum value,
or the upper range value (URV) of the transmitter.
Although this technique overcomes many of the problems associated with the previously
described methods, particularly with respect to corrosion, it does have one main
drawback.
The small difference in both the specific gravity of the two liquids and the distance
between the taps on the separation stack results in a very small differential pressure span.
In many cases, the size of this span is often lower than the recommended minimum span
for most remote seal transmitters.
One way of overcoming this problem is to use remote seals and transmitters which are
sensitive enough to detect very low span changes.
Q7 : Pressure Gauge installed in steam service shall have a
Water column
Reference for answer:
~ Article 66. Pressure Gauges
A pressure gauge shall be attached to the steam space or water column or to a steam-side
connection leading to such water column of any steam boiler in accordance with the
followings:
(1) The direct influx of steam into the pressure gauge shall be precluded.
(2) Any valve or cock shall be so designed as to clearly show whether it is open or
closed.
(3) The steam connection for the pressure gauge shall have such construction that is not
easily clogged.
(4) The highest degree of the scale on any pressure gauge shall be in a range not lower
than 1.5 times but not higher than 3 times the maximum allowable working pressure of
the boiler
(5) The diameter of the face of a pressure gauge shall be such that ensures easy reading.
Q8 : Impulse piping in liquid service for pressure and flow instruments shall be
oriented and sloped (downward) so that it remain full of liquid.
Reference for answer:
~ Application Cautions for Differential Pressure Flowmeters Because of the nonlinear
relationship between flow and differential pressure, the accuracy of flow measurement in
the lower portion of the flow range can be degraded. Plugging of the impulse piping can
be a concern for many services. For slurry service, purges should be used to keep the
impulse piping from plugging. For liquid service, impulse piping should be oriented and
sloped so that it remains full of liquid and does not collect gas. For gas service, impulse
piping should be oriented and sloped so that it remains full of gas and does not collect
liquids. In vapor service, vapor may be allowed to condense in some of the impulse
piping to form a liquid seal between the hot vapor and transmitter in order to protect the
transmitter from heat.
~ The following restrictions and recommendations apply to impulse piping location:
1. Impulse piping that runs horizontally must slope at least one inch per foot (83 mm/m).
Slope downward (toward the electronics) for liquid and steam applications
Slope upward (toward the electronics) for gas applications.
2. For applications with temperature below 250 F (121 C), impulse piping should be as
short as possible to minimize temperature changes. Insulation may be required.
3. For applications above 250 F (121 C), impulse piping should have a minimum length of
one foot (0.3048 m) for every 100 F (38C) temperature increase over 250 F (121 C).
Impulse piping must be non-insulated to reduce fluid temperature. Any threaded
connections should be checked after the system reaches the intended temperature
because connections may come loose with contraction and expansion caused by
temperature change.
4. Outdoor installations for liquid, saturated gas, or steam may require insulation and heat
tracing to prevent freezing.
5. When impulse piping is longer than six feet (1.8 m) the high and low impulse lines must
be positioned together to maintain equal temperature. They must be supported to
prevent sagging and vibration.
6. Impulse lines should be positioned in protected areas or against walls or ceilings. Use
appropriate pipe sealing compound rated for the service temperature on all threaded
connections. Do not place the impulse piping near high temperature piping or equipment.
Q9 : Impulse piping in gas service for pressure and flow instruments shall be
oriented and sloped (upward) so that it remain full of gas.
Reference for answer:
~ Application Cautions for Differential Pressure Flowmeters Because of the nonlinear
relationship between flow and differential pressure, the accuracy of flow measurement in
the lower portion of the flow range can be degraded. Plugging of the impulse piping can
be a concern for many services. For slurry service, purges should be used to keep the
impulse piping from plugging. For liquid service, impulse piping should be oriented and
sloped so that it remains full of liquid and does not collect gas. For gas service, impulse
piping should be oriented and sloped so that it remains full of gas and does not collect
liquids. In vapor service, vapor may be allowed to condense in some of the impulse
piping to form a liquid seal between the hot vapor and transmitter in order to protect the
transmitter from heat.
~ The following restrictions and recommendations apply to impulse piping location:
1. Impulse piping that runs horizontally must slope at least one inch per foot (83 mm/m).
Slope downward (toward the electronics) for liquid and steam applications
Slope upward (toward the electronics) for gas applications.
2. For applications with temperature below 250 F (121 C), impulse piping should be as
short as possible to minimize temperature changes. Insulation may be required.
3. For applications above 250 F (121 C), impulse piping should have a minimum length of
one foot (0.3048 m) for every 100 F (38C) temperature increase over 250 F (121 C).
Impulse piping must be non-insulated to reduce fluid temperature. Any threaded
connections should be checked after the system reaches the intended temperature
because connections may come loose with contraction and expansion caused by
temperature change.
4. Outdoor installations for liquid, saturated gas, or steam may require insulation and heat
tracing to prevent freezing.
5. When impulse piping is longer than six feet (1.8 m) the high and low impulse lines must
be positioned together to maintain equal temperature. They must be supported to
prevent sagging and vibration.
6. Impulse lines should be positioned in protected areas or against walls or ceilings. Use
appropriate pipe sealing compound rated for the service temperature on all threaded
connections. Do not place the impulse piping near high temperature piping or equipment.
Q10 : The reason why 3-wire system is used for RTD temperature measurement is
to allow lead wire resistance to be compensated.
Reference for answer:
~ Lead Configuration & Colour Code
Used where lead length is short. There is no compensation
for resistance of lead wires.
Most common type of RTD assembly. Typically connected
to standard bridge circuit, which allows lead wire resistance
to be compensated.
Where higher accuracy is demanded. Lead wire resistance
errors are eliminated in this configuration by measuring the
voltage across the RTD element supplied with a constant
current.
Q11 : Cable between thermocouple element and temperature transmitter is copper
Reference for answer:
~ 2.1 Terminating the Thermocouple
A practical industrial or laboratory thermocouple consists of only a single (measuring) junction;
the reference is always the terminal temperature. If the terminal temperature is other than
controlled and stable, procedures are necessary to deal with the situation. Possible measures are
:-
a) Measure the terminal temperature accurately and compensate accordingly in calculating the
measured value.
b) Locate the terminals in a thermally controlled enclosure
c) Terminate not in copper cable but use compensating or actual thermocouple wire to extend the
sensor termination to the associated instrumentation (compensating cable uses low cost alloys
which have similar thermoelectric properties to the actual thermoelement). On this basis, there is
no thermal voltage at the thermocouples termination. The transition to copper then occurs only at
the instrument terminals where the ambient temperature can be measured by the instrument; the
reference junction can then be compensated for electronically.
Fig. 3
Note : It is essential to use only compensating or specific extension cables (these have the
correct thermoelectric properties) appropriate to the thermocouple otherwise an additional
thermocouple is formed at the connection point. The reference junction is formed where the
compensating or extension cable is connected to a different material. The cable used must not be
extended with copper or with compensating cable of a different type.
d) Use a temperature transmitter at the termination point. This is effectively bringing
instrumentation close to the sensor where electronic reference junction techniques can be
utilised. However, this technique is convenient and often used on plant; a transmitter procedures
an amplified "corrected" signal which can be sent to remote instruments via copper cable of any
length.
~ Thermocouple Wiring
Unlike RTDs and thermistors, thermocouples have plus and minus legs so polarity
must be observed. They can be directly connected to a local 2-wire transmitter and
copper leads can be run back to the receiving instrument. If the receiving instrument
is capable of accepting thermocouple inputs directly you must use the same
thermocouple wire or thermocouple extension wire all the way back to the receiving
instrument.
Q12 : Major parameters for sizing the valve actuator are forces (torque) required to
operate the valves, hydraulic system pressure and fail-safe trip time.
Reference for answer:
~ Actuator size is a product of both the high forces required to operate the valves and
code requirements which require a mechanical (spring) close to ensure fail-safe closure of
the fuel valves when there is a failure in the control signal or loss of hydraulic pressure.
~ Valve Actuator Sizing
A torque matching actuator was designed for, and tested using a 406 mm line size
butterfly valve with the following specifications: unseating and seating torques of 3028
Nm; hydraulic system pressure of between 83-117 bars; and a fail-safe trip time of < 0.5
seconds.
The manufacturer's listed valve actuator requirements were a torque of 3028 Nm during
both seating and unseating operations (0 angle) and a minimum torque of 1170 Nm at
the 70 angle of the valve's rotation. Estimates were made from valve technical literature
that for the 30 and 90 angles of rotation the valve torques are 40% and 15%,
respectively, of the maximum valve seating torque. The dimensions for the new linkages,
geometry and spring size were then derived to meet these design requirements.
Test results showed that the designed actuator satisfied the valve torque requirements
with a torque margin in excess of 35% during the 0 - 90 valve rotation. The test results
also showed that the torque increased exponentially at closing, as predicted by computer
simulations
~ Actuators
Actuators also need to be properly sized if the valve they serve is to perform well under all
operating conditions. Consideration needs to be given to the forces associated with the design
flows and pressure drops as well as the forces required to completely close the valve against the
full available differential pressure. The shutoff differential pressure for a two-way valve is often
significantly higher than is the operating differential pressure because the pressure drop due to
flow in the lines to and from the valve is no longer present. A good rule of thumb is to size
actuators to close the valve at the peak pressure on the pump curve for the system they serve, at
the very least. A little allowance should be added for seating the disc into a resilient seat (if the
valve is so equipped).
Q13 : Control valve characteristics installed in the condition, where most of the
system pressure drop is not across the valve is INSTALLED CHARACTERISTIC.
Reference for answer:
~ FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: The relationship between valve capacity and valve
travel. It is usually expressed graphically in the form of a curve. CONTROL VALVES
have two types of characteristics INHERENT and INSTALLED. The INHERENT
characteristic is derived from testing the valve with water as the fluid and a constant
pressure drop across the valve. When valves are installed into a system with pumps,
pipes, and fittings, the pressure dropped across the valve will vary with the travel. When
the actual flow in a system is plotted against valve opening, the curve is known as the
INSTALLED flow characteristic. Valves can be characterized by shaping the plugs,
orifices, or cages to produce a particular curve. Valves are characterized in order to try to
alter the valve gain.
Valve gain is the flow change divided by the control signal change. This is done in an
effort to compensate for nonlinearities in the control loop.
FIGURE 1. Typical flow characteristics.
Q14 : What process data are required for sizing the control valve ?
Total pressure drop, pipe diameter, specific gravity, operating flow
Reference for answer:
~ STEP #1: Define the system
The system is pumping water from one tank to another through a piping system with a
total pressure drop of 150 psi. The fluid is water at 70
0
F. Design (maximum) flowrate
of 150 gpm, operating flowrate of 110 gpm, and a minimum flowrate of 25 gpm. The
pipe diameter is 3 inches. At 70
0
F, water has a specific gravity of 1.0.
Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow, minimum flow, pipe
diameter, specific gravity
~ The Most Important Variables to Consider
When Sizing a Valve:
1. What medium will the valve control? Water? Air? Steam?
What effects will specific gravity and viscosity have on the
valve size?
2. What will the inlet pressure be under maximum load
demand? What is the inlet temperature?
3. What pressure drop (differential) will exist across the
valve under maximum load demand?
4. What maximum capacity should the valve handle?
5. What is the maximum pressure differential the valve top
must close against?
Q15 : Balance bellows type safety valve are used, where the variation in back
pressure exceeding 10% of set pressure.
Reference for answer:
~ When must I specify the use of a Balanced Bellows pressure relief valve?
Balanced bellows as used in our 2600 Series BalanSeal design are generally
specified for a variety of reasons. The most prominent is to nullify the effects of
back pressure in the discharge system on the valves set pressure. They are also
used to protect the principal guiding surfaces, spring, and valve top works from
coming in contact with a corrosive fluid. This may allow for the use of less
expensive metallurgy as the bellows isolates the trim from the fluid. A balanced
bellows valve should always be used when the variation in back pressure
exceeds 10 % of set pressure.
~ Balanced safety relief valve - A balanced valve incorporates a means of minimising
the effect of backpressure on the operational characteristics of the valve.
~ Bellows safety valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein sliding and (partially or
fully) rotating elements and springs are protected against the effects of the fluids by a
bellows. The bellows may be of such a design that it compensates for influences of
backpressure.
Q16 : In the safety valve design based on the ASME Section VIII, over pressure is
10% or 3psi whichever is greater.
Reference for answer:
~ ASME VIII valve - A safety relief valve conforming to the requirements of Section
VIII of the ASME pressure vessel code for pressure vessel applications which will open
within 10% overpressure and close within 7%. Identified by a National Board UV
stamp.
~ paragraph UG-125 of ASME Section VIII, Division 1. It states in part,
"All pressure vessels other than unfired steam boilers shall be protected by a pressure
relief device that shall prevent the pressure from rising more than 10% or 3 psi,
whichever is greater, above the maximum allowable working pressure except as
permitted in (1) and (2) below."
Sub-paragraphs (1) and (2) mention cases where the pressure rise may be higher.
~ ASME Section VIII, Division 1 clearly states in Paragraph UG-131 (c)(1) that
"Capacity certification tests shall be conducted at a pressure which does not exceed the
pressure for which the pressure relief valve is set to operate by more than 10% or 3 psi,
whichever is greater, except as provided in (c)(2)..."
Sub-paragraph (c)(2) covers a fire case.
Q17 : Last major construction drawings for instrumentation to be prepared.
Piping and Instrumentation Drawings (PNID)
Loop Drawings
