F

Further Studies of a Vegetable-Oil-Filled Power Transformer

Key words: transformer, oil insulation, dissolved gas analysis, natural ester
Introduction
Since its introduction in the late 1990s, the use of vegetable oil as a transformer dielectric has become more common in the power industry. Some of the advantages of using vegetable oil rather than conventional mineral oil are that vegetable oil is nontoxic and more biodegradable and has a re point that is approximately 200C higher. Much research on the use of such uids has been performed over the years, focusing on topics such as dielectric strength [1][3], aging [4], and dissolved gas content [5][8]. The next step is to assist the users of vegetable-oil-lled transformers in monitoring the condition of the transformers and to recognize oil test results that can be considered normal, although they differ from the corresponding results for mineraloil dielectrics. In this article the test results for a new normally operating power transformer, covering the rst two years of its service life, are presented. It is hoped that these results will assist power industry personnel in recognizing the characteristics of normal operation of vegetable-oil-lled transformers. Preliminary results were published in our previous article [9].

Daniel Martin, Nick Lelekakis, and Wenyu Guo Centre for Power Transformer Monitoring, Diagnostics and Life Management (the transformerLIFE Centre), Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia Yuriy Odarenko Wilson Transformer Company, Glen Waverley, VIC 3150, Australia

Two Transformers
Two vegetable-oil-lled transformers of the same design, shown in Figure 1, were manufactured in 2008. They were intended as direct replacements for two of four existing mineraloil-lled transformers, operating in pairs, in a substation in the center of Sydney, Australia. However, only one was installed, and the other was placed in storage. They are three-phase units with two secondary low-voltage windings per phase. A summary of their design rating is given in Table 1. The installed transformer was exceptional in that it was tted with a comprehensive online monitoring system, which recorded, at one-minute intervals, water content of the oil; cooling system status; and the temperatures of windings, oil, ambient air, and cooling water. The dissolved gas content of the oil was recorded every four hours. We began monitoring the transformer in the factory during manufacture and testing, and were condent that it was operating normally because it passed all acceptance tests. Both transformers used a soybean-based oil, Envirotemp FR3 (Cooper Power Systems, Waukesha, WI), which is more viscous than mineral oil, and were designed bearing this differ6

Comprehensive data covering the rst two years of service of a vegetable-oil-lled transformer are presented. The characteristics that may be expected during normal operation are summarized.

ence in mind. The temperature rise limits were the same as those given in IEC 60076 for a mineral-oil-lled transformer [10]. The transformer was water cooled, using two heat exchangers to increase the overall reliability of the cooling system. During normal operation only one of these heat exchangers was active at any given time. Water pumped in through the left-hand heat exchanger owed to the right-hand heat exchanger (Figure 1), with each heat exchanger functioning only when its oil pump was active. The heat exchanger ratings were such as to ensure that adequate cooling would be provided, even if the exchangers were to be coated with salts deposited by water over many years.

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Figure 1. Vegetable-oil-lled transformer and external equipment. DGA = dissolved gas analysis. The transformers were tted with a comprehensive monitoring system, which, as stated above, recorded data every minute from the various sensors mounted around the transformer, i.e., load current, winding temperatures measured by eight ber-optic probes, oil temperature and wetness measured by four Vaisala probes, oil temperature and cooling water temperature recorded by resistance temperature detectors, and ambient temperature and relative humidity recorded by a Vaisala probe within the substation. The advantage of such a system is that the regular recording of data allows trends and relationships between the different properties to be observed. The four Vaisala probes measuring the wetness of the oil were inserted into the top and bottom of the transformer tank, and top and bottom of one of the heat exchangers. They operate by measuring the water activity of a thin strip of polymer [11]. Water activity is dened as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the partial pressure of water vapor above pure water at the same temperature [12]. Accurate measurement requires that the polymer strip be in thermodynamic equilibrium with the surrounding uid. Despite the fact that the temperature within a transformer is usually changing continuously, due to the uctuating load, thermodynamic equilibrium between the probe and the oil will be reached provided the time required for the probe strip to equilibrate with the oil is short compared with the time within which the transformer internal conditions change signicantly. To determine how quickly the Vaisala probes responded to a change in uid wetness, a probe was suspended in air and allowed to equilibrate with the ambient humidity and temperature. It was then inserted in a sample of FR3 uid, with a water concentration of 40 ppm at ambient temperature, and its output was observed. The uid was stirred by a mechanical bar rotating at 352 rpm. To calculate the concentration of water dissolved in the uid as a result of the probe measurement, the uid solubility at the relevant temperature must be known. Equation (1) was used to calculate solubility using the coefcients published by Lewand, i.e., A = 5.3318 and B = 684 [13]. T is the temperature in C. Solubility(T ) = 10
B A T +273

Table 1. Transformer Ratings. Parameter Year of manufacture Date rst energized Cooling class Rated power Rated voltage and frequency Rated current Value 2008 12 October 2008 KDWF 50 MVA 132/11/11 kV, 50 Hz 218.7 A (HV winding) 2 1,312.2 A (LV windings) Maximum temperature rise Top oil 60C Average winding 70C Insulation level HV lightning impulse 650 kV HV ac 275 kV LV lightning impulse 95 kV LV ac 20 kV

(1)

When the probe was inserted in the uid, its output reading fell rapidly for a short time and then reached an almost constant value after approximately 100 minutes, as shown in Figure 2. It follows that there will be a time lag between a change in water content of the uid within the transformer and the nal response of the probe to this change. Such time lags must be taken into account when analyzing temperature and moisture dynamics. However, under normal operating conditions the water content of the uid in the installed transformer would not be expected to vary signicantly over a 100-minute period.

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Figure 2. The output of the Vaisala probe measuring the wetness of the oil. The oil (in a beaker) was stirred by a magnetic stirrer rotating at 352 rpm. The dissolved gas content of the uid was measured and recorded every four hours by the online automated system, using a gas chromatograph. Fluid was pumped from the transformer tank through the online system and returned to the tank. The dissolved gases were extracted from the uid with the aid of helium carrier gas. The dissolved gas content of the uid was also measured periodically by independent laboratories, as a check on the reliability of the automated system. A detailed analysis of our preliminary ndings on gassing trends was given in [9]. Elevated ethane and hydrogen concentrations were found, as predicted by various researchers on the basis of laboratory tests [5], [8], [13], [14].

Figure 3. The highest temperatures within the transformer as measured by the ber-optic probe array. adsorbed water will slowly migrate toward the center of the cellulose. Du [15] calculated the time taken for water to diffuse through 1-mm-thick pressboard impregnated with mineral oil as 333 hours (14 days) at 20C. Because much thicker blocks of cellulose had been used in the construction of the transformer, the corresponding diffusion times would be much longer. Consequently, the water content of the oil may change slowly over a long period, as water is exchanged between the center of the thick cellulose block and the bulk oil. Toward the end of its useful life mineral oil forms a sludge, whereas vegetable oil becomes more viscous. The thermal performance of a uid is related to its viscosity [16], [17]. It may therefore be possible to assess the condition of the vegetable oil by monitoring the temperatures within the transformer and correlating them with the load, i.e., when the viscosity changes the temperature distribution may change sufciently to be detected. If the temperatures deviate from those expected, the usual oxidation tests, which may include measurement of oxygen inhibitor content, dielectric dissipation factor, and acidity, should be carried out.

Transformer Condition Data

The temperatures of the oil and the paper insulation were continually monitored, because such data could be useful in interpreting any observed changes in the condition of the insulation over long periods, or a phenomenon such as unusually heavy gassing. The highest temperatures recorded by the array of ber-optic probes within the transformer are shown in Figure 3; they do not suggest overheating of paper or oil. The water content of the oil was calculated from the output of one of the Vaisala probes. At room temperature the solubilities of water in mineral oil and in vegetable oil are approximately 50 and 1,100 ppm, respectively, so that a higher water content is to be expected in a transformer using vegetable oil. The water concentrations calculated from the Vaisala probe data (Figure 4) agree fairly well with the Karl Fischer titration measurements shown in Table 2. On energization of the transformer the water content of the oil was 30 ppm. It fell to 22 ppm after 5 months of operation, and the same value was observed after 25 months. The difference between oil water content measured by Karl Fischer titration, and that calculated using the Vaisala probe, may be due to absorption of water by the oil sample in transit from the transformer to the laboratory. The insulation at the top of an energized transformer is usually hotter than the insulation at the bottom, and therefore water released from the warmer cellulose at the top will tend to be adsorbed on the cooler cellulose at the bottom. Over time this

Figure 4. The concentration of water dissolved in the oil at the top of the transformer tank, calculated from Vaisala probe data.

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Table 2. Properties of Vegetable Oil. In-service transformer Test Breakdown voltage (kV) Moisture (ppm) Karl Fisher titration Acidity (mg of KOH/g of oil) Interfacial tension (mN/m) Dielectric dissipation factor On energization of transformer 75; IEC 60156; VDE 0370 electrodes 30; ASTM D1533 0.03; ASTM D974 21.6; ASTM D971 0.00273 at 25C; 50Hz; IEC 60247 After 5 months of operation 68.2; IEC 60156; VDE 0370 electrodes 22; IEC 60814 0.03; AS 1767.2.1 21.6; ASTM D971 0.0042 at 30C; 0.0358 at 90C; 50Hz; IEC 60247 Stored transformer After 25 months of operation 67.2; IEC 60156; VDE 0370 electrodes 22; IEC 60814 0.03; AS 1767.1 21.6; ASTM D971 0.0503 at 90C; 50Hz; IEC 60247 After 26 months of operation 7; IEC 60814 0.03; ASTM D974 24.5; ASTM D971

Fiber-optic probes were inserted into different sections of the windings to locate the hottest points within the transformer. Excessive heat and oxygen can together degrade oil and cellulose. Consequently, it is necessary to ensure that the cooling of the transformer is adequate and the number of hot spots is minimized.

Analysis of Dissolved Gas Concentrations to Determine Transformer Condition

Oil FR3 is known to produce higher levels of ethane (C2H6) and hydrogen than mineral oil under nonfault conditions [5], [7], [8], [13]. Some of the components of soybean vegetable oil, such as linolenic acid, generate ethane by reacting with oxygen [18]. A catalyst, e.g., copper, is required for the ethane-producing reaction to proceed. The reaction noted by Schaich [18] may be the source of ethane production within the transformer. Atanasova-Hoehlein et al. [19] suggest that ethane is generated by the lipid peroxidation mechanism, which can occur in all omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids. They also suggest that ethane can be considered as the main gas involved in thermal-oxidative degradation of vegetable oils. Mineral oil generates less ethane than does vegetable oil because of differences in hydrocarbon molecular structure, i.e., ring structures in mineral oil but straight chains in vegetable oil triglycerides. Consequently, ethane generation within a transformer may be related to the proportion of linolenic acid forming the triglyceride, the temperature, the availability of oxygen, and the copper surface area exposed to the oil. A common measure of gas solubility is the Ostwald coefcient, which is the concentration of gas dissolved in the oil divided by the concentration of free gas in the headspace of a vessel, such as a sampling syringe [20]. Thus the concentration of a gas dissolved in the oil can be calculated from a measurement of the concentration of the same gas in the headspace of the syringe. The Ostwald solubility coefcients for various gases in FR3 and in mineral oil are given in Table 3 [21], [22]. The levels of dissolved gas in the transformer oil were monitored for nearly two years. The ethane level increased around the time of energization, plateaued at approximately 120 ppm, and remained at that level for nearly two years (Figure 5). It would

appear that the ethane-generating reactions slowed down and possibly ceased. The concentration of hydrogen fell, perhaps because hydrogen was consumed in further reactions. The online dissolved gas analysis measurements agreed satisfactorily with the independent laboratory measurements (Table 4). The dissolved gas content of the oil in the stored transformer was measured (Table 5) to compare its dissolved gas analysis signature with that of the operating transformer. No ethane was detected during factory acceptance tests conducted in July/August 2008. However, two years later ethane was found in concentrations comparable with those in the operating transformer. The second transformer was energized only during carefully controlled factory testing two years prior to the sampling; therefore, it would appear that ethane can be produced in the absence of a fault, in agreement with Duvals observations of stray gassing [7], [8]. High ambient temperatures may have been responsible.

Using Water Content to Verify Absence of VegetableOil Biodegradation in Transformer Tank

Table 3. Ostwald Solubility Coefcients for FR3 and Mineral Oil. FR3 Gas H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO CO2 C 2H 2 C 2H 4 C 2H 6 25C [19] 0.05 0.15 0.07 0.30 0.09 1.33 1.63 1.19 1.45 70C [20] 0.097 0.255 0.141 0.387 0.148 1.187 1.763 1.389 1.677 Mineral oil 25C [19] 0.05 0.17 0.09 0.43 0.12 1.08 1.20 1.70 2.40 70C [20] 0.092 0.208 0.127 0.432 0.143 0.921 0.992 1.419 2.022

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Figure 5. Dissolved gas analysis results from the online monitor, showing gas levels recorded over two years following energization. The dashed lines indicate when the monitor was ofine.

and covers the range 0 to 1, where 0 = dry and 1 = saturation. The minimum water activity levels required to sustain various organisms are given in Table 6 [24]. It is assumed in the water activity approach that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, contrary to the usual situation in transformers. However, it may be reasonable to assume that, provided the ratio (instantaneous water vapor pressure/ maximum water vapor pressure at the same temperature) is kept below the relevant water activity, organisms will not survive within the transformer tank. The solubility of vegetable oil in water is around 1,000 ppm at room temperature and increases with increasing temperature. The standard ASTM D6871 Standard Specication for Natural Ester Fluids Used in Electrical Apparatus [27] species a maximum oil water content of 200 ppm (the breakdown voltage of FR3 falls at around 300 ppm [1]). Thus, if the oil water content is kept below the level specied by the ASTM standard, the oil would be expected to be too dry for microorganisms to survive within the transformer tank and degrade the oil.

A major advantage of using a vegetable oil is that, if a leak occurs, the oil will be consumed by microorganisms. The manufacturers of FR3 noted some speculation that natural ester insulation uid may support microbiological growth in transformers; however, their eight-year study did not produce any supporting evidence [23]. The food industry has carried out much research on spoilage prevention [22][26]. One method is to limit access to water, thus preventing the growth of microorganisms. The term water activity was rst used by the food industry to determine the effect of the water content of a food on its spoilage [25] and is now used in connection with loss or gain of water by a food in a given environment [26]. It is a ratio, based on water vapor pressure,

Using Changes in Dielectric Dissipation Factor to Monitor Oil Condition

Regular monitoring of the condition of an oil allows a variety of problems to be detected and rectied before the overall operation of the transformer is affected. However, without full lifetime data it can be difcult to establish the signicance of a given parameter value for the condition of a transformer. Few data are available for vegetable-oil-lled transformers. The dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) of an oil is a function of its relative permittivity and conductivity, both of which are normally higher for a vegetable oil than for a mineral oil. It is expected that the DDF and acidity of an oil (vegetable or mineral) will increase as the oil ages. Work is continuing to predict the likely effect on the insulation of a transformer of the compounds that cause its DDF to increase, e.g., acids [28].

Table 4. Laboratory Measurements of Dissolved Gas in the Oil of the Operating Transformer.1 11 March 2009 Gas (ppm) H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO CO2 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6
1

17 November 2010 Online May 2009 33 330 30,236 0 55 361 0 0 129 Lab 3 11 846 33,100 2.2 53 308 0 0.9 63 Online July 2010 7 368 30,683 0 55 479 0 0 112

Lab 1 47 321 40,510 3 77 313 0 2 113

Lab 3 52 448 32,100 2.2 60 200 0 1.5 61

The laboratory measurement in March 2009 is compared with the closest online measurement in May 2009, and the laboratory measurement in November 2010 is compared with the closest online measurement in July 2010.

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Table 5. Laboratory Measurements of Dissolved Gas in the Oil of the Stored Transformer. Factory testing August 2008 Gas (ppm) H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO CO2 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 Online DGA record during heat run test 12 156 4,211 0 10 65 0 0 0 17 November 2010 Lab 2 37 5,833 58,742 <1 32 146 <1 <1 62

The DDF of the FR3 in the two transformers was measured in our laboratory, at various temperatures between ambient and 90C, following IEC 61620 [29], and in a commercial laboratory, at ambient temperature and at 90C, following IEC 60247 [30]. Figure 6 shows the changes in DDF over the rst two years of operation. In Table 7 our measurements are compared with those made by a commercial laboratory. It can be seen that there is reasonable agreement between the two. Some differences between the DDF values for the in-service transformer and the stored transformer can be seen in Figure 6, but they are small relative to the maximum value 0.005 suggested for new vegetable oil in the IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers [31]. In this standard the suggested DDF limit (0.005) is applicable only to the natural ester in new equipment; at the time of writing, insufcient data were available to allow specication of limits for service-aged oil. However, prompt investigation is recommended in the IEEE guide if the dissipation factor exceeds 0.03 at 25C. Another standard, developed for synthetic organic esters, recommends a maximum value of 0.01 at ambient temperature [32].

Figure 6. Vegetable oil dielectric dissipation factors for the inservice transformer (Unit A) and the stored transformer (Unit B) over a two-year period. The relevant IEEE guide [29] recommends a maximum value of 0.03 at 25C. Although the DDF values for the two transformers differ, the differences are small compared with the maximum level proposed in the IEEE guide (0.005). An increasing DDF may indicate that chemical reactions, initiated by the reactions that created ethane, are occurring.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In this article, data obtained from a transformer tted with an online monitoring system, and using FR3 vegetable oil, were presented. The concentration of water dissolved in the oil was initially around 15 ppm, increased to 25 ppm, and then decreased to 15 ppm over a period of two years. These levels are higher than the levels expected in mineral oil because of the higher hygroscopy of vegetable oil. Ethane was found in a nominally identical transformer that had not been used for two years. This observation supports the hypothesis proposed in previous work that ethane can be gen-

Table 6. Minimum Levels of Water Activity Required to Sustain Various Organisms [24].1 Microorganism Bacteria Yeasts Molds
1

Range of water activity required 0.81.0 0.70.9 0.60.8

Table 7. Comparison of Dielectric Dissipation Factors Measured by the Authors and by a Commercial Laboratory.1 Authors; IEC 61620 On energization After 25 months of operation
1

Commercial laboratory; IEC 60247 0.00273 at 25C 0.0503 at 90C

0.002 at 25C 0.065 at 90C

Water activity is a ratio, based on water vapor pressure, covering the range 0 to 1, where 0 = dry and 1 = saturation.

The authors measurements were performed at several temperatures, and the data interpolated to the commercial laboratory measurement temperatures.

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erated in FR3 uid even under no-fault conditions [6]. In the operating transformer the ethane concentration increased during the rst month of energization and then decreased to a constant value. The DDF did not vary signicantly between oil samples taken from the operating transformer. In the IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers, a maximum value of 0.005 at 25C is suggested for unused vegetable oil in new equipment. The corresponding value in the operating transformer was around 0.003 at ambient temperature.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Ausgrid (Sydney, Australia) for funding this project and Wilson Transformer Company (Glen Waverley, Australia), Dynamic Ratings (Glen Waverley, Australia), and TJ|H2b Australia (Glen Waverley, Australia) for their in-kind support. They also thank Peter Cole and Matthew Gibson of Ausgrid and Robert Wilson and Ken Budin of Wilson Transformer Company. Many technical discussions held over the years with John Luksich, Kevin Rapp, and Patrick McShane, of Cooper Power Systems (Waukesha, WI), were greatly appreciated. Finally the authors wish to thank Dr. Valery Davydov for his advice while he was working at Monash University.

References

[1] D. Martin, Evaluation of the dielectric capability of ester based oils for power transformers, Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester, UK, 2008. [2] D. Martin and Z. D. Wang, Statistical analysis of the ac breakdown voltages of ester based transformer oils, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 10441050, 2008. [3] K. J. Rapp, J. Corkran, C. P. McShane, and T. A Prevost, Lightning impulse testing of natural ester uid gaps and insulation interfaces, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 15951603, 2009. [4] D. Martin, Z. D. Wang, A. W. Darwin, and I. James, A comparative study of the chemical stability of esters for use in large power transformers, in IEEE Annual Report Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, 2006, pp. 493496. [5] I. Khan, Z. D. Wang, I. Cotton, and S. Northcote, Dissolved gas analysis of alternative uids for power transformers, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 514, 2007. [6] M. Duval, The Duval Triangle for load tap changers, non-mineral oils and low temperature faults in transformers, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 2229, 2008. [7] M. Duval and R. Baldygam, Stray gassing of FR3 oils in transformers in service, presented at the 76th Doble International Client Conference, Boston, MA, 2009. [8] M. Duval, The Duval Triangle for LTCs, alternative uids and other applications, presented at the 76th Doble International Client Conference, Boston, MA, 2009. [9] D. Martin, N. Lelekakis, V. Davydov, and Y. Odarenko, Preliminary results for dissolved gas levels in a vegetable oil lled power transformer, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 4148, 2010. [10] Power Transformers, IEC 60076, 2000. [11] Vaisala, HMP228 Moisture and Temperature Transmitter for Oil Users Guide, Helsinki, Finland: Vaisala Oyj, 2002. [12] International Food Information Service, Dictionary of Food Science and Technology, 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK, 2009. [13] L. Lewand, Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and agriculturalbased dielectric liquids, presented at the Doble International Client Conference, Boston, MA, 2001. [14] Cooper Power Systems, Envirotemp FR3 Fluid Testing Guide, Waukesha, WI: Cooper Industries Inc., 2004. [15] Y. Du, M. Zahn, B. C. Lesieutre, A. V. Mamishev, and S. R. Lindgren,

Moisture equilibrium in transformer paper-oil systems, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 15, pp. 1120, Jan./Feb. 1999. [16] J. Aubin and Y. Langhame, Effect of oil viscosity on transformer loading capability at low ambient temperature, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 516524, Apr. 1992. [17] O. Martynenko and P. Khramtsov, Free-Convection Heat Transfer with many Photographs of Flows and Heat Exchange, Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2005. [18] K. M. Schaich, Lipid oxidation: Theoretical aspects, in Baileys Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 6th ed., F. Shahidi, Ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2005, pp. 269355. [19] I. Atanasova-Hoehlein, Th. Hammer, and M. Schaeffer, Diagnostic markers for oxidation condition of mineral oil and ester insulating uids, Cigre Session, paper D1_231, Paris, France, 2010. [20] R. Battino, The Ostwald coefcient of gas solubility, Fluid Phase Equilibria, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 231240, 1984. [21] J. Jalbert, R. Gilbert, P. Ttreault, and M. A. El Khakani, Matrix effects affecting the indirect calibration of the static headspace-gas chromatographic method used for dissolved gas analysis in dielectric liquids, Analytical Chem., vol. 75, no. 19, pp. 52305239, 2003. [22] IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers, IEEE Std. C57.104-1991, 1991. [23] Cooper Power Systems Field Analysis of Envirotemp FR3 Fluid Filled Transformers For Microbiological Growth, Certied Test Report, Cooper Power Systems, 2005. [24] F. J. Francis, Wiley Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 2nd ed., vol. 14. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1999. [25] G. V. Barbosa-Cnovas, A. J. Fontana, S. J. Schmidt, and T. P. Labuza, Water Activity in FoodsFundamentals and Applications. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK, 2007. [26] J. M. deMan, Principles of Food Chemistry, 3rd ed., New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, 1999. [27] Standard Specication for Natural (Vegetable Oil) Ester Fluids Used in Electrical Apparatus, ASTM D6871 - 03, 2008. [28] K. Rapp, C. P. McShane, and J. Luksich, Interaction mechanisms of natural ester dielectric uid and Kraft paper, in IEEE International Conference on Dielectric Liquids, 2005, pp. 393396. [29] Insulating LiquidsDetermination of the Dielectric Dissipation Factor by Measurement of the Conductance and CapacitanceTest Method, IEC 61620 Ed. 1.0, 1998. [30] Insulating LiquidsMeasurement of Relative Permittivity, Dielectric Dissipation Factor (tan ) and d.c. Resistivity, IEC 60247 Ed 3.0, 2004. [31] IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers, IEEE C57.147, 2008. [32] Synthetic Organic Esters for Electrical PurposesGuide for Maintenance of Transformer Esters in Equipment, IEC 61203, 1992.

Daniel Martin received the BEng degree in electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Brighton, UK, in 2000 (with study abroad in Germany). He then joined Racal Electronics, which became the international electronics company Thales, working on communication and aircraft systems. He left Thales in 2004 to pursue his PhD degree in electrical insulation at the University of Manchester, UK. He investigated the possibility of using vegetable oils and synthetic esters as substitutes for mineral oil within large power transformers and graduated in 2008. In his current appointment as a research fellow at Monash University he is project leader of studies investigating the suitability of using vegetable oils as transformer dielectrics. He provides technical expertise to industry on this topic.

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Nick Lelekakis holds a bachelor of science with honors in chemistry from Monash University. He has worked at Monash on transformer-related projects since his graduation in 1995. He has 14 years of experience in sampling, measuring, and monitoring gases dissolved in electrical insulating oil, using gas chromatography. He has compared vacuum extraction with headspace methods for dissolved gas analysis and has made comparative tests with many other laboratories. He also has experience with online gas chromatograph instrumentation.

Wenyu Guo received his PhD in computer science from the University of Manchester in 2007. He joined Monash University in 2007, initially engaged in computer vision research. He later transferred to the Centre for Power Transformer Monitoring, Diagnostics and Life Management (the transformerLIFE Centre) to carry out research in the area of computational modeling. He has also been involved in dynamic thermal modeling and insulation aging studies in power transformers.

Yuriy Odarenko graduated with an MEng degree in power engineering from Zaporizhzhya State Engineering Academy, Ukraine, in 2002. This program included participation in a research project at the Institute of Polymer Technology of the University of ErlangenNuremberg, Erlangen, Germany. Between 2002 and 2008 he was a research fellow at the Thermal Laboratory of the Ukrainian Transformer Institute (VIT), Zaporizhzhya, investigating uid dynamics and heat and mass transfer phenomena in transformers incorporating various types of insulation, e.g., dielectric liquid and SF6 gas. At VIT he also modeled the thermal performance of transformer windings as part of a PhD program, graduating in 2007. In 2008 he moved to Melbourne to work with the Centre for Power Transformer Monitoring, Diagnostics and Life Management within Monash University. Currently he is a design development engineer with Wilson Transformer Company. He participates in the CIGRE working groups A2-24 Thermal Performances of Power Transformers and IEC TC-14 MT-06 Thermal Performance of Transformers.

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