Part II Written by Prof.

Dora Maek

10. 4. 2007.

1066 And All That1 Under King Alfred and hi on the Angle ! "a#on and Dane ettled $ea%ef&lly in their 'illage ide by ide and (i#ed. )illage and fore t *ere %leared and 'illage de'elo$ed on the %learan%e . Walled (arket to*n *ere b&ilt aro&nd the for(er +o(an %entre , ee $la%e na(e in -ceaster, -burh, -port.. /he to*n $eo$le *ere free(en *ho traded *ithin the %itie ! far(ed o&t ide their *all ! and defended the( *ith ar( if ne%e ary. /he large t to*n at the end of Anglo-"a#on 0ngland! a$art fro( 1ondon! *a 2ork! *ith a %on iderable "%andina'ian $o$&lation. It had o'er 3!000 inhabitant . /here i e'iden%e that 4or*i%h and 1in%oln had aro&nd 5!000! 6#ford 7!500! 8a(bridge and I$ *i%h o(e 1!700. /he great *ooden hall , ee Heorot in Beowulf. *here the %hief li'ed *ith their retainer in anglo-"a#on 0ngland di a$$eared. Under Dani h infl&en%e Alfred b&ilt a na'y of fighting hi$ to $rote%t hi hore ! and $ro'ided hor e a a (ean of tran $ort for hi oldier . /hey ne'er learnt to fight on hor eba%k! b&t *ere e#%ellent ar%her *ho fo&ght on foot. /he *eak King 0thelred II! the Unready2 ,9:;3-101;. *a again %onfronted *ith Dani h raid ! b&t he did not fight the(. <e rai ed ta#e ,60 danegeld. to $ay the( to go a*ay. =&t the ta#e r&ined the $o$&lation! o *hen he died! the %o&n%il *ho ele%ted the 0ngli h king in'ited the Dani h leader 8an&te ,or Kn&t. ,9::5-1075. to be their King. <e *a al o King of Den(ark and 4or*ay and th& r&led o'er a large Atlanti% kingdo(. <e ke$t Win%he ter a hi %a$ital and the lang&age of hi %o&rt *ere 0ngli h and Dani h. 6ne of hi relati'e *a (arried to D&n%an! King of "%otland! *ho *a later killed by Ma%beth. Another *a (arried to 0arl >od*in. <e hi( elf (arried 0thelred? *ido*! a da&ghter of the D&ke of 4or(andy. <e did (&%h to i($ro'e the trade bet*een 0ngland and 0&ro$e! *here 0ngli h *ool *a in great de(and. After 8an&te? death! hi on *ere in%a$able r&ler ! o 0thelred? on 0d*ard ,1042-10;;.! *a %alled fro( 4or(andy to be the 0ngli h King. <e had $ent (o t of hi life in an abbey and *a (ore like a (onk than a *orldly r&ler. <e $oke 4or(an @ren%h and beha'ed like a 4or(an. <e *a for(ally (arried to 0arl >od*in? da&ghter! b&t did not ha'e any %hildren *ith her. Moreo'er! it *a re$orted that he had left 0ngland to hi 4or(an %o& in. 6n hi death-bed at 8hri t(a 10;5! 0d*ardA brother in la*! <arold >od*in on! *a a$$ointed to be King and *a %ro*ned the ne#t day. =&t the 0ngli h %ro*n *a %lai(ed by the 4or*egian king <arald <ardrade7 a the &%%e or to 8an&te! and 0d*ard the 8onfe or? e%ond %o& in! Willia( the =a tard! D&ke of 4or(andy! be%a& e of 0d*ardA e%ret $ro(i e. <arald of 4or*ay landed in the north of 0ngland and eiBed 2ork. <arold r& hed to (eet hi( and the battle *a fo&ght at "ta(ford =ridge in "e$te(ber of 10;;. <arold! the la t )iking king *a killed and hi fleet ret&rned to 4or*ay. /hree day later Willia( D&ke of 4or(andy landed in the o&th on the "& e# %oa t. <arold r& hed o&th! b&t %o&ld not %olle%t all the &$$ort he needed. With hi e#ha& ted (en he (et
1

This is the title of a humorous book on the history of England by W.C Sellar & R.J. Yeatman, agnum !""ls, 1#$%. & 'is ni(kname )E unrae meant *of bad (ounsel*, i.e. *+ho doesn,t listen to good (oun(il*. $ 'arald,s ni(kname also means *diffi(ult to (ounsel -ad.ise/*.

&&

the 4or(an near <a ting . /he 0ngli h fo&ght on foot again t the be t %a'alry in 0&ro$e. <arold and hi (en died in battle on 23th "e$te(ber 10;;. Within three (onth Willia( &bd&ed the o&th-ea t of 0ngland! %onC&ered 1ondon and *a %ro*ned in We t(in ter Abbey on 8hri t(a Day. Willia( the 8onC&eror! di'ided the kingdo( of 0ngland a(ong 5!000 4or(an knight *ho fo&ght at <a ting ! and t&rned it into a (odel fe&dal kingdo(. A fa(o& (e(orial of thi %onC&e t i a ta$e try ,the Bayeux tapestry) that *a *o'en by the n&n for the %athedral at =aye&# in 4or(andy *here Willia(? brother 6do *a =i ho$. /he e'ent of <a ting *ere *o'en on a large $ie%e of %loth that *a h&ng in the %athedral. /he northern 0ngli h lord re i ted Willia(A r&le! b&t *ere all killed and their $ro$erty di trib&ted to 4or(an knight . <e b&ilt %a tle thro&gho&t the %o&ntry *here 4or(an oldier %ontrolled the ne* kingdo(. All the ar%hbi ho$ and bi ho$ *ere al o 4or(an . 6ffi%er of the tate and D&dge *ere 4or(an . /he o%iety in 0ngland &nder*ent great %hange . /he 4or(an *ere fe* in n&(ber ! b&t they held all $o ition of $o*er for the ne#t 150 year . /hey all $oke @ren%h! and th& @ren%h be%a(e the high lang&age of the %o&rt! the go'ern(ent! the %h&r%h! the ar(y and the la*. It *a al o $artly the lang&age of %o&rtly literat&re. /heir nati'e diale%t *a 4or(an @ren%h! b&t the $re tigio& diale%t *a the one $oken in Pari ! and that *a the lang&age that *a $oken in %hool . Willia(! at the age of 40 tried to learn 0ngli h! and *a able to &nder tand b&t not $eak it. /he %lergy and other learned $rofe ion & ed 1atin! *hi%h *a the lang&age of in tr&%tion at the t*o olde t &ni'er itie ,e tabli hed in the 12th %ent&ry. 6#ford and 8a(bridge4. A %on iderable n&(ber of trade (en! %raft (en! lo*er %lergy and oldier *ere biling&al! they $oke both 0ngli h and @ren%h. /hey al o er'ed a inter$reter to tho e king and noble *ho did not $eak 0ngli h! and at the %o&rt of D& ti%e. /he (illion of 0ngli h labo&rer ! (onk ! and %raft (en in 'illage ! $oke only 0ngli h ,*ere (onoling&al.. @ren%h biling&al 0ngli h /hi o%ial $attern infl&en%ed the 0ngli h lang&age in a (o t ignifi%ant *ay. @ren%h *ord *ere & ed in all do(ain held by the 4or(an ! and they re(ained the te%hni%al ter( in go'ern(ent! la*! the (ilitary! ar%hite%t&re! %&i ine et%.! b&t they al o entered e'eryday & age a (ore $re tigio& and elegant. /he *ord *ere grad&ally ado$ted into 0ngli h & age thro&gh the lang&age of biling&al and by 1400 there *ere o(e 10!000 @ren%h *ord in 0ngli h and 75E of the( are till in & e. Modern 0ngli h ha o (any @ren%h *ord that it ha e'en been %lai(ed to be a diale%t of @ren%h. <o*e'er! freC&en%y %o&nt ha'e ho*n that a(ong the 100 (o t freC&ently & ed *ord ! the (aDority are of 6ld 0ngli h origin. Moreo'er! all gra((ati%al *ord are 0ngli h. /he follo*ing 'o%ab&lary li t *ill ho* in *hat area of life the 4or(an ha'e et their (ark.
0

1atin

1o+ often (alled Oxbridge.

&$

>6)0+4M04/ A4D ADMI4I"/+A/I64

/I/10"! +A4K"! @6+M" 6@ ADD+0""

a e(bly! a&thority! %han%ellor %o&n%il! %o&ntry! %o&rt! %ro*n! e#%heC&er! go'ern(ent! nation offi%e! $arlia(ent! $eo$le! $o*er!

baron! %o&nt! %o&nte ! d&ke! d&%he ! fe&dal! (anor! (arC&i ! noble! $eer! $rin%e! 'i %o&ntF ir! (ada(! (i ter! (a ter! o'ereign (i tre F er'ant

It i *orth noting that only a fe* *ord in the e e(anti% gro&$ are nati'e 0ngli h *ord ! e.g. lord ,G60 hlaford.! lady ,Ghlafdige.! king ,G%yning.! C&een ,G%*ene.! earl ,Georl H(an! *arriorH.! knight ,G%niht Hboy! er'antH.! heriff ,G %ir gerefa Hoffi%er of the di tri%tH..
MI1I/A+2 /0+M" 8<U+8< A4D +01I>I64

aid! ar(o&r! ar( ! ar(y! battle! %a$tain! %o($any! defeat! e %a$e! for%e! lie&tenant! na'y! regi(ent! ergeant! iege! oldier! troo$ ! 'e el! 'i%tory

abbey! altar! =ible! ba$ti (! %ell! %ha$el! %harity! %ha te! %lergy! di'ine! gra%e! hono&r! glory! le on! (ira%le! $aradi e! $ari h! $ray! religion! r&le! aint! a'e! er(on! te($t! 'i%e! 'irgin! 'irt&e

"o(e *ord *ere borro*ed fro( 4or(an @ren%h! other fro( 8entral @ren%h! the diale%t of Pari . /hey differ in for(! e.g. war G M0 *ere G 4@ *ere ,Mod@ g&erre.! ward(en) G 4@ *arde! guard G 8@ g&arde.
1AW A4D IU+I"DI8/I64 <6U"0! @U+/4I/U+0! A+8<I/08/U+0

a%%& e! attorney! %a e! %a& e! ar%h! %a tle! %ellar! %hi(ney! %onde(n! %o&rt! %ri(e! da(age! %ol&(n! %o&%h! %&rtain! %& hion! defendant! fal e! felony! g&ilt! la($! (an ion! $ala%e! $illar! heir! inD&ry! intere t! D&dge! D&ry! $or%h! table! *ardrobe D& t! D& ti%e! (arriage! (oney! $enalty! $lead! $oor! $o'erty! $ro'e! rent! robber! e ion! traitor /he *ord law, outlaw, are of 6ld 4or e origin ,G60 lag& G64 lagr.
A+/ A4D 04/0+/AI4M04/ >A+M04/"! M0A1"

art! bea&ty! %olo&r! de ign! fig&re! i(age! orna(ent! $aintF %ha e! %ard! dan%e! di%e! lei &re! $lea &re! $ort! to&rna(ent

boot! %oat! %ollar! %o t&(e! dre ! f&r! gar(ent! go*n! De*el! robe dinner! &$$erF

It *a noted that (eat ha often @ na(e ! *herea the na(e of the ani(al *ho e fle h er'e a (eat are 0 e.g. beef - ox, cow, veal - calf, pork - swine, pig, mutton sheep, venison - bear, deer. /he $re'alen%e of @ ter( in %ooking a *ell a in %lothe ! %an be a%%o&nted for by the fa%t that the @ren%h led the fa hion in both the e $here . It %an al o be noted that to*n trade bore @ na(e *hile i($le %o&ntry o%%&$ation retained their nati'e na(e ! e.g. @ b&t%her! %ar$enter! dra$er! gro%er! $ainter! tailor 0 baker! (iller! he$herd! hoe(aker! (ith Many other *ord *itho&t *hi%h 0ngli h today *o&ld not be i(aginable are e.g. ad'i%e! air! allo*! boil! %arry! %hange! %lo e! %o'er! %ry! de%ei'e! do&ble! enDoy! enter! &0

en'y! e#%& e! fa%e! fir(! flo*er! hone t! ho&r! Doy! large! letter! (anner! (o'e! ne%e ary! ni%e! noi e! obey! o%%&$y! $ale! a ! $lea e! $& h! ri'er! re(e(ber! ati fy! ear%h! %i or ! ingle! &dden! &re! tra'el! trea &re! 'ery! & e. @ren%h loan *ord in%rea ed the 0 'o%ab&lary greatly. /he @ *ord o(eti(e di $la%ed 60 *ord ! and o(eti(e both *ord *ere & ed! b&t *ith different (eaning . /he @ *ord *ere often (ore for(al in %hara%ter! b&t %an al o ha'e a (ore $e%ifi% (eaning than the 0ngli h *ord. 60 +0P1A80D =2 @ DI@@0+04/ M0A4I4>" @ M6+0 @6+MA1 *iJe -K 'ery board K-G table begin G-K %o((en%e friL -K $ea%e tong&e K-G lang&age %li(b G-K a %end ige -K 'i%tory %o(e K-G arri'e ea -K ri'er roo( K-G %ha(ber look for G-K ear%h f&ll&ht -K ba$ti ( tool K-G %hair (ell G-K odo&r halga -K aint h&t K-G %ottage *i h G-K de ire /he @ren%h *ord be%a(e *ell ada$ted and integrated into the 0ngli h lang&age o they %o&ld for( ne* deri'ati'e *ith 0 $refi#e and &ffi#e ! and @ $refi#e and &ffi#e %o&ld be added to 0 *ord
@+048< W6+D 04>1I"< A@@IM 04>1I"< W6+D @+048< A@@IM

bea&ty - f&l break - able (artyr - do( hindr - an%e (a ter - ly righte - o& o'er - $o*ered di - like &n - %on %io& re - t&rn 8o($o&nd %o&ld al o be for(ed *ith 0 and @ *ord like black-guard, ear-piece, and @ and 0! e.g. grand-mother, colour-blind. /he @ren%h ele(ent ha al o %hanged 0ngli h rhyth( and a%%ent&ation. Many *ord *ere ado$ted that *ere tre ed on the la t yllable. In the $ro%e of ada$tation the tre hifted for*ard! b&t (any *ord till do not ha'e the 0ngli h initial tre . M0 %itee N i?teON K Mod0 %ity N? itiN nat&re Nna?tD&r N K N?neit N %ondi%io&n N!kondi? i&OnN K %ondition Nk n?di nN. 0d&%ation and the *riting kill *ere no* al o infl&en%ed by @ren%h %& to(. /he @ren%h %ribe ! i.e. *ho %o$ied (an& %ri$t ! introd&%ed @ren%h $elling r&le ada$ted to the 0ngli h lang&age. /hi $elling i in fa%t the ba i of the (odern 0ngli h orthogra$hy. @or e#a($le the 60 $elling cild no* be%a(e child *itho&t any %hange in $ron&n%iation! *hi%h re(ained [t iOld] or scip, %hanging into ship *ith the a(e $ron&n%iation [ $]. Word like language and grammar *ere introd&%ed. Expansion and revival. @or nearly one h&ndred year after the %onC&e t of 0ngland! the 4or(an e#$anded their territorie in both =ritain and on the %ontinent. In =ritain they %onC&ered Wale ! "%otland! and Ireland. In "%otland the Angle had already %ro ed the ri'er /*eed and in ;73 %a$t&red the fortre %alled in the 8elti% lang&age in !idyn and tran lated it into !dinburgh. /hi territory re(ained the %ore of Anglo-"a#on "%otland a al o the $la%e na(e indi%ate. /he 'ario& far( and ettle(ent %alled ham and tun, e.g. "oldingham and Haddington, are n&(ero& in the o&th of "%otland. /o the *e t lay the =riti h kingdo( of "trath%lyde. /he 8elt ent (i ionarie to the Angle fro( their %h&r%h &2

of Iona. "t 8&thbert e'ent&ally e tabli hed an Anglian bi ho$ri% at 1indi farne. 6ne of it (o t notable (on&(ent i the tone %ro in +&th*ell Kirk! %. 770. 6n the %ro there are %ar'ed a fe* line fro( a 4orthern 60 $oe( the ream of the #ood, the earlie t re%ord of the "%ot lang&age. /he =riti h lang&age died o&t in "%otland! lea'ing tra%e only in $la%e-na(e like >la go*! 1eith! Montgo(ery and Aberdeen. In the @orth-8lyde area the Pi%t ! al o a 8elti% $eo$le! had held the +o(an and Angle at bay &ntil the :th %ent&ry! *hen they *ere ab orbed by the in'ading "%ot ! *ho %a(e fro( Ireland and ettled in Argyll %. 500. /heir lang&age *a al o a 8elti% lang&age %alled >aeli%! *hi%h it i today $oken in "%otland and Ireland. Aro&nd 300 the 4or*egian )iking ettled in the north and *e t of "%otland and Ireland. /hey infl&en%ed the lang&age of the area they o%%&$ied. =y 1000 there *ere t*o (ain lang&age in "%otland - >aeli% o'er (o t of the %o&ntry and Anglo-"a#on in the o&thea t! *ith 4or*egian in "hetland! 6rkney and 8aithne . Modern $la%ena(e of "%otland %onfir( thi $attern. /he 4or(an arri'ed at the "%otti h %o&rt of Mal%ol( 8an(ore and hi 0ngli h C&een Margaret. <e and hi on (ade grant of land in the 1o*land to the 4or(an of later "%otti h hi tory - the =aliol ! =r&%e and o on. /he e baron $oke @ren%h! b&t they %a(e *ith their retin&e ! *ho (o tly $oke 0ngli h. /hi 0ngli h! or Anglo@ren%h! *a greatly (i#ed *ith @ren%h! and a it i %o((on in (i#ed! or 8reole lang&age ! the 'o%ab&lary *a @ren%h *hile the gra((ar *a 0ngli h. In "%otland it *a %alled $nglis. With the e#ten ion of the fe&dal y te( the $ee%h of 1othian! $read north and *e t! $& hing >aeli% into the hill of >allo*ay and into the <ighland . /he geogra$hi%al border bet*een the <ighland and the 1o*land %orre $ond ro&ghly to the ling&i ti% bo&ndary bet*een >aeli% and "%ot . =y 1200 0ngli h far( na(e and $er onal na(e *ere $reading into the 4orthea t. /he e tabli h(ent of trading %entre ,b&rgh . hel$ed the $read of 0ngli h! *hi%h a%C&ired a o%ial $re tige it till hold . It had it o*n $elling nor( ! different fro( tho e in 0ngland. "oon it *a %alled "%otti to di ting&i h it fro( the 0ngli h of the "o&th. /o*ard the end of the 12th %ent&ry <enry II began the %onC&e t of Ireland. /he %o($le# ling&i ti% it&ation in 0ngland *a %on tantly %hanging! and in $ite of the (any %onta%t *ith the 8ontinent! e $e%ially @ran%e! @ren%h *a re tri%ted to the higher o%ial $here and to *riting! *hile 0ngli h *a gaining gro&nd. /he fir t ign of the offi%ial & e of 0ngli h *a the fa(o& %roclamation i &ed by <enry II in 1253 to the %o&n%illor in Parlia(ent. It *a *ritten in @ren%h! 1atin and 0ngli h. =&t the do(ination of @ren%h in 0ngland ended in the %o&r e of the 14th %ent&ry. Anglo-@ren%h *a a dead lang&age. It *a the @ren%h of Pari that *a the $re tigio& for( that *a a%C&ired thro&gh dire%t %onta%t and thro&gh literat&re. =&t altho&gh it bro&ght $re tige to tho e *ho $oke it! @ren%h *a in%rea ingly learnt a a foreign lang&age. 0ngli h *a the fir t lang&age e'en of the 4or(an knight *ho e land *ere far fro( the %o&rt in 1ondon. /he $o$&lation of 1ondon! (oreo'er! *a gro*ing fa t. In the 12th and 17th %ent&rie the r&ral $o$&lation of the o&th-*e tern hire looked for better e($loy(ent in the %ity. After the &%%e i'e e$ide(i% of $lag&e in the 14th %ent&ry! a third of the $o$&lation of 0ngland had $eri hed d&ring the =la%k Death! a it *a %alled. 8itie *ere $arti%&larly hard hit and 1ondon *a $ra%ti%ally de$o$&lated. =y the end of the %ent&ry ho*e'er! it re%o'ered! be%a& e ne* inhabitant arri'ed fro( the adDoining %o&ntie of 0a t Midland ! $arti%&larly 4orfolk and "&ffolk. /here *a great de(and of all kind of killed *orker and 'illage &3

%raft (en (o'ed into %itie to earn a better li'ing. /he $o$&lation of 1ondon *a no* o'er 75!000. @inally! $oliti%al %ir%&( tan%e ! *hi%h (ade the nobility and the king a *ell! t&rn to 0ngli h a their fir t lang&age! i the lo of their @ren%h $o e ion . /he &n%o(fortable it&ation for the @ren%h King! *here $art of hi kingdo( in%rea ingly fell to the 0ngli h King and ari to%ra%y! lead to *ar and the e'ent&al lo of the %ontinental $o e ion. 6ne king e'en a%C&ired hi ni%kna(e 1a%kland! be%a& e he *a &nable to defend the(. Iohn 1a%kland! did not only lo e all hi land north of the 1oire! b&t hi baron (ade hi( ign the >reat 8harter of 1ibertie ,&agna "arta 'ibertatum. in +&nny(ede near Wind or in 1215. /he 8harter g&aranteed that the king *o&ld ob er'e the la* . /hi *a the ba i of %on tit&tional la* and the e tabli h(ent of *hat *a to de'elo$ into the =riti h Parlia(ent. Allegian%e *ere no* &ndi'ided bet*een @ran%e and 0ngland! o 0ngli h national feeling %o&ld de'elo$! *hi%h *ere! a(ong t other ! e#$re ed by the a%kno*ledge(ent of 0ngli h a the offi%ial lang&age of the kingdo(. "o in 17;2 0d*ard III ga'e hi %on ent to an a%t of Parlia(ent ordaining that 0ngli h ho&ld be & ed in the la* %o&rt H in%e @ren%h ha be%o(e (&%h &nkno*n in the real(H. In 17:: King <enry I) & ed 0ngli h *hen he offi%ially a%%e$ted the throne! and in 1400 0ngli h di$lo(at ref& ed to %ond&%t negotiation *ith @ran%e in @ren%h. Middle English Dialects. "in%e the offi%ial lang&age *a @ren%h! 0ngli h *a $oken and *ritten in a n&(ber of regional diale%t ! *hi%h refle%t a de'elo$(ent fro( the 60 diale%t . A far a it i $o ible to deter(ine the bo&ndarie of M0 diale%t ! they for( the follo*ing gro&$ O (outhern, in%l&ding Kenti h in the 0a t and "o&th-We tern! *hi%h de'elo$ed fro( 0a t and We t "a#on. 0a t "a#on for(ed the ba i for the 1ondon diale%t in the 12th %ent&ry! before it *a infl&en%ed by 0a t Midland . /he e diale%t e#tended thro&gho&t the o&thern $art! a far a 8orn*all! an originally $&rely 8elti% area. &idland, di'ided into We t Midland and 0a t Midland! in an area bet*een the e t&arie of the "e'ern in the We t and the /ha(e in the 0a t! to the ri'er <&(ber in the 4orth. /he e *ere (ainly Anglian diale%t of the 60 Kingdo( of Mer%ia. )orthern diale%t ! 60 4orth&(brian! in 2ork hire! 1an%a hire and 1othian in o&thern "%otland. /hi di'i ion i greatly $re er'ed in Modern 0ngli h diale%t . /he diale%t do not only differ in ling&i ti% & age! b&t al o in $elling tradition. An intere ting early te#t *ritten in the diale%t of 1in%oln hire aro&nd 1200 i *rmulum. It *a *ritten by a (onk! %alled 6r(. /he na(e re'eal hi "%andina'ian origin ! and the lang&age abo&nd *ith 6ld 4or e loan *ord . /here are fe* or no @ren%h *ord ! *hi%h ho* that the @ren%h infl&en%e *a only lo*ly $reading farther fro( 1ondon. Mo t intere ting i the $elling y te( de'i ed by 6r(.
"6M0 DIA108/A1 @0A/U+0"

60 a lang +long+ 60 y fyr +fire+ Pl. of no&n egen

o&thern K o long Kenti h e fer "W y fur [fyr] -en eyen

MID1A4D

46+/<0+4

Ko

long We t y fur 0a t i fire -en! -e

Ka lang

-e eyes

&4

+eyes+ 7. $ . "g. 'erb singe, +he-she-it sings+ Pl. 'erb singa, +they sing+ Pre . $arti%i$le singende +singing+

-eth singeth

-eth! -e -eth singeth -ende singende

-e

singes

-en singen Kenti h -inge! -inde singinge, singinde

-e singes -ande singande

Changes in pronunciation. /he $oken for( of the lang&age i the one that i (o t freC&ently & ed. And that i one of the rea on *hy $ron&n%iation ho* great indi'id&al differen%e and differen%e bet*een gro&$ of $eaker . Differen%e in $ron&n%iation al o 'ery (&%h de$end on the $eed and 'ol&(e of $ee%h. @or all the e rea on it i al o &bDe%t to freC&ent %hange. 8hange tart *ith o(eone $rono&n%ing a o&nd in a ne*! inno'ati'e *ay. It i & &ally a yo&ng $er on! be%a& e older $eaker are (ore %on er'ati'e than the yo&ng. If it i an infl&ential $er on in a gro&$! treet! 'illage! %hool! hi Nher (ate *ill i(itate hi Nher $ron&n%iation. /hi ne* $ron&n%iation (ay $read and be a%%e$ted in a *ider area and it (ay be%o(e a tandard *ith a geogra$hi% or o%ial range. When $ron&n%iation %hange it %hange in different *ay O a. the $ron&n%iation of indi'id&al o&nd %an %hange! b. the $ron&n%iation of gro&$ of o&nd %an %hange! %. the tre %an hift fro( one yllable to another or %hange it %hara%ter! d. the rhyth( and intonation %an %hange , o %alled prosodic feat&re .! and f. the *ay re onan%e i a%hie'ed! e.g. by o$ening or %lo ing the larynx It i al o $o ible to lo*er the soft palate and $eak thro&gh the no e ,na al $ron&n%iation! nasalisation.. /he ingle o&nd that %hange are! of %o&r e! 'o*el and %on onant . "in%e o&nd are $rono&n%ed in a tring! i.e. e'eral o&nd *ith one $&ff of breath! they often infl&en%e one another. /hey are $rono&n%ed a near to one another a $o ible! to (ake $ron&n%iation ea ier! (ore e%ono(i%al. /he e %hange affe%t o(eti(e a *hole Hfa(ilyH of o&nd . /hi ha$$ened! for e#a($le! in the >er(ani% 8on onant "hift , ee %ha$ter on the >er(ani% 1ang&age .. /he erie of labial! dental and $alatal %on onant hifted by being $rono&n%ed in the a(e $la%e! b&t in a different *ay. /ho e that *ere $rono&n%ed a 'oi%ed $lo i'e lo t the 'oi%e and be%a(e 'oi%ele $lo i'e . )oi%ele $lo i'e *ere then $rono&n%ed *ith a greater o$ening bet*een the li$ ! teeth et%. and be%a(e fri%ati'e ! and o on. 6ne %hange th& ! %a& e another %hange! or %hange . "o(e %hange %an ha'e an effe%t on the entire $honologi%al y te(. Vowels %an %hange in t*o *ay O their length ,C&antity. (ay %hange - hort 'o*el be%o(e long and long 'o*el are hortened - or their C&ality - NaN be%o(e NoN! for e#a($le. /he follo*ing are o(e of the (o t i($ortant %hange of $ron&n%iation that o%%&rred bet*een the 60 and the M0 $eriod. )6W01" I4 "/+0""0D "211A=10" &nder*ent a/ lengthening in o$en yllable O na(a K na-(e [?naO(]! ke$e Hkee$H before -ld! -rd! -nd! -(b O %hild [t iOld]! hard! land! %o(b b/ hortening in %lo ed yllable O ke$te Hke$tH5! *i -do(! fifty
2

)"en syllables end in a .o+el, (losed ones in a (onsonant.

&5

in *ord longer than t*o yllable O We t(in ter! $arle(ent ,talk.! %hildren %. C&alitati'e %hangeO 60 yKi! e! y , ee diale%t .! hillNhellNh&ll HhillH 60 a K o! a , ee diale%t . tanN ton H toneH 60 aPna al K a! o ,ea tN*e t. (anN(on H(anH %hanged in a (o t ignifi%ant *ay. /he trong dyna(i% tre on the fir t ,initial! root. yllable (ade it diffi%&lt to $rono&n%e the *hole *ord *ith eC&al for%e in C&i%k ,allegro. $ee%h. /hi $ee%h te($o i (o t freC&ent in e'eryday! infor(al & age! *here (o t %hange o%%&r. @or rea on of tre th& ! the final yllable *a *eakened. /he 'o*el *a not f&lly $rono&n%ed and e'ent&ally dro$$ed %o($letely. /he lo of final yllable i eC&al to lo of infle%tional ending. And thi (ean red&%tion of infle%tion ! i.e. (or$hologi%al (ean of e#$re ing gra((ati%al relation hi$ . /he e relation hi$ are i($ortant for the organi ation of (eaning of &tteran%e and other - (ainly ynta%ti% - (ean re$la%ed the infle%tion . "o M0 i a tage in the de'elo$(ent of 0ngli h *hen infle%tion *ere lo t and ne* (ean *ere being de'elo$ed. It i ob'io& that the red&%tion of 'o*el in final yllable %hanged the tr&%t&re of 0ngli h fro( a yntheti% to an analyti% lang&age.; /he red&%tion of 'o*el in &na%%ented yllable (eant that all 'o*el *ere red&%ed to -e! *hi%h *a then f&rther red&%ed to - ! and finally dro$$ed -0
)6W01" I4 U4"/+0""0D "211A=10"

'o*el K -e K - K -0
"o(e 60 *ord and their de'elo$(ent in M0 and Mod0 60 M0 Mod0 $l. fi %a [fi a ] fi he [fi ] fi he [fi ] %hildre! %hilder! %hildren %ildr& [t ildr&] %hildren [t ildren] [t ildre]! [t ilder] inf. findan [findan] finden! finde [find n]! [find] find [faind]

8<A4>0 6@ DIP</<64>".

Di$hthong are & &ally hortened to ingle i($le 'o*el ,monophthongs.! long one ! and the e %an be%o(e di$hthong . 60 di$hthong be%a(e (ono$hthong in M0 and o(e ne* di$hthong de'elo$ed! or *ere borro*ed fro( @ren%h. 60 DIP</<64>" 60 K M0 eaO O eoO eO ieO iO eO ea a eo e
3

60 ea t deo$ liehtan hieran ear( heorte

M0 ee t dee$ lighten heren ar( herte

Mod0 ea t dee$ lighten hear ar( heart

Syntheti( languages like 6atin or !CS use infle(tions to e7"ress grammati(al relationshi"s, e.g. 6 Veni, vidi, vici, !SC Dooh, vidjeh, pobijedih. 8nalyti(al languages, like English or Chinese use (ombinations of +ords, I came, I saw, I conquered.

&#

ie

i nieht! niht night night e hierde herd H he$herdH 4e* di$hthong %a(e abo&t a glide bet*een a 'o*el and a %on onant or (ei'o*el ,e.g. D! *.. M0 DIP</<64>" 60 K M0 60 M0 Mod0 ePD ei *e7 *ey *ay eOPD ei gre7 grey grey QPD ai (Q7 (ay (ay la7& la* aPgKaP a& la*e [la&] bo7a bo*e bo* oPgKoP o& aOP* o& %na*an kno* kon*en [kno& n] tahte ta&ght aOP a&P ta&ghte [ta& t] "o(e C&alitati'e 'o*el %hange in%l&de the &nro&nding and lo*ering of 60 y and yO in the M0 diale%t F rai ing long aOF $litting of hort a before na al F lo*ering of QO 60 M0 Mod0 fyllan [?fyllan] W0"/0+4 f&llen [?fyl n! (y [?(yO ] f&l n] (& [?(yO ! (&O ] fill 0A"/ MID1A4D"! 46+/<0+4 fillen [?fil n] K04/I"< fellen [?fel n] tan [ taOn] 46+/<0+4 tan [ taOn] ald [ald] ald [aOld] tone 01"W<0+0 toon! tone old [ toOn]! old [oOld] lond! land h*Qt lond 01"0W<0+0 land *hat [h*at]
W0"/ MID1A4D

land *hat

Consonants %hange (&%h le freC&ently than 'o*el . "o(e ha'e $robably ne'er %hanged in the hi tory of 0ngli h ,e.g. m, n, l or p, b, t, d.. /hi i $robably d&e to the fa%t that %on onant ha'e a fir( $ot at *hi%h they are arti%&lated! *hile the 'o*el ha'e a (&%h *ider range of reali ation. It i ! for e#a($le! diffi%&lt to de%ide ,*itho&t (odern te%hno logy. at *hat $oint an a be%o(e an .! b&t it i C&ite %lear *hen a p be%o(e a t. Moreo'er! the %on onant %ontrib&te (ore to the (eaning of a *ord than 'o*el ! $erha$ be%a& e Indo-0&ro$ean lang&age generally ha'e (ore %on onant in *ord than 'o*el .7 /he (o t freC&ent %hange of the $ron&n%iation of %on onant ! tending to*ard an effortle $ron&n%iation! are a i(ilation! f& ion! and red&%tion. /he (o t ignifi%ant %on onantal %hange in M0 *a the $lit of fri%ati'e %on onant into e$arate $hone(e . In 60 the 'oi%ele fri%ati'e f - - and 'oi%ed fri%ati'e ' - B - J *ere only allo$hone . De$ending on the en'iron(ent a 'oi%ele or a 'oi%ed fri%ati'e *a $rono&n%ed! e.g.
4

9t is more likely that +e shall guess +hi(h +ord is mean by tbl or mr than by ae or ie -i.e. table : mister/.

$%

60 fi % [fi] gift [Dift] H$ri%e of a *ife!H b&tO giefan [Dievan] Hgi'eH ['] *a th& $rono&n%ed bet*een 'o*el or a 'o*el and a 'oi%ed %on onant! other*i e [f]. In M0! ho*e'er! the e 'oi%ele -'oi%ed $air be%a(e inde$endent $hone(e . /he $ron&n%iation did not in fa%t %hange! b&t the tat& of the fri%ati'e in the $honologi%al y te(. 4o*! the o$$o ition bet*een [f] and ['] *a rele'ant for the (eaning! e.g. M0 feine ,HfeignH. and 'eyne ,H'einH.. Changes in orpholog! A it *a already indi%ated! the red&%tion of &na%%ented yllable lead to the ero ion of the %a e o that all %a e that had ended in a 'o*el no* ended in -e! f&rther red&%ed to - ! and finally dro$$ed in $ron&n%iation! altho&gh often ke$t in the $elling ,e.g. Mod0 fine! $rono&n%ed [fain].. /ho e ending that %ontained a %on onant a *ell! retained the %on onant! o that be ide -e! there are &%h M0 ending a -e ! -en for no&n ! and -eth! -e ! -en! -ed for 'erb . "o(e of the re(aining ending $ro'ed 'ery %on tant! (oreo'er! they *ere ado$ted a ending for *ord *hi%h did not ha'e the( in 60. Word fro( infle%tion *hi%h *ere lo t in thi $ro%e ado$ted the e ending by analogy. "&%h ending *ere the >04I/I)0 "I4>U1A+ and 46MI4A/I)0 R A88U"A/I)0 P1U+A1! ending of the H>eneral Ma %&lineH infle%tion. /he large t $er%entage of 60 no&n *ere infle%ted in thi *ay! *hi%h definitely %ontrib&ted to the f&rther $read of the e ending . /he 60 -an $l&ral! no* %hanged to -en! *a al o $reading! $arti%&larly in the o&thern diale%t . /hi ending i till C&ite freC&ent in the o&thern diale%t of 0ngland! *here there are &%h $l&ral a housen, and shoon ,i.e. Hho& e H! H hoe H..
>04I/I)0 P1U+A1

60 -e K ME "es 60 cyninges, scipes, tale, naman K M0 kinges, shipes, deeres! tales, names

>04. P1U+A1

M0 feete ! (i%e

60 -a K ME "es 60 cyningas, scipu, deor, tala, naman K M0 kinges, shipes, tales, names 60 -an K ME "en 60 eagan [ea/an], .gru [./ru] cildru [t ildru] 0 M0 6U/<0+4 eyen (+eyes+), eyren (+eggs+) children, 46+/<0+4 eyes, egges, childeres 60 fet! (y K M0 feet [feOt]! (i%e [(iO ] 60 %ea$ [ ea$]! hor K M0 hee$ [ eO$]! hor

!gg and child, belonged to a (inor ,ano(alo& . ty$e of 60 infle%tion ! *ith a no(inati'e $l&ral ending -r&. /hi ending *a red&%ed! along *ith the other ending to -re! i.e. eyre, childre! *hi%h al o o%%&r in o(e diale%t . =&t &%h for( *ere ob'io& ly not tran $arent eno&gh a $l&ral for( 3. /herefore le a(big&o& and (ore freC&ent $l&ral for( *a ado$ted! -en in the "o&th! -e in the 4orth.
5

Com"are the !CS geniti.e "lural :i of su(h +ords as o i, !ost, rije , +hi(h is more fre;uently re"la(ed by :i<u -o=i<u, kosti<u, >ri<e=i<u/, to be different from the nominati.e "lural :i.

$1

4o&n that %hange the 'o*el in the $l&ral ,front mutation. are 'ery old in the >er(ani% lang&age ! and are an e#%ellent e#a($le of for( that re(ain in the lang&age a ling&i ti% Hfo il H. Mo t irreg&lar for( in (odern lang&age *ere reg&lar for( in the di tant $a t. =&t o(e of the e no&n *ere al o regularised! that i to ay! they a%C&ired one of the (ore & &al $l&ral for( by analogy. "&%h no&n are 60 boc [boOk] - bec [beO ] K M0 book [boOk] K booke [boOk ] Hbook - book .H "i(ilarly! *ord that in 60 had no ending in the $l&ral o(eti(e ke$t thi old for( to the $re ent day! e.g. sheep. 6ther a%C&ired the & &al $l&ral! in M0 both horsen and horses *ere 'ariant diale%tal for( . /o &( &$O there *ere only t*o for( in the ing&lar! and t*o for( in the $l&ral of no&n - the general %a e for( and the geniti'e. /he ending -e ! *a both the (o t freC&ent $l&ral ending! and the only geniti'e ending! ing&lar and $l&ral. /he relation hi$ that & ed to be e#$re ed by the a%%& ati'e and dati'e *ere no* e#$re ed by $re$o ition and *ord order ,"&bDe%t - )erb - 6bDe%t.! to di ting&i h bet*een the &bDe%t and the dire%t obDe%t. Ad#ectives &nder*ent the greate t i($lifi%ation . =y the end of the M0 $eriod the only infle%tional for( left *ere ending for the 86MPA+A/I)0 and the "UP0+1A/I)0! and an -e! *hi%h $robably *a not $rono&n%ed any (ore. /he 'o*el in the &ffi#e *ere *eakened to -e. "o(e adDe%ti'e till had a (&tated 'o*el in the %o($arati'e and &$erlati'e. /here *a al o a ne* ty$e of %o($ari on by (ean of $hra e ,periphrastic comparison. *ith more and most. 9t is (lear that ?ren(h ad<e(ti.es +ere (om"ared in the ne+ +ay. 8nd finally, the t+o systems +ere also used together, +hi(h +as an em"hati( +ay of e7"ressing the degree of a ;uality. 86MPA+A/I)0 "&$erlati'e *ild *ilder *ilde t long! lang lenger! longer lenge t! longe t *ete ,H *eetH. (ore *ete (o t *ete t delitable ,Hdelightf&lH. (ore delitable (o t delitable fre h (ore fre her (o t fre he t /here are al o a n&(ber of 'ery freC&ently & ed adDe%ti'e ! *hi%h ha'e ano(alo& %o($ari on. /hey al o! like irreg&lar no&n ! belong to the olde t ite( in the >er(ani% lang&age ! e'en Indo 0&ro$ean lang&age . /hey areO good better be t e'il! ill! badde *er e! *&r e *er t! *&r t (&%he,l.! (ikel (ore! (are (e t! (o t! (a t litel! lite la e! le e le te /he $la%e(ent of adDe%ti'e after no&n a in @ren%h! i freC&ent in M0! e.g. $n other places delitables, 1 foot mantel aboute hir hippes large. /hi order i fo&nd in o(e Mod0 $hra e ! e.g. 1ttorney 2eneral.: $u erals ha'e %hanged in $ron&n%iation and be%o(e 'ery i(ilar to Mod0. /here i an intere ting inno'ation here! a loan-*ord fro( @ren%h - the ordinal n&(ber t*o secounde ,H e%ond.. It i not %o((on to borro* the ba i% n&(ber . If n&(ber are
#

The (hief la+ offi(er of a state or nation. [email protected] od.<etnik A!B ministar .an<skih "oslo.a CS/

$&

borro*ed! than it i the high n&(ber ,e.g. million, billion et%... In the %a e of M0 secounde, the loan *ord (ake the 0ngli h *ord other &na(big&o& . In 60 in (eant both H e%ond in &%%e ionH and Hthe e%ond of t*oH.10 %ronouns. /he $rono&n belong to the (o t freC&ently & ed *ord . /heir f&n%tion in lang&age i a. to be & ed in tead of Short formsE 9, my, thy no&n ! indi%ating only the ?orms used before a (o t i($ortant $art of their (eaning! (onsonantE my, thy m# herte %. to refer to no&n that ha'e already ?orms used before a .o+elE been (entioned and link $art of the myne, thyne th#n e#en te#t that belong together ,thi a $e%t i 1orthern formsE she, they, %alled cohesion.. @or thi them, their rea on they are hort and tre ed only *hen they are e($ha i ed or %ontra ted. In $ee%h they are ea ily f& ed *ith the neighbo&ring *ord . /hey ha'e had tronger and *eaker for( thro&gh hi tory. /he latter *ere $robably & ed in C&i%k and &ne($hati% $ee%h. "o they ho* a tenden%y to*ard red&%tion! b&t al o to reinfor%e(ent! *hen they be%o(e too 'ag&e. /here are %on iderable diale%tal differen%e in M0! *here the northern diale%t a$$ear (o t inno'ati'e. /he "%andina'ian infl&en%e in the 4orth of 0ngland i C&ite e'ident in $rono(inal for( . /he infle%tion are al o i($lified. In Per onal Prono&n the A%%& ati'e and Dati'e %a e ha'e (erged into one - 6bDe%ti'e - %a e. /he >eniti'e %an e'ent&ally be regarded a a e$arate %la of $rono&n ! the Po e i'e Prono&n. Per onal Prono&n
P0+"64 "I4>U1A+ P1U+A1

1st
46MI4A/I)0 6=I08/I)0

,A%%& ! Dat.. P6""0""I)0 ,>en.. &nd

i%h - I Me (in,e. - (y11 /ho& the,e.Nyo& thyNyo&r - thineNyo&r M @ 4 he - he! he - hit! it hi(- hir,e.! her -hi(! it hi - her,e.! her - hi

*e & o&r,e. - o&r ye yo& yo&r - yo&r hie! they he(! the( her,e.! their,e.

'rd
46MI4A/I)0 6=I08/I)0 P6""0""I)0

1% 11

8s in !CS drugi. Tthe forms mine"thine +ere used +hen the follo+ing +ord began +ith a .o+el, m#, on the other hand, +hen it began +ith a (onsonant -myn eye D my foot/

$$

De onstrative pronouns ha'e hed their infle%tion dra(ati%ally. /here re(ained only fo&r for( ,2 ing&lar! 2 $l&ral. o&t of t*o %o($lete $aradig( . Diale%tal differen%e are here ty$i%al a *ell. "ing&lar thi Pl&ral thi e! the ,e. that tho! tho ,e. Definite article. /he de(on trati'e *ere in 60 not only & ed to $oint to o(ething b&t al o a no&n deter(iner .12 /he *eakening of for( *a a%%o($anied by a *eakening of (eaning! o the &ninfle%ted and &na%%ented for( the *a no* & ed *ith a no&n only to refer to a $arti%&lar e#a($le of o(ething ,in 60 thi f&n%tion had the definite infle%tion of adDe%ti'e .. (ndefinite article de'elo$ed in late M0 fro( the *eak for( ,&ninfle%ted and &n tre ed. of the n&(eral one! i.e. a/an. /he & e of arti%le and no&n deter(iner often doe not agree *ith their & e in Mod0. (nterrogative pronouns re e(ble the Mod0 one ! they are al o red&%ed to 4o(inati'e who, which 6bDe%ti'e whom Po e i'e whos /he 60 In tr&(ental de'elo$ed into the interrogati'e why. (ndefinite pronouns ha'e for( like eche (each), swich (such), nothing, nobody, anything, anybody. )elative pronouns de'elo$ed fro( the de(on trati'e $rono&n that and fro( the interrogati'e $rono&n who, which, what. /he latter for( are a &b tantial inno'ation. Ver*s. /he de%ay of infle%tion ha affe%ted 'erb in the a(e *ay a no&n . /he i($lifi%ation of the 'erb (or$hology affe%ted the di tin%tion of o(e gra((ati%al %ategorie ! o that ne* (ean of e#$re ing ynta%ti% relation hi$ bet*een *ord de'elo$ed. 1ike other *ord %la e ! 'erb ho* a great 'ariety of diale%tal for( . And again! tho e for( that are (ore inno'ati'e! farther fro( 60 and nearer to Mod0 are (o t freC&ently northern for( . /he (i#t&re of diale%t in the $ee%h of 1ondon! *here $eo$le flo%ked fro( all o'er 0ngland! later infl&en%ed the tandard lang&age of the Mod0 $eriod. )umber di tin%tion - ing&lar and $l&ral - *ere $re er'ed! b&t ne&trali ed in the 15th %ent&ry. Di tin%tion in the %ategory of person! al o re(ained for the three $er on ing&lar.17 /he $ndicative and (ub/unctive (ood ha'e $ra%ti%ally be%o(e ho(ony( ! b&t the di tin%tion of tense till re(ained. /he %la of 'erb that took the dental &ffi# in the $a t ten e in%rea ed and the 'o%ali% ty$e de%rea ed. /hi *a $artly d&e to the fa%t that all the ne* 'erb ! borro*ed fro( @ren%h! *ere infle%ted *ith the dental &ffi#! *ith 'ery fe* e#%e$tion . Partly ho*e'er! (any 60 'o%ali% 'erb *ere al o regularised and a%C&ired the dental &ffi# in tead of %hanging the 'o*el. Intere ting are o(e Mod0 irregular 'erb that be%a(e irreg&lar thro&gh %hange in $ron&n%iation! not be%a& e they *ere the 'o%ali% ty$e of 'erb. "&%h i e.g. M0 make(n) - makede - makede!
1&

Com"are the usage of !SC unstressed demonstrati.e "ronouns taj, ta, to in (onte7ts +here they do not "oint to anything, es"e(ially in "o":musi(, e.g. *$a t.o<a ruka mala .. -9. RobiF/. 1$ Similar redu(tions and neutralisations tend to o((ur in !CS as +ell. 1ote the s"read of the form bi of the (onditional of biti. 9nstead of bih, bi, bi % bismo, biste, bi, (ollo;uial usage fa.ours, by analogy, the shortest and most fre;uent form -&vi bi mi htjeli putovati'..

$0

*here the yllable -ke- *a elided ,dro$$ed. o that the -ed ending be%a(e $art of the te( make - made - made. /he non finite forms! the $nfinitive and the %resent and %ast %articiples, had both no(inal and 'erbal %hara%teri ti% in 60. In M0 their 'erbal feat&re be%o(e (ore $ro(inent! and re e(ble the f&n%tion of the e for( in Mod0. /he 60 Infiniti'e *a a 'erbal no&n (o t freC&ently & ed in the Dati'e *ith the $re$o ition to (*! to writanne.. /her i no infle%tion in M0! b&t the $re$o ition till re(ain to write(n). Moreo'er! the $re$o ition for to are & ed! a in o(e (odern diale%t to the $re ent day! e.g. M0 for to seke. ,dial. for to seek.. /he $arti%i$le ! *hi%h *ere 'erbal adDe%ti'e ! al o lo t all infle%tion ! and the $refi# of the Pa t Parti%i$le *a red&%ed 60 ge- K M0 y- yronne ,r&n.! and then dro$$ed. /he $arti%i$le did not lo e their no(inal ynta%ti% feat&re . /hey %an till be & ed a no&n (odifier ,washing machine, corned beef. or $art of $redi%ate (it was boring, she was tired.. )erbal for( 14 )o%ali% 8on onantal Ano(alo& Infiniti'e binden! 4 binde ho$en! 4 ho$e been %resent Tense binde ho$e a( t "ing&lar 1 2nd binde t! 4 binde ho$e t! 4 ho$e art rd 7 bindeth! 4 binde ho$eth! 4 ho$e i Pl&ral " binde,n.! M bindeth! " ho$e,n.! M ho$eth! bee(! are,n. 4 binde 4 ho$e Pre ent Parti%i$le "0 finding,e. findind,e. "0 ho$ing,e. ho$ind,e. beyng,e.! M findend,e. M ho$end,e. beande 4 findand,e. 4 ho$and,e. %ast Tense " bond M band bond 4 "ing&lar 1 t band ho$ed,e. *a 2nd " bo&nde M bo&nde ho$ede t *ere 4 band 7rd " bond M band bond 4 ho$ed,e. *a band Pl&ral " bo&nded M bo&nden ho$ed,en. *eren 4 band,en. Pa t Parti%i$le " M ybo&nde,n. 4 " M yho$ed 4 ho$ed ,y.been b&nden Already in M0 the tenden%y to regularise the 'o*el $attern in the 'o%ali% 'erb *a noti%eable! and the $ro%e i no* fo&nd in all Mod0 diale%t . "o(e diale%t $referred the for( of the Pa t ing&lar! other the Pa t $l&ral! and o(e the 'o*el of the Pa t Parti%i$le. Modern e#a($le are write - wrote - wrote, do - done - done. /o &( &$ the %hange that began in the 60 $eriod and %ontin&ed thro&gho&t the M0 $eriodO the y te( of infle%tion de%lined! d&e to %hange that nor(ally o%%&r in the $ro%e of %o((&ni%ation and tran (i ion of lang&age fro( one generation to another. /he fa%t that the 0ngli h o%iety *a a 'ery %o($le# o%iety! %hara%teri ed by great ling&i ti% and diale%tal 'ariation and di'er ity only fa%ilitated ling&i ti% %hange. /he eroded infle%tion *ere grad&ally re$la%ed by e'er (ore %o($le#

10

S G Southern, SE South:Eastern,

idland, 1 1orthern

$2

ynta%ti% tr&%t&re and by a large 'o%ab&lary *ith %on iderable e(anti% $e%ifi%ation. 6ne &%h de'elo$(ent i the +uture Tense. /he la%k of a @&t&re /en e infle%tion in 60 *a in M0 re$aired by the for(ation of a 'erbal $hra e of AUMI1IA+2 )0+=! @I4I/0 @6+M P MAI4 )0+=! 464 @I4I/0 @6+M. While the Pre ent /en e %o&ld till be & ed to indi%ate the f&t&re! a n&(ber of 'erb lo t , o(e of. their e(anti% (eaning in thi $ro%e and a%C&ired $&rely gra((ati%al (eaning ,f&n%tion . - they *ere grammaticalised and be%a(e auxiliar! ver*s for(ing the @&t&re /en e. In the M0 $eriod! 'erb *ith a (odal (eaning shall ,Hbe trongly obliged! (& tH.! will ,Hbe *illing! *ant! *i h! de ireH.! may ,Hha'e the $o*erH.! can ,Hbe able! kno* ho*H. lo t o(e of thi (eaning and began to i($ly only a future e'ent. /hi f&t&re e'ent %o&ld then ha'e o(e of the original (odal (eaning! e.g. Hobligation do o(ething in the f&t&reH! H*illingne to do itH et%. It i %lear that 'erb *ith a (odal (eaning de'elo$ed a a&#iliarie for the f&t&re! be%a& e the (odal (eaning o(eho* refer to the f&t&re f&lfil(ent of the obligation! *i h et%. o(e of the auxiliary verbs of the @&t&re /en e *ere al o ynta%ti%ally red&%ed! be%a& e they de'elo$ed fro( tran iti'e 'erb taking no&n obDe%t e.g. "he %o&de (&%h of *andring by the *eye ,8ha&%er.
"he %o&ld ,kne*. a lot abo&t tra'elling on road .

into 'erb taking a non finite 'erb a %o($le(ent ,(he could tell a lot about travelling). /he non finite 'erb in t&rn %an take an obDe%t. In M0 the e 'erb (o tly $erfor( both f&n%tion a (odal 'erb and @&t&re /en e a&#iliarie . And I hal (ake & a&f for e'ere(ore ,8ha&%er. And I hall (ake & afe for & for e'er. /he ,u*#unctive Mood had al o to be re$la%ed by a (ore f&n%tional! re%ogni able for(! in%e the di tin%tion bet*een the Indi%ati'e and the "&bD&n%ti'e *a ne&trali ed. "&%h for( *ere! a the e#a($le of the @&t&re /en e ho* ! 'erbal $hra e . 1nalytical forms ,i.e. $hra e . are (ore tran $arent than yntheti% for( ,infle%tion .. "o 'erb *ith a (odal (eaning! b&t other too! *ere & ed to e#$re (odality. "&%h 'erb *ere should, would (&! sholde, wolde) In al the $ari he *if ne *a ther noon /hat to th? offring bifore hir holde goonF
In all the $ari h there *a no *o(an Who *o&ld go before her to (ake an offering ,in %h&r%h..

/ho& halt not killS ,/he /en 8o((and(ent .. In M0 the "&bD&n%ti'e infle%tion i till & ed! tho&gh le then in 60! yet (ore freC&ently than in Mod0 ,e.g. 3hey suggested that he bribe the official). 60 did not ha'e a %assive Voice! only the Pa t Parti%i$le *a a 'erbal adDe%ti'e *ith $a i'e (eaning! infle%ted like other adDe%ti'e . /here *ere ho*e'er 'erb $hra e *ith link-'erb ,%o$&la . &%h a to be ,60 beon. and to become ,60 weor4an.. /he e *ere in fa%t no(inal $redi%ate indi%ating a tate re &lting fro( a $re'io& a%tion ,e.g. He was disappointed 5 (omething-somebody did not live up to his expectations.. In M0 the infle%tion *ere lo t! and th& al o the link *ith the

$3

%ategory of adDe%ti'e . /he $hra e *ith ben, becomen et%. P Pa t Parti%i$le *ere reinter$reted a $a i'e and e#tended to tate and a%tion O the flo&r i engendred
the flo*er i %reated

And *el *e *eren e ed atte be te ,8ha&%er.

Another analyti% for( *a the %erfect- *hi%h de'elo$ed o&t of 60 $o e i'e %on tr&%tion *ith the 'erb H16!! A4D /<0 I4@108/0D PA"/ PA+/I8IP10 6@ /+A4"I/I)0 )0+=" ,e.g. 3he king had good warriors chosen T the king had good *arrior *ho *ere %ho en by hi(.. /hi %on tr&%tion *ith the 'erb have grad&ally e#tended to other kind of 'erb ! e'en intran iti'e 'erb . /he 60 %on tr&%tion of the link-'erb B! P I4/+A4"I/I)0 )0+=" ,e.g. 3he money is gone. (erged in the M0 $eriod *ith the $hra e *ith have, *hi%h had hed the (eaning of H$o e ionH ,it *a gra((ati%ali ed.. Phra e *ith be *ere & ed *ith the Pa t Parti%i$le of )0+=" 6@ M6/I64 7or he was late ycome from his viage
He had recently come from his campaign

*herea have took other 'erb And therto hadde he ridden no (an ferre
And (oreo'er! he had ridden farther than any other (an

%rogressive ,%ontin&o& . for( deri'e fro( 60 $hra e *ith =0 P P+0"04/ PA+/I8IP10! *hi%h denoted a C&ality or tate! or %hara%teri ed a $er on 60 He com ridande
He came riding

In M0 the $arti%i$le lo t it infle%tion and the $hra e lo*ly de'elo$ed to be%o(e the for( e#$re ing the %ontin&o& a $e%t. M0 (yngynge he was or floyting al the day. ,8ha&%er.
<e *a inging or $laying the fl&te all day long.

/he Perfe%t and the Progre i'e for( %o&ld be %o(bined into a Perfe%t 8ontin&o& and the Perfe%t and Pa i'e into a Perfe%t Pa i'e 8e han ben wayitinge al this fortnight
8e have been waiting all this fortnight

they that han been brent

/he de%line of infle%tion generally bro&ght abo&t the elaboration of ynta%ti% (ean . =&t A>+00M04/ a a ynta%ti% trait de%lined too! in%e it de$ended on agree(ent of infle%tional for( . /he agree(ent that re(ained *a bet*een the &bDe%t and 'erb ,$ sing - He sings). 6n the other hand! W6+D 6+D0+ be%a(e (ore i($ortant! it took o'er o(e of the f&n%tion of agree(ent a a (ean of indi%ating *hi%h ele(ent of an &tteran%e! enten%e! or $hra e belonged together. P+0P6"I/I64" re$la%ed the %a e . 0#a($le of M0 te#t /he M0 $eriod abo&nd in all kind of genre of te#t *ritten in e'eral diale%tal tradition . /he follo*ing ele%tion i therefore only a 'ery (all fra%tion of the *ealth of M0 literat&re! taken fro( the 1ate M0 $eriod. Iohn of /re'i a tran lation of the %olychronicon by +an&l$h <igden. "o&t*e tern! 14th %ent&ry.

$4

3he !nglish language in 9:;< A hyt y y-kno*e ho&7 (eny (aner $eo$le b&L in Li ylond! Ler b&L al o of o (eny $eo$le longage and tonge F noLele Wal %h(en and "%otte ! Lat b&L no7t y(elled *iL oLer na%ion ! holdeL *el ny7 here f&r te longage and $e%he! bote "%otte ! Lat *ere o( ty(e %onfederat and *onede *iL Le Pi%te ! dra*e o(*hat after here $e%he. =ote Le @le((ynge ! Lat *oneL in Le *e t yde of Wale ! habbeL y-left here trange $e%he and $ekeL "a#only%h y-no*. Al o 0ngli %h(en! Ley7 hy hadde fra( Le bygynnyng Lre (aner $e%he! "o&Leron! 4orLeron! and Myddel $e%he ,in Le (yddel of Le lond.! a hy %o(e of Lre (aner $eo$le of >er(ania! noLele ! by %o((y# tion and (ellyng f&r t *iL Dane and after*ard *iL 4or(an ! in (enye Le %ontray longage y a$eyred! and o( & eL trange *laffyng! %hyteryng! harryng and garryng! gri bittyng. Ui a$eyryng of Le b&rL-tonge y by%a& e of t*ey Linge . 6n y ! for %hyldern in %ole! a7ene Le & age and (anere of al oLer na%ion ! b&L %o($elled for to le'e here o&ne longage! and for to %on tr&e here le on and here Linge a @reyn %h! and habbeL! &Lthe Le 4or(an %o(e f&r t into 0ngelond. Al o! gentil(en %hildren b&L y-ta&7t for to $eke @reyn %h fra( ty(e Lat a b&L yrokked in here %radel! and %onneL $eke and $laye *iL a %hild hy bro&%hF and o$londy %h (en *ol lykne ha( ylf to gentil(en! and fondeL *iL gret by yne for to $eke @reyn %h for to be (ore y-told of. /e#t $rinted by W. 8a#ton in 1432O
A it i kno*en ho* (any (aner $e$le ben in thi Ilond ther ben al o (any langage and tonge . 4ethele *al hn(en and %otte that ben not (edled *ith other na%ion ke$e neygh yet theyr fir t langage and $e%heN=&t yet tho %otte that *ere o(ty(e %onfederate and d*ellyd *ith $y%te dra*e o(*hat after theyr $e%heN=&t the @le(ynge that d*elle in the *e t ide of *ale ha'e lefte her tra&nge $e%he R $eken lyke to a#on Nal o engly he(n tho&gh they had fro the begynnyng thre (aner $e%he "o&thern northern and (yddel $e%he in the (iddel of the londe a they %o(e of thre (aner of $eo$le of >er(ania. 4ethele by %o((y#tion and (edlyng fir t *ith dane and after*ard *ith nor(an In (any thynge the %o&ntreye langage i a$$ayredNffor o((e & e tra&nge *laffyngN%hyteryng harryng garryng and gri bytyngNthi a$ayryng of the langage %o(eth of t*o thynge N6ne i by %a& e that %hildren that gon to %ole lerne to $eke fir t engly heNR than ben %o($ellid to %on tre*e her le on in @ren h and that ha'e ben & ed yn the nor(an %o(e in to 0nglondNAl o gentil(en %hilderen ben lerned and ta&ght fro( theyr yongthe to $eke fre h. And &$londy h (en *ill %o&nterfete and likene he( elf to gentil(en and arn be y to $eke fren he for to be (ore ette by.

"ir >a*ain and the >reen Knight! 4orth*e tern! 14th %ent&ry. 2awain=s >ourney =i a (o&nte on Le (orne (eryly he ryde ! Into a fore t f&l de$ Lat ferly *atB ylde! <i7e hilleB on &%he a hal'e! and holt*odeB &nder! 6f hore okeB f&l hoge a h&ndreth togederF Ue ha el and Le ha7Lorne *ere harled al a(en! With ro7e raged (o e rayled ay*here! ro7e T ro&gh With (ony bryddeB &nblyLe &$on bare t*yge ! raged T *hite Uat $ito ly Ler $i$ed for $yne of Le %olde. *ith fro t Ue go(e &$on >ryngolet glydeB he( &nder! raylen T arranged U&r (ony (i y and (yre! (on al hy( one! (i y T (ar h

$5

8arande for hi %o te ! le t he ne ke'er %h&lde ke'er T &%%eed /o e Le er'y e of Lat "yre Lat on Lat elf ny7t 6f a b&rde *atB borne o&re baret to C&elleF baret T grief And Lerfore ykyng he aydeO HI be e%he Le! 1orde! C&elle T kill And Mary Lat i (ylde t (oder o dere! 6f &( herber Ler he7ly I (y7t here (a e! Ande Ly (atyneB to-(orne! (ekely I a k! And Lerto $re tly I $ray (y $ater and a'e! and %rede.H <e rode in hi $rayere! And %ryed for hi (y dede! yLe T after that <e ayned hy( in yLe ere! ere T $arti%&larly And ayde H8ro Kry t (e $edeSH $ede T hel$ "ing! 8&%koo "o&th*e tern! 14th %ent&ry "&(er i i-%&(en inF 1h&de ing! %&%%&S >ro*eL ed! and blo*eL (ed! And $ringL Le *&de n& "ing %&%%&S

(ed T (eado* $ring T gro*

A*e bleteL after lo(b! a*e T e*e 1ho&L after %al'e %&F =&ll&% terteL! b&%ke 'erteLF terte T D&($ M&rie ing! %&%%&S 'erte T break 8&%&S %&%%&S *ind Wel inge L&! %&%%&F 4e *ik L& na'er n&. *ik T to$ >eoffrey 8ha&%er! 1ondon! 14th %ent&ry /he he 8anterb&ry /ale Prolog&e With hy( ther *a hi one! a yong "VUI0+! A lo'yere and a l& ty ba%heler! With lokke %r&lle a they *ere leyd in $re e. %r&lle T %&rly 6f t*enty yeer of age he *a ! I ge e. 6f hi tat&re he *a of e'ene lengthe! e'ene T a'erage And *onderly dely'ere! and of greet trengthe. dely'ere T killf&l And he hadde been o(ty(e in %hy'a%hie %hy'a%hie T (ilitary In @la&ndre ! in Artoy ! and Py%ardie! %a($aign And born hy( *eel! a of o litel $a%e! In ho$e to tonden in hi lady gra%e. 0(bro&ded *a he! a it *ere a (eede (eede T (eado* Al f&l of fre he flo&re ! *hyte and reede. $#

"yngynge he *a ! or floytynge! al the dayF <e *a a fre h a i the (onth of May. "hort *a hi go*ne! *ith le'e longe and *yde! Wel ko&de he itte on hor and faire ryde. <e ko&de onge (ake and *el endite! endyte T %o($o e I& te and eek da&n%e! and *eel $&rtreye and *rite. $oetry "o hoote he lo'ede that by nyghtertale D& t T Do& t <e lee$ na(oore than dooth a nyghtyngale. nyghtertale T night 8&rtei he *a ! lo*ely! and er'y able! lo*ely (ode t And %arf biforn hi fader at the table. %arf T %ar'ed (eat

0%