SPACE LOAD CALCULATIONS

Abdullah Nuhait, PhD King Saud University

SPACE LOAD CALCULATIONS

Cooling Loads Heating Loads

Important Question
Why Does One Need To Compute Thermal Loads?

One Answer
In Order to Select Optimum Size of Cooling and/or Heating Equipment

 Design of Acceptable Air Conditioning System depends on good estimate of heat gain or heat loss in space to be conditioned

Precise Calculation of Heat Transfers are Difficult Because of

Walls and roofs are complex assemblies of materials Windows are made of two or more layers of glass with air space Windows usually have drapes or curtains In basement, floors and walls are in contact with the ground

Solutions

Experience and experimental data make reliable estimates possible

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Modes of heat transfer are conduction, radiation and convection The three modes occur simultaneously All three modes are important in heat gain and heat loss calculations in building structures They will be considered separately for clarity and ease of presentation

Thermal conduction
Thermal conduction: a mechanism of heat by which energy is transported between parts of continuum q = - k A dt/dx q = heat transfer rate, Btu/hr k = thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr-ft-F) A = area normal to heat flow, ft2 dt/dx = temperature gradient, F/ft note: Equation has negative sign because q flows in positive direction of x when dt/dx is negative

Conduction -cont.
Consider flat wall with uniform temperature t1 and t2 on each surface

q = - k A (t2 - t1)/(x2 - x1) = - (t2 - t1 )/R Where R is thermal resistance defined by R = (x2 - x1)/k A = x / k A Thermal resistance for unit area of material is very commonly used in HVAC literature It is called R-factor R = x / k

R-factor

Thermal Resistance of Composite Building Element

Thermal resistance R is analogous to electrical resistance q is analogous to electrical current t2 - t1 is analogous to electrical potential difference in Ohms law

This analogy provides a very convenient method of analyzing wall made up of two or more layers of dissimilar material For wall constructed of three different materials R= R1 + R2 + R3 = x1 / k1 A 1 + x2 / k2 A 2 + x2 / k2 A 2

Three Different Wall Layers

Thermal Conductivity Tables ASHRAE constructed Tables that give thermal conductivity k for wide variety of building and insulating materials

Thermal convection
Thermal convection: transport of energy by mixing in addition to conduction q = h A (t t wall) h = convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr-ft2-F) q = (t t wall)/R R = 1/h A and R = 1/h

Convection -cont.
Most building structures have forced convection along outer walls or roofs and natural convection occurs inside narrow air spaces and on inner walls

Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation: transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves it is different phenomenon from conduction Occurs in perfect vacuum Reduced by intervening medium

Radiation -cont.
Direct net transfer of thermal energy by radiation between two surfaces that see only each other and that are separated by non-absorbing medium is given by q12 = (T1- T2)/ ( (1-1)/A11 + 1/A1F12 + (1-2)/A22 ) = Botzmann constant, 0.1713x10-8 Btu/(hr-ft2-R4) T = absolute temperature, R = emittance A = surface area, ft2 Both surfaces are gray (emittance equals absorptance )

Two situations where the radiation may be significant

One situation is found with single surface of walls, floors, or roofs The other is found with two surfaces such as the false ceiling and the real slab, called air space

Single surface

Two surfaces (air space)

Combined Resistance
Convective resistance is combined with fictitious radiative resistance resulting in total convective resistance that depends on emittance

Combined Resistance Tables

Tables give emittance and thermal resistance

Overall heat transfer coefficient U

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is computed by finding total resistance, R t , of all components of wall U = 1/R A = 1/R R = 1/ho + x1/ k1 + x2 / k2 + x3/ k3 + 1/hi

Heat transfer rate is given by:

q = U A t U A = conductance, Btu/(hr-F) A = surface area, ft2 t= overall temperature difference, F

Tables for U
For convenience of designer, tables have been constructed that give overall heat transfer coefficients, U, for many common building sections including walls, roofs, doors, windows, and skylights

Heating Load
Estimate of heat loss of each room to be heated

Two kinds of heat losses from space

Heat transmitted through walls, ceilings, floors, roofs, windows, and/or other surfaces to outside Heat required to warm outdoor air entering the space

Transient Heat Transfer

Actual heat loss problem is transient because of variation of: Outdoor temperature Wind velocity Sunlight

Outdoor Temperature
During coldest months, sustained periods of very cold, cloudy, and stormy weather with relatively small variation in outdoor temperature may occur

Heat Loss
Heat losses from space are relatively constant and probably at maximum

Steady State Heat Transfer

For design purposes heat loss is estimated from steady state heat transfer

Steps for Computing Heat loss

Select outdoor design conditions: Temperature Humidity Wind direction and speed

Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Select indoor design conditions to be maintained Estimate temperature in any adjacent unheated spaces

Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Select the transmission coefficients Compute heat losses for walls, floors, roofs, windows etc.

Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Compute the heat load due to infiltration Compute the heat load due to ventilation air Sum all the losses to obtain the total heat loss by transmission and infiltration

Tables of Recommended Outdoor Air

ASHRAE STANDARD 62-1989 gives recommended amount of outdoor air

Outdoor Design Conditions

Ideal heating system would provide enough heat to match heat loss from structure

Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Weather conditions vary considerably from year to year Heating systems designed for worst weather conditions on record would have great excess of capacity most of time

Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Failure of system to maintain design conditions during brief periods of severe weather is usually not critical

Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Outdoor air design conditions should be based on official weather station record for which hourly observations were available for past 12 years For SUMMER: Outdoor Design air conditions should be 1% value

Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

For Winter: Dry bulb temperature should be 99% value Humidity ratio equal to value of saturated air at dry bulb temperature

Indoor Design Conditions

Indoor air design conditions depends on activity of occupants and their dresses

Comfort Zone
Infinite conditions on psychrometric chart which 80% of people are satisfied One can select 75 F db and relative humidity of 20 to 50%

Heat Loss Calculation

Heat transmission: walls, ceilings, roofs, windows q s = U A (t i t o)

Outdoor Air Heat Loss

Sensible heat is given by q s = 1.08 Q o (ti to) Latent heat is given by q l = 4700 Q o (W i W o)

Calculation of Infiltration
One method is called crack method It is based on characteristics of windows and doors and on pressure difference between inside and outside

Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Second method is called air change method It is based on assumed number of air changes per hour for each room It depends on number of windows and doors

Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Crack method is considered to be most accurate when window and pressure characteristics can be properly evaluated

Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Accuracy of predicting air infiltration is restricted by limited information on air leakage characteristics of many components that make up structure Pressure differences are also difficult to predict because wind conditions vary

Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Air Change Method Will be Used in Presentation

Auxiliary Heat Sources

Heat energy supplied by people, lights and equipment should be estimated, but any actual allowance for these heat sources requires careful consideration

Intermittently Heated Structures

Enlarge Heating Equipment Capacity when structure is not heated on continuous basis In order to raise temperature to comfortable level within reasonable period of time

Supply Air Requirement

Supplied Air quantity is computed from qzone = 1.08 Qsa (tsa tr) Supplied Air quantity for each room should be apportioned according to heating load Qrn = Qsa (qrn/qzone) This is necessary for design of duct system and selection of air outlets

Cooling Load

Solar Radiation has important effect on cooling load of building

Solar Radiation
Solar radiation effect depends on location of sun in sky Clearness of atmosphere Nature and orientation of building

Solar Radiation -cont.

Earth rotates about its own axis Fixed location on earth's surface goes through 24 hour cycle in relation to sun Earth is divided by longitudinal lines passing through poles into 360 degrees of circular arc

Solar Radiation -cont.

Point on earth's surface exactly 15 degrees west of another point will see sun in exactly same position as first point after one hour of time has passed Universal time (Greenwich civil time) is time along zero longitude line passing through Greenwich, England

Solar Angles
Any point on surface of earth can be described in relation to the sun' rays at any instant if three fundamental quantities are known

Solar Angles -cont.

Solar Angles -cont.

These quantities are latitude, sun's declination and hour angle Latitude angle represents location of observer on the earth

Solar Angles -cont.

Other angles: Solar altitude Solar azimuth Wall azimuth wall solar azimuth Tilt angle Angle of incidence

Solar Irradiation
Mean solar constant is rate of irradiation on surface normal to sun's rays beyond earth atmosphere

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Mean solar constant Gsc = 433 Btu/(hr-ft2) Irradiations from sun vary (3.5% ) Due to variation in distance

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Precise value of solar constant is not used in most HVAC calculations

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Because of large amount of atmospheric absorption of this radiation and Because this absorption is variable and difficult to predict

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Normal Direct Radiation: Part of radiation that is not scattered or absorbed and reaches earth's surface

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Diffuse Radiation: Radiation that has been scattered or reemitted Radiation may also be reflected onto surface from nearby surfaces

Solar Irradiation -cont.

Total irradiation on surface normal to sun's rays is thus made up of normal direct irradiation, diffuse irradiation and reflected irradiation

Heat Gains Through Glass

Total Heat Admission Through Glass is equal Radiation transmitted through glass Inward flow of absorbed solar radiation Conduction heat gain

Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.

Heat Gains Through Glass -cont. Heat gain through simplest window is complicated because of: window is finite in size It is framed Sunlight striking it does so at varying angles through day

Heat Gains Through Glass -cont. Simplified solar heat gain calculations are done for double-strength sheet glass (Reference Glass) It is called solar heat gain factor

Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.

It takes into account combined effects of transmitted solar heat gain and absorbed solar heat gain conducted into space

Shading coefficient
Solar Heat Gain through any given window Is equal to Solar Heat Gain Factor Times shading coefficient of given window

Shading coefficient -cont.

Value of shading coefficient is between zero and one Value SC are given by glass manufacturer Following Tables give SC

Cooling Load
Larger number of variables are considered in making cooling load calculations than in heating load calculations

Cooling Load -cont.

In both situations actual heat loss and gain is transient one For design purposes heat loss is usually based on steady state heat transfer and results obtained are quite adequate

Cooling Load -cont.

Design for cooling, transient analysis must be used if satisfactory results are to be obtained Instantaneous heat gain is quite variable with time because of hourly variation in solar radiation

Cooling Load -cont.

Appreciable difference between heat gain of structure and heat removed by cooling equipment This difference is caused by storage and subsequent transfer of energy from structure and contents to circulated air

Cooling Load -cont.

If this is not taken into account Cooling and Dehumidifying Equipment will be grossly oversized

Cooling Load -cont.

It is important to differentiate between heat gain, cooling load, and heat extracted rate Heat gain is rate at which heat is transferred to or generated within space Cooling load is rate at which heat energy must be removed to maintain temperature and humidity at design values

Heat Extracted
Heat extracted rate is rate at which heat is removed from space by cooling and dehumidifying equipment Following figures show heat gain, cooling load and heat extracted

Differences Between heat gains and cooling loads

Some of heat gains absorbed by structure and contents and appear as cooling load later Interior surfaces and other objects are cooled by convection when they attain temperature higher than room air

Differences Between heat gains cooling loads -cont. Heat storage characteristics of structure govern relationship between heat gain and cooling load Radiant heat transfer inputs to structure are delayed while convective and latent inputs are not

Heat Extracted
Heat extracted rate is equal to cooling load when space conditions are constant and equipment are operating This is rarely true because of: Some fluctuation in room temperature is necessary for control system to operate Cooling load is below design value most of time Therefore, variable operation of cooling equipment is required

Sources of Heat Gains

Solar radiation Heat conduction through exterior surfaces Heat conduction through interior surfaces Heat generated by occupants, light, and equipment Ventilation and infiltration air Other latent heat gains generated within space

Steps for Computing Cooling Load

Select outdoor design conditions Select indoor design conditions

Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont. Obtain characteristics of structure from plans and specifications Determine building location, orientation, and external shading Determine schedule of lighting, occupancy, and other sources of internal heat gains Estimate time of day, day, and month for calculations

Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont.

Computing Heat Gain due to Solar heat gain for glass, walls, and roof Conduction through interior partitions, ceilings, and floors because of temperature differential

Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont. Computing Heat Gain due to Heat sources within the conditioned space Infiltration Other latent loads Convert heat gains to cooling loads

Heat balance Method

Estimation of cooling load for space involves calculating surface-by-surface conductive, convective, and radiative heat balance for each room surface and convective heat balance for the room air This will ensure all energy flows in each zone are balanced and involved solution of set of energy balance equations for zone air and the interior and exterior surfaces of each wall, roof, and floor

Representation of heat balance

Heat Balance Method -cont.

These energy balance equations are combined with equations for transient conduction heat transfer through walls and roofs and data for weather conditions including outdoor air dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, solar radiation, and so on

Internal heat gains

Internal heat gains such as people, lights, and equipment are often significant component of cooling load in commercial and institutional buildings In fact, for many large office buildings, internal heat gains are dominant source of cooling load

Heat Gain from People

Heat gain from people has two components: sensible and latent Total and proportions of sensible and latent heat vary depending on level of activity Heat gain data from occupants in conditioned spaces are given in following table

Heat Gain from People -cont.

Latent and sensible heat gain for occupants should be computed separately until estimating building refrigeration load Latent heat gain is assumed to become cooling load instantly Sensible heat gain is partially delayed depending on nature of conditioned space

Heat Gain from People -cont. sensible heat gain for people generally is assumed to be 30% convective (instant cooling load) and 70% radiative (delayed portion)

Heat Gain from Lights

Source of heat from lighting comes from lamps Instantaneous rate of heat gain from lighting may be calculated using q = 3.41 W F
Where W = Total installed light wattage F = Special allowance factor

Heat Gain from Lights -cont. Heat gain to space from fluorescent fixtures is often assumed to be 59% radiative and 41% convective Heat gain to space from Tungsten fixtures is often assumed to be 80% radiative and 20% convective

Miscellaneous Equipment
Estimates of heat gain for miscellaneous equipment more subjective than for people and lights However, considerable data are available sensible heat gain generally is assumed to be 30% convective (instant cooling load) and 70% radiative (the delayed portion) similar to people

Several Examples to be Presented

Several example will be presented to show load calculations using computer software Computer software computes cooling load using heat balanced method

Description of Computer Software

Computer software will be described and through examples one can see how it works Users Guide is supplied with a copy of CD

Examples to be Presented Example # 1: Three different west walls without windows Example # 2: West wall with three different windows Example # 3: Three different Roof without skylights Example # 3: Roof with three different skylights

Examples to be Presented -cont. Example # 5: People with different schedule Example # 6: light with different schedule Example # 7: Infiltration with different rates Example # 8: Ventilation with different rates

Examples to be Presented -cont. Example # 9: Large mosque in Riyadh If Time Is Available Example # 10 Will Be Presented: Small Commercial Office Building

Steps Executed by Software

First: all zone parameters such as surface areas, thermal properties etc are determined Second: all temperature-independent quantities such as transmitted and incident solar radiation, internal loads, infiltration rates etc are determined for each hour Third: surface temperatures are determined within nested loop that repeats the day until steady periodic solution is achieved

Description of buildings used in Examples

Example # 1

Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 West Wall, 200 ft2: Case A: 8 Concrete Block (without insulation) Case B: 8 Concrete Block (with insulation) Case C: Wood and 6 Insulation

Example # 2 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 West Wall, 200 ft2, 8 Concrete Block: (uninsulated) Case A: Window Single sheet, 20 ft2 Case B: Window Single sheet, 100 ft2 Case C: Window Single sheet, 180 ft2

Example # 3 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: Roof 200 ft2: Case A: Steel Decking (Un-insulation) Case B: Concrete Slab (with insulation) Case C: Steel Decking (with insulation)

Example # 4 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: Roof 200 ft2: Conc. Slab insulation Case A: Skylight Single sheet, 25 ft2 Case B: Skylight Single sheet, 50 ft2 Case C: Skylight Single sheet,100 ft2

Example # 5 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: People, 20 persons: Case A: 24 Hours Occupancy Case B: 8 Hours Occupancy Case C: 2 Hours Occupancy

Example # 6 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: Lighting, 2.5 Watt/ft2: Case A: 24 Hours, Turned on Case B: 8 Hours, Turned on Case C: 2 Hours, Turned on

Example # 7 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: Equipment, 35 Watt/ft2: Case A: 24 Hours, Operating Case B: 8 Hours, Operating Case C: 2Hours, Operating

Example # 8 Single Room Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2 Partition Wall, 200 ft2: Infiltration: Continuous Case A: 6 Air change/hour Case B: 3 Air change/hour Case C: 0.6 Air change/hour Space Load

Example # 8 Ventilation : Continuous Case A: 6 Air change/hour Case B: 3 Air change/hour Case C: 0.6 Air change/hour Coil Load

Example # 9
Large Mosque located in Riyadh One Story Building (One Room) Has: Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 12000 ft2 North and South Walls, Each: 6000 ft2: 8 Concrete Block Un-insulated With 600 ft2 Window Single Sheet East and West Walls, Each: 8000 ft2: 8 Concrete Block Un-insulated With 800 ft2 Window Single Sheet

Example # 9 -cont. : Plan of The Mosque

Example # 9 -cont.
Roof: 12000 ft2: 6 Concrete Un-insulated With 300 ft2 Skylight Single Sheet Lighting: 2.5 Watt/ft2 Fluorescent on for 24 Hours and 1 Watt/ft2 Tungsten On for 24 Hours People: 1200 persons 2 Hours Occupancy Ventilation : 3 Air change/hour for 2 hours

Example # 10 One story small commercial building located in Riyadh Adjoining buildings on north and west are not conditioned (air temperature within them is approximately equal to outdoor air temperature at any time)

Example # 10 -cont. : Plan of Small Office Building

W S E N

Example # 10 -cont.
South wall construction: 4 light-color face brick, 8 common brick, 0.625 plaster, 0.25 plywood panel glued on plaster East wall and outside north wall construction: 8 light-colored heavy concrete block, .625 plaster on wall West wall and adjoining north part wall construction: 13 solid brick, no plaster

Example # 10 -cont. Roof construction: 4.5 flat roof, gypsum slab on metal roof deck, 2 rigid roof insulation, surfaced with two layers of mopped 15 lb felt vapor-seal build-up roofing, no false ceiling
Floor construction: 80x50 ft2, 4 concrete on ground Windows: 3x5 ft2 non-operable windows of regular plate glass with light colored venetian blinds

Example # 10 -cont.
Door construction: 5x7 ft2 light-colored 1.75 steel door with solid urethane core thermal break Occupancy: 85 office workers from 8:00 to 17:00

Lights: 17500 W, fluorescent, operating from 8:00 to 17:00 hours daily, along with 4000 W tungsten, operated continuously, lighting fixture are non-ventilated type
Equipment: none Ventilation: 15 cfm/person

Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of Infiltration

Infiltration through windows should be considered zero (windows are sealed) Infiltration through wall surfaces should be neglected Infiltration through doors: calculation of door infiltration require some judgment

Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of Infiltration

Assume that outside and inside doors are frequently opened simultaneously Use of outside doors: 10 persons/hour Use of inside doors: 30 persons/hour Assume 100 ft3 of air per person per door passage Qo =(30+10)(100 ft3)/(60 minutes) = 67 cfm

Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of Ventilation Ventilation = 85 persons x 15 cfm / person Qoa = 1275 cfm Ventilation > Infiltration Use only Ventilation