CHAPTER 1 FREEDOM STRUGGLE IN KERALA: HISTORICAL DIMENSIONS Kerala, since the dawn of history to the day remained an integral

part of the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the the

the smallest states of the Indian union and comprises narrow coastal strip bounded by the Western Ghats on

east and Arabian sea on the west in the southern most part of Indian peninsula. Traditionally, Kerala extended from

Gokarnam to Cape Comorin, but in historical times its area was combined to the Malayalam speaking territories on coast.' the

It Lies between 8O 18' and 12O 48' North latitude 24' East longtitude. It has a which is

and between 74O 52' and 7 7 ' total

area of 15002 sq. miles and a coast line

nearly 360 miles long.

According to the Census of

Kerala

1991 this part of the country which occupies 1.27 per cent of the total land area has a population of 2.90 crores

which of

forms 3.44 per cent of the total Indian population 2 84.6 crores. Geographically, the territory of the may be divided into three natural divisions
viz.,

state the

high land, the mid land, and the low land. K. M. Panickar, 1960), E.. 1.

The

low

1. 2. A History of Kerala (Annamalainagar, Vol. I

"International Congress on Kerala Studies", (Trivandrum, 1994J, p. 35.

Land ad~oiningthe sea, the mid land lying between the low land and the mountains and the forest clad high
3

land

on

the extreme east.

Although this is a specific study on the relevance of Gandhism in the post independence politics of Kerala, it

is only logical and essential to have a brief study on the social, region. pol-itical and cultural characteristics of this

Origin of the Name Kerala

mist of traeition.

According to the Parasurama legend the

land of Kerala was a gift of the Arabian sea to Parasurama one of thc.ten Avatars or incarnations of is Lord Vishnu. the upto sea the up

Legend from spot

that Parasurama threw his axe across

Gokarnam to Kanyakumari and water receded where it fell.

The tract of territory so thrown

is said to have constituted the land of Kerala. An examination of some of the theories regarding origin times of Kerala is worth mentioning. From very the

ancient the

the coastal belt between the Western Ghats and K. V. Eapen, 1986), p. 6. A Study of Kerala History

3.

(Kottayam,

Arabian

sea

in the peninsular India

was

Kerala in S a ~ s k r i tliterature.

The words K

have been used as synonyms by all early wri An attempt is made by some scholars to der

Kerala from the name 'Kera' (coconut) which is o characterisitc products of the west coast. is name not But this that view the word the

shared by all writers Gundert observes

'Keram' is the Canarese pronunciation and he describes 'Keralam' as

of the 'Cheram'

'Cheram'

country between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari. in Tamil means the slope of a hill or

The word charal a mountain got and

according

to some writers the word must have

itself

corrupted in course of time into cheral giving its name to Kerala or Chera country. This theory emphasises the

mountainous character of Kerala as the basis of the origin of the name. (Cheralam) alam land. There is another view that the word is made up of the two words cher that it literally means Keralam and

(sand) the

(region) and

slushy

If C'heralam is a cbmpound of the two words 'cher'

and 'alam', :it may be pointed out that the word is capable of a different interpretation. Cheralam means Cher means added and hence on. The word

the land which was added

'Cheralam' might have got itself Sanskritised as

Keralam. (Trichur,

Komatti? Achutha 1961), $1. 7.

Menon,

Ancient

Kerala

This

derivation

would

make

the

land

of

Kerala

reclamation

dr addition to the land from the sea

lending

support to the Parasurama legend.

Kerala in the Sangam A g e In were the earliest known history of South India Chera, there the

three flourishing kingdoms, namely, the and ?he to Pandya. the Of these the

Chola,

Chera

country area of

corresponds Kerala. to have

modern Malayalam

speaking

By the first century AD, the Kerala country seems

been united under a powerful

dynasty

known

in in

history as the Cheras. the history of

The first well lighted epoch reflected in the

the Chera is

Sangam

literature. referred comprised as

The first five centuries of Christian era are the Sangam Age. The Sanyam Age which era

the first five centuries of the

Christian

was the formative epoch of Kerala history. this The

Kerala during Tamilakom. Venad, this the and

period formed part of'the larger unit of land was divided into five Kcdanad, Puzhinad and divisions Karknad.

viz.,

Kuttanad, period
Ays

During

Kerala was ruled mainly by three powers viz.,

i n the S c ~ t h ,the rulers of Ezhi~riala in the North

the Cheras ic the region lying in between.

5.
6.

K. M. Panickar, n. 1, p. 5
A.

Sree3hara Menon, A (Madras, 19911, p. 54.

Survey

of

Kerala

History

The history of Kerala from Sixth to Ninth century lost in obscurity. historical night. The Sangam Age was followed by a The long historical night came to

is long an

end about AD 800 with the re-establishment of Chera under Kulasekhara Varma.

power

Religion

Religious stones Kerala of

toleration

has

been one

of

the

corner period, the

Kerala culture.

Even in the

ancient

became a meeting ground of all the Indian and

most important world religions.

In addition to the native religions here a

religions like Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism, like Christianity,

Judaism and Islam also found

fertile soil. in

The Jain religion might have come to Kerala The Jains believe that it was the came

the Third Century BC.

Chandra

Gup1.a Mourya and Bhadrabahu who

introduced

,lain religion in South India. only

Though Chandra Gupta

upto Sravanabelgola his followers visited

different

parts of S0ul.h India and preached Jainism. assumed, Third

Budhism, it is the

came to Kerala during the reign of Asoka in BC. The .Sangam works contain

Century

several

references

to the active effort of Buddhist

missionaries

to spread the message of Buddha.

of

South

India

It

was

the

Aryan to

immigrants Kerala.

who

brought

the of

Brahminical Kerala BC. Hindu

religion

The

Aryanisation Third

was a slow but steady process from

Century other of

The vigorous propaganda of Sankaracharya

and

reformers considerably increased the 8 the Brahminical religion. Christianity

influence

was introduced in Kerala in

the

First

Century AD itself. beliefs, converted churches. a St.

According to historical traditions and who landed in Kerala in

Thomas

several Brahmins and others and

founded

seven formed days. AD 68

AFart from the Christians the Jews also early

part of the community in Kerala from very

According to tradition they came to Kerala coast in

in order to escape from religious persecution at home. It days of is believed that Islam reached Kerala during its founder Mohammed, the Prophet. the

Arabic by the
If

records prophet this is

sugaest that a few missionaries sent out in his 57th year might have reached true, Islam might have entered

Kerala. in

Kerala

the

Seventh Century AD itself. Jainism, exerted ~ u d d h i s m , Christianity, and Islam have

considerable influence on the culture of

Kerala.

Over other. the

the years they lived side by side

influencing

each

The most significant feature of Kerala life since of tolerance

earliest times has been the wide sense

and mutual respect among the different communities who had made their home in this land. 9 The advent of the Aryan immigrants brought
AS a

about result Kerala.

other significant social changes as well. the caste system took deep roots in the soil

of

The Avarnas had to suffer a lot due to this. After the long historical night an illustrious line

of kings known as the Kulasekhara's ruled over Kerala from

The

history of the

Kulasekhara

Empire to

otherwise

cellled the second Chera Empire was

brought

light only recently. the Kulaseknaras

The reconstruction of the history of turned out

has

be

an

important gap It
in

contribution our

which has helped to fill in a major

knowledge of the early history of Kerala.

has

also helped to correct the wrong impression entertained by scholars that. Kerala during this period was cut up into number
9.

of petty principalities which with 61.

their

endless

Ibid., 1:.

10. 11.

A. Sreedhara Menon, n. 6, p . 83.

Ibid., p. 105.

feuds The

and aj-liances more or less formed a world history of the second Chera empire

apart.

12

clearly unit During

demonstrates

that Kerala was a homogenous political

at least for three centuries from AD 800 to 1102. the reign of the 13 Kulasekharas there was

tremendous and

progress in trade, language and literature, education learning, following and religious harmony. During the

period

the break up of Kulasekhara Empire Kerala lost its political unity. 13 A number of independent swarupams (states) rose in different parts of the country. Of these prominent. in the as

Venad, Venad

Kolathnad, in

Cochin

and

Calicut

were

the South rose to political prominence

12th Century AD with the disappearance of Kulasekharas the imperial power of Kerala. consisted Kottayam, Kolathiri four of and

The Kolathiris in the north of Kumbla, who Nilaswaram, was called The were and The its till

the'principalities Kadathanad. The

ruler

was the eldest male member of the family. Kolathiri Nalamkur,

other members immediately junior to as Tekkelamkur, Vadakkelamkur, assisted him or in the

designated Anchamkur

administraton. Royal House had

Perumpadappu capital

Swarupam

Cochin

at Chitrakudam in the Perumpadappu

village

-12. 13. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Pandyan Kingdom 1929), F:. 52.
A.

(London,

Sreedhara Menon, n. 6, p. 144.

the

end

of

the

13th

century

AD.

Its

capital

was was the were of

transferred the major

to Cochin in 1405.

Calicut or Kozhikode Kerala in

power in northern and central period. Its rulers known as the

medieval among Kerala.

zamorins

the

most cultured and accomplished

sovereigns

Arrival of the Portuguese Kerala on the eve of the arrival of the Portuguese Calicut The the

presented the tragic picture of a feudal polity.

and Venad were the really major powers at that time. Kolathiris and the Cochin Raja had already come under influence of Zamorins. kingdoms madampis exercised domains. l4 there and were a 'few a Apart from the rulers of number of Nair

various or who

chieftains too

Namboothiri authority

chieftains in their

effective

respective

The landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in May

1498 marked the beginning of a new epoch in the history of Kerala. expansion vision The of immediate object of the Portuguese trade. They had in their mind was an

the

grand the

of building up an empire in India by bringing

local powers under subjection. the zamorins on

The bitter rivalry between Raja of Cochin, created

the one side and the

Kolathiri, 14.

and

other minor powers on the

other

Ibid., p. 160.

conditions Portuguese

favourable

for

the

partial

realisation 15

of With and

dream a t l e a s t f o r a s h o r t

period.

t h e h e l p o f Cochin and K o l a t h i r i a g a i n s t t h e Zamorins

l a t e r w i t h Zamorins a g a i n s t K u n j a l i Marakar t h e P o r t u g u e s e w e r e a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r Kerala. Dutch s h a t t e r e d t h e dreams of t h e Portuguese. But t h e

A r r i v a l of t h e D u t c h
The

most

significant

event

connected

with

the of the the

e s t a b l i s h m e n . o f D u t c h p o w e r i n K e r a l a was t h e c a p t u r e Cochin from P o r t u g u e s e i n 1663. Internal disputes i n

Cochin Royal f a m i l y provided a golden o p p o r t u n i t y f o r Dutch i n t e r v c , n t i o n . l6 their The Dutch s u c c e s s i n Cochin sought the

raised their famous

p r e s t i g e and s o s e v e r a l l o c a l powers But t h e d e f e a t o f t h e Dutch i n

protec'tion.

b a t t l e o f K o l a c h a l ( 1 7 1 4 ) by M a r t h a n d a Varma o f T r a v a n c o r e ( V e n a d ) was Mavelikara

s e v e r e blow t o t h e Dutch. Dutch agreed not to

By t h e t r e a t y
interfere

of the

the

in

a f f a i r s o f T r a v a n c o r e and a l s o promised t o h e l p T r a v a n c o r e in the e v e n t o f a n a t t a c k by a n y marksd the complete as a European of in power. the The Dutch Kerala.

treaty and

humiliation power

their Ibid., K.
V.

sclipse

political

15. 16.

p . 177.
Eapen, n.

3 , p.

157.

Then

Marthanda

Varma entered into a treaty

with

Cochin

in 1757. The Mysorean invasion under Haider Ali and Tippu

Sultan in the latter half of the 18th century was also due to the lack of unity among the rulers of Kerala. of Malabar before Tippu prompted him to have his of Travancore. But he was compelled to retreat The fall invasion on the

news that British had declared war on Mysore.

The British

defeated Tippu and by the treaty of Srirangapattanam Tippu formally ceded Malabar to the British.

British Power in Kerala

Like

the Portuguese and the Dutch, the English But

also

came to Kera1.a for,the purpose of trade. for them they were able to control the Malabar came the treaty of

fortunately for a of

country the

fairly the

long

period. through

into

hands

British

Srirangapattanam. the the

Travancore and Cochin were also compelled to yield to British. British accepted to the By East the treaties of 1723 and 1795 India Company and Travancore, between

Travancore help

Brltish supremacy and the Company promised state in the event of external

aggression.

A similar tr?aty was also made in 1791 between the British and the Cocnin Raja. Thus during a decade or two after

the

exit

of

Tippu the whole of Kerala of the English East divided

came India

political Thus by

control 18GO

the 17 Company. distinct

under

Kerala was

into

three

political units viz., Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar.

Administrative set up in Travancore, Cochin and Malabar from 1800-1935 The Travancore beginning of enlightened administration in

nlay be associated with the reign of

Marthanda The death (1798of his and was

Varma (1729-1758) and Dharma Raja (1758-1798). of

Dharma Raja and the accession of Balaramavarma witnessed a reversal of the policies

1810)

predecessors. power went

The new ruler was weak and inefficient into the hands of his ministers. He

compelled to dismi-

his ministers and appoint Velu Thampi several Gowri

as Dalwa or Uewan--Prime Minister--who introduced reforms in Travancore. The next ruler was Rani

Lakshmi Bai (1810-15). The other rulers of Travancore included Rani Parvathi Bai (1815-16291, Swathi Marthanda Thirunal (1829-1847), Uthram Thirunal Mulam

Thirunal

Varma (1847-18601, Ayilyam

(1860-1880). Thirunal 17.

Vishakam

Thirunal (1880-18851, Shri

(1885-19241, Sethu Lakshmi Bai Sreedhara Menon, n. 6, p. 267

(1924-1931) and

Sri Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma (1931-1949). in 1888, a legislative council was

It

was for were

constituted Its members

Travancore

with

Dewan as president.

nominated by the king. another legislative

In 1904 on the advice of the Dewan institution, the Sri Mulam Popular

Assembly, was inaugurated and it consisted of both elected and nominated members The like administrative set up of Cochin was also of the Travancore. The King acted almost like a

that

constitutional Dewan. The

head and power went into the hands of foundations of a centralised system of

the of

administration Thampuran

was laid down during the reign The period immediately

Saktan

(1790-1805).
1

following turmoil in the

the death of Saktan Tampuran was one of political and hence very little progress could be achieved

field of administration. Paliyath rival Achan

The failure of the revolt of installation of his On was

in 1809 led to the

Kunhikrishna Menon as Dewan or Chief Minister. of the affairs of the State, Menon

mismanagement

removed from icffice in 1812. appointed as Dewan of Cochin.

In that year Col. Plunroe was From the time of Munroe's of

appointment, Dewans 18.

to 1947 Cochin was served by a long line

Ibid., p. 285.

The different or

adn~inistrative set

up

in

Malabar

was

quiet

from that of the princely states of Malabar became part of Madras

Travancore on

Cochin.

presidency

21 May were

1800. in-charge

A Collector and 9
of administration.

subordinate It may,

collectors be

however,

made clear th3t the progress of British Malabar was not So spectacular
as that of the princely states of

Travancore

and Cochin. 1 9

Political Movements in Travancore, Cochin and Malabar The history of political movements in modern

Travancore had three phases. agitations conducted

These are the constitutional middle class for

by the educated

equality of c2portunity in public employment, the struggle for social equality ,and waged by the lower for castes and

minorities government. the

finally

struggle

responsible

The constitutional agitation which began with in

presentation of the Malayali and Ezhava memorials

the last decade of the 19th Century had its genesis in the growing demand share did of of the educated in middle class for an The to

increased

jobs not

public

services. 20 of resorting

agitationists

think in terms

direct action for achieving their ends. 19. 20. Ibid., F . 291.
A.

They accepted the

Sree3hara Menon, Political Kerala (Madras, 19871, p. 5.

History

of

Modern

method British first

of

action

of the

Indian

~ a t i o n a l Congress 1891 was

in the the

India.

The Malayali Memorial of

step tcsiiards this end. of

Its aim was to Kannada in

change and

practice areas On

importing Brahmins from the administrative

Tamil

into

service

Travancore. Memorial and

1 January 1891, by 10,028

a petition called

Malayali all

signed creeds The G.

persons belonging to

castes

was presented to the Maharaja Sri Mulam Varghese and

Thirunal. Mappila, The demand

initiative was taken by Kandathil P. Pillai, K.

Menon

others.

attitude and

of the government was not helpful to the

non-Travancoreans were still appointed in

government educated The the The the

services. middle

But it marked the emergence of a new as a countable force in

class

Travancore.

vigorous public' campaigning which followed symbolised beginning of modern political movement in the state. the memorial marks the awakening 21 first time of the educated sections in Kerala. submission of for

The Ezhava Memorial In spite , : , f the active association of a few Christian leaders like Kindathil Varghese Mappila and Ezhava leaders like Palpu, tne Malayali Memorial was, for all a Nair sponsored affair. One reason practical for this

purposes, 21.

P.K.K. Menon, The History Freedom Movement in Kerala, Vol. I1 ('I'rivandrum,1972), p. 8.

was

that

the

educated

class

belonged

to this

the time,

Nair the

community.

Another

reason

was during

leadership of all progressive movements in Travancore were vested demands could in of the hands of Nair community. 22 Malayali Memorial were accepted Even the if the

Ezhavas entry

not get any benefit because they were denied

to public service and even to public schools on grounds of caste. This prompted the Ezhava community the Travancore Ezhava Sabha to was organise. organised momorial the

Accordingly

under the leadership of Palpu, which presented a

known as Ezhava Memorial, signed by 13,176 persons to Maharaja on 3 September 1896.

This document known as the be

Ezhava Memorial of 1896 demanded that the Ezhavas also made beneficiaries
t

of all those

rights

and

privileges become to on

which were being enjoyed by their brothren who had converts the 31 to Christianity .23 The Government's

reply given

Ezhava October

Memorial endorsed by the Dewan was 1896 and it reflected their

traditional that any

reactionary

attitude. 24

The Government

said

revolutionary

change in the existing social

order

would the Thus

engender caste antagonism which would not only arrest social progress but do violence to communal harmony.
22.

C. Narayana ~ i l l a i , Thiruvithamcore Swathantriya Samara Cb.aritram ( M ) (Trivandrum, 1972), p. 19.

23.
24.

Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 7.

P. K. K. Menon, n. 21, p. 14

Ezhava

Memorial failed to produce any immediate it marked the beginning of the long

results. drawn out the and

However, struggle community justice. 2 5 and

to be waged by the backward classes

within

in Travancore for securing social equality

Memorial of the the

Ezhava

Memorial) that laid the and more wide

foundations

subsequent

spread agitations recognition of Fundamental Rights. 26

for

Another factor that helped the awakening of political consciousness and public opinion in Travancore was the

rise of newspapers. Pillai days.

Among the journalists, K. Ramakrishna those he the the

of Travancore occupied a unique position in When he was the

editor

of

Swedeshabhimani and to

criticised corruption

the actions of Maharaja's favourites and nepotism of the Dewan. This led

suppression of the paper and banishing the editor from the state. Rama Xrishna Pillai lived the rest of his life as

a political exile in Malabar. Cannanore an exile

On 28 March 1916 he died at land of Travancore. emotional remained

from the home

By

his

birth of

and his death he Travancore with

effected

the He

integration 25.
26.

Malabar. 27

A. Sreedilara Menon, n. 20, p. 8.

27.

Ibid., p. 22.

throughout expression

his who

career

fighter several 28

for

the

freedom

of

underwent

hardships

willingly

shared by his cultured wife.

Rise of Mahatma Gandhi on the Political Horizon of India The of India rise of Mahatma Gandhi on the political produced its echo in Kerala also. He horizon entered Congress

public life through the Indian National which he dominated from 1920 onwards. 29

Indian

Rise of Indian National Congress The Indian ~ a t i o n a lUnion formed by A.

Hume

in

association for a
,

with various national leaders in 1884 December 1885.

called As the

conference -in Pune in

conference leaders, The

received the unanimous support of it assumed the name Indian of the Indian in National the National

Indian

Congress. was an of

birth

Congress

unprecedented India.30

phenomenon

political

history

It marked the entry of the educated middle class

into National politics.

Ibid.

29.
30.

Manorama Year Book 1985 ( ~ o t t a y a m , 1985), p. 360. Ibid., p. 346.

From every

188T onwards the Indian ~ a t i o n a l Congress .its influence spreading rapidly among

met the

year,

people of India.

Three main topics engaged its attention. number the

(1) Representative government and expansion of the and functions of legislative councils both

in

provinces and at the centre, services, started

(2) Indianisation of higher When in Mahatma India here Gandhi through on the

Indian

poverty. 31 movements

his

political

Congress--a

Congress

Committee was formed

initiative of such leaders like Barrister

K. Pillai and

V. Achutha Menon.

Vaikom Satyagraha Satyagraha. was an important weapon at the Gandhi Gandhi to fight against evils. postulates in one's the conquest Satyagraha of the

hands

of to by the of

according adversary is not

suffering remotest

own

person and

there

idea of injuring the opponent. 32

The object

satyagraha is to convert and not to coerce the wrong doer. Literally viz., fasting it means truth force and has different forms

non-ct~operation, civil and strike.

disobedience,

Hijrath, against

He used satyagraha not only

31.
32.

Ibid. I. Sundacam, Gandhian Thought and Philosophy 1979), & . 25. (Delhi,

the

British

but also against social evils of was a social evil and

the

land. of

Untouchability untouchability Gandhi. The

eradication

in any form was a significant goal

before

Indian National Congress under Mahatma

Gandhi's

leadership adopted eradication of untouchability as one of the main planks of its Constructive Programme. This had been and of

special relevance to Kerala where untouchability had observed over the centuries in the most There was the irrational

oppressive denying the

manner. 3 3

strange

custom

to the untouchables the right of passage roads leading to temples. The

through Coconada

approach

session of the Indian National Congress (1923) had adopted a resolution calling upon Congress workers all to take constructive action for the

country

over removal

the

of

untouchability. of the

T. K. Madhavan, one of the noted

members

Congress, contacts and the

established and C. the in the in

personal

Gandhi,

R.

Das

Rajagopalachari Congress Kerala. Kerala for

secured campaign

official against

support

of

untouchability

It was in this background that a meeting of Provincial Congress Committee met at Ernakulam 1921. Kelappan, T. K. Madhavan, and K. Velayuda Menon V.

February

Sankaran specially

Namboodiripad 33.
A.

were

Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 11.

authorised the K.

tr- takcle the problem. of

In

accordance

with

programrr:e

Provincial K. Pillai,

Congress

Committee, Kurur in

P. Kesava Menon,

K. Kelappan and

Neelakantan Travancore 1924.

Namboodiripad undertook a propaganda tour and the party reached Vaikom on

28

February denying

At that time there was a strange custom of

to the Avarnas in the Hindu community the right of passage through including requested the approach roads leading The to the temples Committee to

Vaikom

Temple.

propaganda

the Savarna leaders and Devasom authorities

remove this injustice. and the

But their efforts proved fruitless was the only the

leaders realised that satyagraha course to be adopted.

possible great

Thus was inaugurated March 1924.

satyagraha

at Vaikom on 30

Mahatma moral

Gandhi .blessed the+struggle and extended his support and to the satyagrahis. the satyagraha Gandhi at every

full

carefully stage.34

watched Gandhi them The

nursed

congratulated and inspired the satyagrahis and asked to change the minds of the opponents through love. 3 5 of the satyagraha and the consequent arrests

news

spread

like wild fire and there was a large influx of from every part 34. of the country. National

volunteers like

leaders

P. K. K. Menon, n. 21, p. 113. K. Ramachandran Nair, Gandhijiyum (Trivandrt~m, 1979), p. 93. Keralavum (MI

35.

C. Rajagopalac!hari,

S. Srinivas Ayankar, E. V.

Ramaswami

Naiker and the like visited Vaikom and gave a boost to the morale of satyagrahis.
A

significant was the

development

connected

with

Vaikom the Nair

satyagraha

Savarnajatha

organised

under

leadership of Mannath Padmanabhan, the leader of the Service Society. Maharani submitted Setu a The leaders of the Bai on 12

Jatha met the Regent November prompt 1924 steps and for

Lakshmi petition

requesting

eradicating untouchability. on 9 March

Gandhi himself visited Vaikom with Pitt, the for the to

1925 and after discussions

Police Commissioner finalised the terms of compromise the early withdrawal of the struggle.
t

Accordingly open of

approach all would

roads, to the Vaikom Temple were thrown Gandhi expected that all states

Hindus.

India of

follow the example of Travancore in the problem The everlasting result of the

untouchability. 36

Vaikom of

Satyagraha was the famous proclamation of Temple Entry

1936 which Gandhi called the bed rock of freedom.37 Gandhi said that the fame and credit received by Travancore

through Temple Entry Proclamation was due to the Maharaja, his mother and the Dewan. 38

36. 37.
38.

Ibid., p . 484. K. V. Eapen, n. 3, p. 234

K. Ramactlandran Nair, n. 35, p. 493.

movement

on the part of the Christian, Muslim and

Ezhava

communities to secure representation in the legislature in accordance with their numerical strength as against

property qualification.

The leaders of the agitation were They organised

C. Kesavan, N. V. Joseph and P. K. Kunju. a The

joint

political Congress of these spread to all parts

three of

communities. state and the

agitation Kesavan

the

was arrested and imprisoned.

Meanwhile

government appointed a Public Service Commission to ensure fair representation for the backward communities in the

Public Services and also widened the franchise by reducing property qualification. In the election of 1939 the

candidates of joint political Congress came out victorious and

M.

Varghese, one of the

leaders

of

the

joint Sri

political Congress became the Deputy President of the Mulam Assembly.

Political Developments in Cochin The political movements in Cochin offer almost a

contrast to that of Travancore. the modern history of Cochin

There is no such phase in as one marked by the

memorials aspect also

in the politics of Travancore. 39

The

communal were the social not even

associated with the movements in by and of large absent in

Travancore Whereas liberal

Cochin.

government reforms only

Travancore proceeded with

like Temple Entry, the government of

Cochin

followed a policy of caution in this field but 40 opposed the move for temple entry. The Cochin

demand for representative institutions arose

in a
,

by the beginning of this century. for the formation of a

result

proclamation was issued

Legislative

Council of the

on 2 December 1920 with the approval of Madras. The Legislative Council of

Government which

Cochin and

was inaugurated on 3 April 1925 had 30 elected

15 nominated members with Dewan as ex-officio president.

Beginning of Congress Activity The British impact national Ind?a on movement which gathered momentum had in its

under

the leadership of The Kerala

Gandhi

Cochin.

Provincial

Congress Cochin in its

Committee forrnally started functioning in 1921 and state was one of the five districts comprised

jurisdiction.

The work of the Congress was led by leaders

39.
A. Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 34.

like Muthedathu Narayana Menon, E. Ikkanda Warrier, Neelakantan Achan. The Namboodiripad and Paliyath visit of Mahatma Gandhi to Cheriya Cochin

Kurur

Kunjunni in 1925

served to generate mass enthusiasm in favour of Congress. According India Act to the provisions of the Government dyarchy to of was

191'9 the scheme for

introducing

announced.

But the system of dyarchy failed

satisfy

the political aspirations of the people.

Political Developments in Malabar The Malabar district, a part of the Madras Province

of British India participated in full in the mainstream of Indian politics. Congress in The establishment of the Indian National was an event which captured the from the

1885

imagination of the people of Malabar. Malabar

The delegates of

used to attend the early annual sessions

Congress though there was no organised political as such in these days. oryanised

activity was

A District Congress Committee

in 1908, and K. P. Kesava Menon and V.

Krishna

Menon were the prominent leaders of Congress.

Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement The Congress assumption of leadership of the Indian by Mahatma Gandhi by 1919 National the

symbolised

beginning agitation session of

of in

new

era in The

the

history of

of

political Nagpur passive to non-

Malabar. 41 t:he Congress

decision

the up

(1920) to

give

constitutional violent sounded goods,

methods

of agitation and resort as a means of

non-cooperation the signal

achieving of

Swaraj foreign The new

for widespread

boycott

courts of law and educational Movement the of

institutions. acquired

Nan-cooperation dimensions when

Malabar and

Congress

Khilafat

movements

decided to work together.

Malabar Rebellion

The event Hindus genesis police in

Malabar rebellion and its suppression was a the history of Malabar. The Muslims and

sad the the of

suffered a Tot. of

There is no doubt It was was

regarding born the out

the rebellion of 1921.

repression.

Its chief cause

excessive Khilafat dispute became and

violence Movement regarding

used by the authorities to supress the and not any Janmi-Kudiyan conflict When police vow of or

mosque. they gave

atrocities

unbearable

up the

non-violence
42

decided to meet violence with violence itself. 41. 42. Ibid., p. 43. K. P. Kesava Menon, 19691, p. 116. Kazhinja Kalam

(MI

(Calicut,

Salt Satyagraha

The Gandhi on

salt:. satyagraha which was launched 12 March 1930 had its impact

by in in

Mahatma Kerala, Mafabar. Maulawi the

Payyannur K.

was the main centre of satyagraha

Kelappan, T. R. Krishnaswami Iyer, E. the leaders. The police party

Mouidu

were

attacked

volynteers and manhandled them.

Leaders were arrested and Following

sentenced to nine months rigorous imprisonment.

the Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931 the Civil Disobedience Movement stood temporarily withdrawn.

Guruvayur Satyaqraha

Guruvayur history all. existed of

satyagraha of 1931 was a landmark The temple was not thrown

in open

the to form and who

Malab-.

The problem of untouchability in its wretched in Malabar. 43 K. Kelappan,

K. Gopalan Kelappan,

N. D. Damodharan pioneered the satyagraha.

a lot for the promotion of untouchables on the Gandhian ideology was the leader of

basis

Guruvayur

satyagraha. 44

Though the satyagraha did not result in the in

immediate opening of Guruvayur temple or other temples 43. 44. K. Ramac:~andranNair, n. 35, p. 202. K. P. Kesava Menon, "Mahatma Gandhi Supplement" (Kozhikode, 1994), p. 10.

(M)

Malabar to avarnas, it helped to focus public attention on the agelong social evil of untouchability in Malabar.

The sources of inspiration for the Travancore Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 were the 45 different movements

including Guruvlyur satyagraha.

Rise of Travancore State Congress

committees engage action

functioning

in the Indian states activity Congress carry

themselves in the may

in parliamentary name be of the

direct

independent on internal that the for that

organisations struggles demand in

encouraged to

'thes-e states. by the

Gandhi's view was of princely proper.

made

people

states For

responsible purpose

government

was just and

they should organise themselves into a

movement.

The active involvement of Congress in this regard would be a hinderance to achieve their aim.46 that a meeting of It was under leaders a such was

circumstances held at

prominent

in the office room of A . Narayana Pillai, Pulimoodu, Trivandrum on the in February was

lawyer with to

1938

C. V. Kunjuralnan

chair and it

resolved

-45. Ibid. EMS Na~nboodiripad, Indian Swathanthriya Charithram (M) (Trivandrum, 1976), p. 182. Samara

46.

launch Pillai,

the an

Trdvancore State Congress with outstanding as lawyer and

Pattom

Thanu of of

public The

figure committee

Trivandrum

its first president. 4 7

Indian National Congress was formally dissolved. The Travancore State Congress started an active in

campaign for the achievement of responsible government Travancore. all The Dewan Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar new

adopted

possible measures to break up the

organisation.

The Dewan tried to create communal discord by pointing out that it was a Christian dominated body. the The Dewan

sponsored

another

organisation

called

Travancore

National Congress in which leaders of Nair Service Society took rule an active part.
t

However this policy of

divide failed

and to

on the part of Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar

yield dividends. 4 8 The manifold Dewan Sir C. P. Ramaswamy of Ayyar resorted to and was like

measures were a

repression.

Meetings Pillai

demonstrations arrested on

banned and A. of

Narayana

charge

sedition.

Leaders M. R. measures

K. P. Nilakanta Pillai,
Warrier were

Anne Mascrene and None of these

Madhava could of

manhandled.

dishearten the people who had rallied under the banner

47.
48.

A.

Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 21.

Ibid.

the of

State terror

Congress. 49 to supress

The Dewan soon the State

started

a In

reign these

Congress.

circumstances the State Congress presented a memorandum to the the Maharaja impressing upon him the imperative need early grant to of responsible gcvernment and of for also his

bringing

his notice the repressive

policies

Dewan and the vagaries of his a d m i n i ~ t r a t i o n . ~ The ~ Dewan retaliated by declaring State Congress and its ally All

Travancore Youth League as disloyal and subversive bodies. He cancelled the licences of Malayala Manorama and Kerala

Kaumudi which published news relating to the activities of State Congress. a On 26 August 1938, the State Congress The

started

widespread Civil Disobedience

Movement.

1938 State Congress struygle, a struggle that was far more extensive than the.1921 Malabar movement; for, while the

latter was confined to certain Taluks of Malabar, the 1938 Travancore movement The and embraced the whole leaders were state like of

Travancore. 51 Thanu Pillai

State Congress
T.

Pattom in other

M.

Varghese

arrested of

Trivandrum leaders decided 49. 50. 51.

and this was followed by the arrest in a the state. The State

elsewhere to hold

Congress the

massive

demonstration

under

Ibid., p. 22. Ibid. EMS Namtroodiripad, The National Question (Bombay, 19521, p. 143. in Kerala -

leadership

of

Accamma

Cherian on the

birthday

of

the

Maharaja on 12 November 1938. of of

Having realised the gravity withdrawal

the situation the government announced the the ban on the State Congress and the

unconditional

release of its leaders. Though the ban on the State Congress and on and not meetings was

processions had been withdrawn, the organisation in a position to pursue its normal

political

activities in the face of the arrests and other repressive measures Congress which still continued unabated. 5 2 its The State to of

therefore

concentrated

attention A delegation

strengthen its organisational framework.

State Congress leaders met Mahatma Gandhi and apprised him of the situation. C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar had by now mzde

it a condition of withdrawing the earlier memorandum which contained personal allegations against him for an amicable settlement memorandum Gandhi advised the leaders to withdraw the was

in order to demonstrate that their action The senior younger the

not motivated by any personal malice. accepted Gandhi's this advice action but and the left

leaders elements and the

disapproved strengthened

Congress Some of

the ranks of the Youth League.

activists with communist leanings formed themselves into a 52.

Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 24.

radical group within the league with P. Krishna Pillai the moving spirit. During the Quit India Movement of 1942 the State

as

prominent The the

Congress leaders were behind the prison bars. wing of the Youth League comprised of

radical

Communists had decided to cooperate with the government in its war efforts following the entry of the USSR World War. At the end of the war in the

Second Ayyar

C. P. Ramaswamy

announced constitutional reforms based on universal an irremovable executive. The it State only

adult suffrage with Congress sought

rejected the scheme on the ground that to perpetuate the autocratic rule of

the

Dewan.

The catchy slogan 'American Model Arabikkadalil' (American model in the Arabian sea) which rent the air in those days gave c1,ear expression of and the to the feelings of of popular The

disapproval leadership
C.

proposed

scheme

reform.53 Thanu

the sacrifices of

Pattom

Pillai,

Kesavan, T. M. Varghese, Accamma Cherian,

A. J. John, R. Sankar, Krishna and for

Mamman Mappila, C. V. Kunjuraman, R. Sugathan,

P. T. Chacko, Anne Mascrene, Ponnara Sreedhar, P.

A. K, Gopalan, K. Damodaran, Sreekantan Nair made the campaign of the State Congress

responsible government remarkable. 5 4 53. 54. Ibid., p. 2 5 . P. K. Gopala Krishnan, Keralathinte Charitran ( M ) (Trivandrum, 1 9 9 1 ) , p. 549.

---

Samskarika

Rise of the Cochin State Praja Mandal

government formed

in by and of

orqanisation
R.

was

N.

Neelakantan

Krishnan

Ezhuthachan

C. Achutha Menon in 1940.

It was organised by a group

men who stood for the establishment of on the basis of universal adult

government

responsible 55 franchise.

On 26 January 1941 a new political organisation called the Cochin State Praja Mandal came into existence under the

presidentship of V. R. Krishnan Ezhuthachan.

It consisted in was

mainly of Congressmen who had left the Cochin Congress the wake of the latter's acceptance of dyarchy. 56 resolved held the that 1t

the first session of the Praja Vandal be at Irinjalgkuda in January 1942. 5 7 A . F. W. Dixon,
1

then

Dewan

of Cochin, banned the

session

but

the

leaders it.

decided to go ahead with their plans for

holding the

The government could not prevent the strength of arrest Quit and India other Movement

Praja

Mandal through methods. 58 During the the Praja Mandal in

repressive of 1942 and State.

organised different Kerala

several parts of

meetings Cochin
(M)

demonstrations
55.

Edamaruk Joseph, 1971), p. 345.

Samskaram -

(Kottayam,

56.

A. Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 39.

57.
58.

P. K. Gopala Krishnan, n. 54, p. 550. Edamaruk ,Joseph, n. 55, p. 346.

This In

helped to boost its prestige as a the election of of 1945 to Cochin

political

party. 12

legislature The

candidates Mandal Cochin

Praja Mandal got

elected. 59

Praja in the

members functioned as the opposition bloc Legislative of the start Council. In July 1946 at the

annual and the The

conference decided

Praja Mandal met a state wide

Eranakulam for

to

agitation

achievement

of responsible government in Cochin. 60

Praja Mandal members decided to boycott the session of the legislature which scheduled to meet on 29 July 1946. Praja Mandal organised throughout hartals, public meetings vote The and of

processions

Cochin and introduced a

no-confidence the vote of

on the ministers in the no-confidence motion

legislature. majority, except

When the law

got

Maharaja' decided to ltransfer all departments and finance into to the hands of the The popular

ministers subjects

responsible

the legislature.

reserved

were to be administered by the Dewan.

With the support of

the progressive party and socialist party the Praja Mandal organised a coalition government on 9 September 1946 under the leadership of Panampilly Govinda Menon. 1947 On 14 August

the departments of law and finance were

transferred thus

from the Dewan. 59. 60. Ibid.

As a protest the Dewan resigned and

A. Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 40.

Dewanship

came

to an end in an

Cochin. 61 of the

Meanwhile Indian

the

Praja Mandal

became

organ

National majority Ikkanda

Congress and in the subsequent election it won a in the legislature. came The new government under

Warrier

into being on 20 September 1948.

By

this

time the Government of India with Sardar Vallabhabai Pate1 as the head of states ministry, had initiated steps at the national princely period level for the integration of the states Indian native the the the of at

with the union of India.62

During 1949,

of Ikkanda Warrier ministry, on 1 July

integration of Cochin with Travancore took place with hearty cooperation of its ruler. Travancore and Cochin was to
The new United State

its capital Trivandrum and the High Court at Ernakulam. 6 3 The Maharaja of Cochin having retired in favour

have

of

Sri Chitra Tirunal, the Maharaja of Travancore, the latter was to become the head of the united state of Travancore of

and Cochin with the title of Rajpramukh.

The covenant

integration was signed by the two rulers in the last week 64 of May 1949. It was made clear that the Rajpramuk would 61. 62.
63.

Edarnaruk Joseph, n. 55, p. 346.

Sreedhara Menon, n. 20, p. 43.

Ibid., p. 44. Ibid.

64.

have no hereditary claim to this office. Assembly members of the new state was to

The

Legislative of all the the

consist

of the Representative Body of Travancore ar.d

Legislative Assembly of Cochin at the time of integration. The The Rajpramuk was to function as a constitutional head. states with

members of the outgoing ministries in the two the new ministry of Travancore Cochin

constituted

T. K. Narayana Pillai who

headed the Travancore The new

Ministry head of July

time as the Prime Minister. 65

state 1949.

and members of his Cabinet were sworn in on 1 The event marked the end of monarchy and

the beginning of democratic rule in the history of Kerala. 66

--65. Ibid. p. 45.

---

--