Course: BCH 439: Pharmaceutical Biochemistry (3 Credits- Optional)

Course Duration: Two hours of lectures per week for 15 weeks (30 hours) As taught in 2011/2012 session

Courseware Developed by :

a) Prof. C. O. BEWAJI B.Sc.; M.Phil.; Ph.D. Biochemistry (Ibadan) [email protected]; [email protected]

2.0 LECTURER DETAILS: 1. Prof. C. O. BEWAJI B.Sc.; M.Phil.; Ph.D. Biochemistry (Ibadan) [email protected]; [email protected] Office Location: Block 3 (Ground floor), Room G14, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria Consultation Hours: 1 - 2pm Monday - Friday b) Prof. S.O. MALOMO B.Sc.; M.Sc.; Ph.D. Biochemistry (Ibadan) [email protected]; [email protected]"
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Office Locations: Block 5 (Ground floor), Room 19, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria Consultation Hours: 2 4pm Tuesdays and Thursdays. 3.0 COURSE DETAILS 3.1 Course Content: Metabolic factors affecting chemotherapeutic agents. Theories of the mechanism of drug action. Drug resistance and factors affecting drug efficacy. Physiological and biochemical action of selected drugs. Traditional, medicinal plants in the management and therapy of common ailments; malaria, sickle-cell anaemia. General Toxicology. 30h (T); 45h (P); R. 3.2 Course Description: The course is designed to introduce students to drug therapy and its effectiveness as well as a detailed knowledge of the actions and disposition of drugs in mammals. The contents are in such a way to help students understand the mechanisms responsible for pharmacologic actions and for the development of resistance or tolerance to drugs. Factors affecting drug efficacy such as resistance, routes of administration, species, genetic factors, age and sex e.t.c are also considered. Metabolism of xenobiotics in the liver and other tissues are considered to gain further insight into the success or failure of a drug, when used in a particular patient. The importance of traditional and medicinal plants in the management and therapy of common ailments; malaria, sickle-cell anaemia are also emphasized. The students will understand the importance of toxicology (observations of clinical and pathological changes that accompany the administration of drugs) in the development of rational pharmacologic strategies to reduce or circumvent undesirable sequela to therapy. 3.3 Course Justification: Increasingly, humans are exposed to various foreign chemicals (xenobiotics)-drugs, food additives, pollutants, e.t.c. It is thus important for students of Biochemistry to understand how xenobiotics are handled at the cellular level as well as learning how to cope with the chemical onslaught. Knowledge of the mechanisms of action and metabolism of xenobiotics is basic to
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a rational understanding of pharmacology and therapeutics, pharmacy, toxicology, management of cancer, malaria, sickle-cell anaemia and drug addiction. 3.4 Course Objectives: The general objective of the course as an integral part of the B.Sc. (Biochemistry) is for the students to understand and be able to describe xenobiotic biotransformation, effective drug therapy and observations of clinical and pathological changes that accompany exposure to xenobiotic as well as to be able to identify and understand the active ingredients in medicinal plants so as to improve traditional medical practice.

At the end of the course, the students should be able to describe and establish the mechanisms responsible for pharmacologic actions. describe and establish the mechanisms responsible for the development of resistance or tolerance to drugs. describe intrinsic and acquired drug resistance as well as their examples. describe and establish the triphasic mechanism of xenobiotic biotransformation. describe special routes employed in the administration of drugs. explain the various factors affecting drug efficacy. describe and establish the importance of traditional and medicinal plants in the management and therapy of common ailments. describe strategies aimed at elucidating the molecular basis of drug side effects. describe rational pharmacologic strategies to reduce or circumvent undesirable effects to therapy.
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3.5 Course Requirements: ! This is an optional course. Registered students are expected to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of 75% attendance to be able to write the final examination. ! Students will be required to carry out experiments such as rat hexobarbital sleeping time during practical sessions. ! The students will also be expected to treat study questions and assignments. ! Students are expected to have e-mail accounts.

3.6 Method of Grading No 1 2 3 Item Practical Class assignment / test Comprehensive final examination Total Score % 10 20 70 100

3.7 Course Delivery Strategies: The lecture will be delivered through face-to-face method, theoretical materials (lecture notes) will be provided during lecture and practical laboratory sessions. Students will be encouraged and required to read around the topics and follow current developments in the course. Additional materials and links will be provided on the board. The delivery strategies will also be supported by tutorial sessions and review of study questions. Practical Schedule:

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! The practical session involves introducing the students to the materials and the equipment available for the experiment. ! Methods involving the experiment will be explained and students will be required to obtain and analyze experimental data and give appropriate interpretations to the results. The practical will generally follow this format: Students will be reminded to follow laboratory rules and regulations. Introduction to some materials and relevant laboratory equipments and their uses. Title (for example): Rat hexobarbital sleeping time. The principle and conditions underlying the experiment. Method Generating and analysis of data Interpretation of data Reading Lists will usually be provided.

4.0 LECTURE CONTENT Week 1: Introduction to pharmacologic agents Objective: The objective is for the students to be able to understand, describe and establish the classes of pharmacologic agents. Description: First hour: Introduction to pharmacologic agents Second hour: The three classes of pharmacologic agents and their examples will be described.
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Study Questions: 1. What is a pharmacologic agent? 2. Mention the three classes of pharmacologic agents. 3. Write short notes on the following: a). Ion channels b). Tetracyclin

4. Write an assay on the metabolic factors affecting chemotherapeutic agents. 5. What are G-proteins?

Reading List: Flower, R.J. and Vane3, J.R. (1972) Inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase in brain explains the anti-pyretic activity of paracetamol (4-acetamidophenol), Nature.240, 410-411 Chandrasekharan3, N.V (2002): COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99, 13926-13931 Dougherty1, T. J. (1984): Intrinsic Resistance: Penicillin target alterations and effects on cell wall synthensis. In Leive L. Schlessinger, D (eds): Microbiology, Washington DC, American society for Microbiology, pg. 398. Fox, M. and Roberts3, J. J. (1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 2: Drug Action Mechanism

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Objective: The objective is for the students to be able to describe the mechanism of action of at least one example of the classes of pharmacologic agents. Description: First hour: The topic will be introduced with emphasis on the mechanisms of action of examples of the three classes of pharmacologic agents. Second hour: Mechanisms of action of examples of the three classes of pharmacologic agents. Study Questions: 1. Describe the mechanism of action of a named pharmacodynamic agent. 2. Write a detailed account of the theories proposed for the action of chemical agents in biological system. 3. Describe the mechanism of action of a named chemotherapeutic agent. 4. Describe in detail the molecular mechanism of action of named antimalaria. 5. Discuss the theories of the mechanisms of drug action making reference to specific examples.

Reading List: Flower, R.J. and Vane3, J.R. (1972) Inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase in brain explains the anti-pyretic activity of paracetamol (4-acetamidophenol), Nature.240, 410-411 Chandrasekharan3, N.V (2002): COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99, 13926-13931 Dougherty1, T.J. (1984): Intrinsic Resistance: Penicillin target alterations and effects on cell wall synthensis. In Leive L. Schlessinger, D (eds): Microbiology, Washington DC, American society for Microbiology, pg. 398.
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Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J. (1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 3: Drug Resistance Objective: The students will be able to describe drug resistance, acquired and intrinsic resistance and molecular mechanisms of drug resistance. Description: First hour: Emphasis will be laid on acquired and inherent drug resistance. Second hour: The genetic principles underlying drug resistance, as general baselines to understanding the various biochemical mechanisms of drug resistance will be described. Study Questions: 1. What is drug resistance? 2. Differentiate between acquired and intrinsic drug resistance. 3. How can an otherwise sensitive organism become resistant to the same chemical agent? 4. Explain the role of plasmid in the development of drug resistance. 5. What did you understand by the term drug resistance? With the aid of relevant examples, discuss how cellular factors contribute to drug resistance.

Reading List:

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Flower, R.J. and Vane3, J.R. (1972) Inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase in brain explains the anti-pyretic activity of paracetamol (4-acetamidophenol), Nature.240, 410-411 Chandrasekharan3, N.V (2002): COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning,structure, and expression, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA, 99, 13926-13931 Dougherty1, T.J.(1984): Intrinsic Resistance: Penicillin target alterations and effects on cell wall synthensis. In Leive L. Schlessinger, D (eds): Microbiology, Washington DC, American society for Microbiology, pg 398. Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J.(1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 4: Xenobiotic Biotransformation I Objective: The objective is for the students to be able to define xenobiotics and know various examples of xenobiotics including drugs as well as understand the metabolic phase I of xenobiotic transformation. Description: First hour: Xenobiotic biotransformation occurs in three phases - I, II and III. The specific objectives of each phase and the enzymatic reactions involved will be discussed. Second hour: The unique nature and various roles of cytochrome P450 will be emphasized as a phase I xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes. Cellular and tissue responses to xenobiotic will be highlighted.

Study Questions:
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1. What are xenobiotics? 2. Define xenobiotic biotransformation. 3. Discuss the phase I of biotransformation mechanism. 4. What is chemotherapy? Describe how named metabolic factors could affect chemotherapeutic agents. 5. Write full notes on the mechanism of action of drug resistance.

Reading List: Murray4, R.K., Granner, D.K and Rodwell, D.W (2003): Metabolism of xenobiotics In: Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry, 27th ed. Davis K et al(editors).Mc Graw-Hill. Pp 633-640. Wilkinson5, G.R. (2005): Drug Metabolism and variability among patients indrug response. N.Engl J Med. 350:2211 William5, A. C. (1979): Drug Metabolism In: Drug Disposition in Humans. Oxford University Press. Pg 55-87. Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J.(1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 5: Xenobiotic Biotransformation II Objective: The objective is for the students to be able to explain and understand phase II of xenobiotic transformation and the consequent excretion. Description:
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First hour The specific objectives of phase II, the conjugants and the enzymatic reactions involved will be discussed. Second hour: Excretion of conjugated substrates and glucuronides will be discussed. Study Questions: 1. What are conjugants? 2. Discuss the phase II of biotransformation of xenobiotic. 3. How are glucuronides excreted? 4. Using relevant examples, discuss the role of receptors in the mechanism of drug action. 5. Discuss the various ways by which parasitic organisms resist drug therapy.

Reading List: Murray4, R.K., Granner, D.K and Rodwell, D.W (2003): Metabolism of xenobiotics In: Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry,27th ed. Davis K et al(editors).Mc Graw-Hill. Pp 633-640. Wilkinson5, G.R. (2005): Drug Metabolism and variability among patients indrug response. N.Engl J Med. 350:2211 William5, A. C. (1979): Drug Metabolism In: Drug Disposition in Humans. Oxford University Press. Pg 55-87. Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J.(1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

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Week 6: Cellular and tissue responses to xenobiotic Objective: The students will be able to explain and understand how cells respond to xenobiotics. Description: First hour: Molecular, sub cellular and cellular responses to xenobiotics will be described. Second hour: Response at the level of tissue and organism will be highlighted.

Study Questions: 1. How do cells respond to assaults by xenobiotics? 2. What are the characteristics of tissue and organism response to xenobiotics? 3. As a graduating student of biochemistry, would you agree that there is a future for traditional medical practitioners in Nigeria. 4. What is responsible for the ability of a single solvent extract of plant in curing a number od apparently unrelated ailments. 5. Write short note on carriers in drug metabolism and G- protein-coupled receptors. Reading List: Murray4, R.K., Granner, D.K and Rodwell, D.W (2003): Metabolism of xenobiotics In: Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry, 27th ed. Davis K et al(editors).Mc Graw-Hill. Pp 633-640. Wilkinson5, G.R. (2005): Drug Metabolism and variability among patients indrug response. N.Engl J Med. 350:2211 William5, A. C. (1979): Drug Metabolism In: Drug Disposition in Humans. Oxford University Press. Pg 55-87.
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Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J.(1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 7: Factors affecting Drug Efficacy Objective: The students will be able to describe how various routes of administration, age, sex, genetic factors, species, e.t.c affect onset, duration, intensity and degree of localization of drug action. Description: First hour: The various routes of administration of drugs help to achieve systemic actions. Two major modes of administration to achieve systemic actions include entereal, whereby drugs are introduced into the gastrointestinal tract: and parenteral, in which drugs enter the vascular system directly or by another non entereal absorptive route. Some of the routes that are employed such as subcutaneous, percutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal e.t.c. will be described. Their merits and demerits will also be highlighted. Second hour: The effects of age, sex, species and genetic factors on drug efficacy will be described. Study Questions: 1. Differentiate between entereal and parenteral modes of administration. 2. State five routes of drug administration with their merits and demerits. 3. How will age, sex and specie differences affect the degree of drug potency? 4. Describe how nutritional and dietary factors influence the endoplasmic reticulum during drug metabolism. 5. List the various metabolic factors that can affect chemotherapeutic agents and discuss in detail any 5 of them.
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Reading List: Murray4, R.K., Granner, D.K and Rodwell, D.W (2003): Metabolism of xenobiotics In: Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry, 27th ed. Davis K et al(editors).Mc Graw-Hill. Pp 633-640. Wilkinson5, G.R. (2005): Drug Metabolism and variability among patients indrug response. N.Engl J Med. 350:2211 William5, A. C. (1979): Drug Metabolism In: Drug Disposition in Humans. Oxford University Press. Pg 55-87. Fox, M. and Roberts3, J.J. (1987): Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells. Cancer Metast. Rev. 6:261-281. John, D.H. and Wolf3, C.R. (1990): Molecular Mechanisms of drug resistance. Biochem. J. 272: 224-227.

Week 8: Class Test Description: The students will be assessed on all the treated topics for 2hrs.

Week 9:

A study of the medicinal plants used for various ailments in traditional (herbal) medical practice

Objective: The student will be able to know the botanical names and local names (in various Nigerian languages) of medicinal plants used in traditional (herbal) medicine and the diseases for which they are used.

Description: First hour: The definition and scope of traditional medicine will be explained.
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Second hour: The advantages and disadvantages, when compared with Western (orthodox) medical practice will also be highlighted. Study Questions: 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of traditional herbal medicine? 2. State the botanical and local names of a medicinal plants used in the management of sickle cell anaemia. 3. Give a detailed account of how you will lend scientific evidence to the safety of a named medicinal plant. 4. Writhe a detailed essay on the use indigenous medicinal plants as antimicrobial agents. 5. As a biochemist what is your view about the desirability or otherwise of traditional medicinal practice.

Reading List: Adeyemi, David Olawale; Komolafe, Omobola Aderibigbe; Adewole, Olarinde Stephen; Obuotor, Efere Martins & Adenowo, Thomas Kehinde3 (2009): Anti hyperglycemic activities of Annona muricata (linn). African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 62-69. Ayoola, G.A.; Coker, H.A.B.; Adesegun, S.A.; Adepoju-Bello, A.A.; Obaweya, K.; Ezennia, E.C. & Atangbayila3, T.O.(2008): Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activities of Some Selected Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Therapy in Southwestern Nigeria. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1019-1024. Bi, F.H. Tra; Kon, M.W. & Kouam3, N.F(2008). Antifungal activity of Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae) from Cte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 975-979.

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Dulger, B. & Hacioglu3, N.(2008). Antifungal Activity of Endemic Salvia tigrina in Turkey.Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1051-1054. Ekor M, Ashorobi RB, Ibitoye SF, Kasimi3 LS (2005). Acute Toxicity, Analgesic Potential and Preliminary Antimocrobial Studies of the Aqueous Plant Extract of Spilanthes Filicaulis. Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Sciences ; 4(1): 30-34.

Week 10:

General Toxicology.

Objective: The student will be able to know the definition and scope of toxicology. Description: First hour: Introduction to toxicology. Second hour: General definition and types of toxicology. Study Questions: 1. What is toxicology? 2. States the various types of toxicology 3. How can toxicity of a medicinal preparation be assessed? 4. Justify the opinion that a simple traditional medicinal preparation can cure a number of apparently unrelated ailments. 5. Write an assay on the future of traditional medical practitioner in Nigeria. Reading List: Magesh, V; Raman, D and Pudupalayam3, KT (2008). Genotoxicity studies of dry extract of Boswellia serrata Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 1129-1135.
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Nuhu, AA & Aliyu3, R. (2008). Effects of Cassia occidentalis aqueous leaf extract on biochemical markers of tissue damage in rats. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 1137-1142. Bi, F.H. Tra; Kon, M.W. & Kouam3, N.F. (2008). Antifungal activity of Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae) from Cte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 975-979. Dulger, B. & Hacioglu3, N. (2008). Antifungal Activity of Endemic Salvia tigrina in Turkey.Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1051-1054. Ekor M, Ashorobi RB, Ibitoye SF, Kasimi3 LS. (2005). Acute Toxicity, Analgesic Potential and Preliminary Antimocrobial Studies of the Aqueous Plant Extract of Spilanthes Filicaulis. Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Sciences ; 4(1): 30-34.

Week 11:

Pre-clinical safety and toxicity of drugs

Objective: The students will be able to know the definition and scope of safety and toxicity of drugs.

Description: First hour: The importance of drug preclinical safety will be highlighted. Second hour: Implications of drug toxicity will also be discussed.

Study Questions: 1. How important is preclinical safety determinations of drugs? 2. What are the effects of drug toxicity?
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3. Give a comprehensive account of how you will screen a medicinal plant preparation for its toxicological potential. 4. Write an assay on your viewpoint about the desirability or otherwise of traditional medication from a biochemical point of view. 5. What is the scientific basis for the claim that a particular plant extract can cure a number of apparently unrelated pathological conditions Reading List: Magesh, V; Raman, D and Pudupalayam3, K.T. (2008). Genotoxicity studies of dry extract of Boswellia serrata Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 1129-1135. Nuhu, AA & Aliyu3, R. (2008). Effects of Cassia occidentalis aqueous leaf extract on biochemical markers of tissue damage in rats. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 1137-1142. Bi, F.H. Tra; Kon, M.W. & Kouam3, N.F. (2008). Antifungal activity of Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae) from Cte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 975-979. Dulger, B. & Hacioglu3, N.(2008). Antifungal Activity of Endemic Salvia tigrina in Turkey.Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1051-1054. Ekor M, Ashorobi RB, Ibitoye SF, Kasimi3 L.S. (2005). Acute Toxicity, Analgesic Potential and Preliminary Antimocrobial Studies of the Aqueous Plant Extract of Spilanthes Filicaulis. Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Sciences ; 4(1): 30-34.

Week 12:

Clinical evaluation of new drugs I

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Objective: The student will learn the procedures for evaluating new drugs being considered for introduction into the market. They will also learn whether humans and animals show significantly different responses to the drug and how to establish safe dosage.

Description: First hour: New drugs being considered for introduction into the market are subjected to testing in four major phases. In Phase 1, how the effects of the drug are tested in a small number of volunteers (about 50 volunteers) and animals will be discussed Second hour: In Phase 2, the study of the drugs in patients with the disease for which the drug is being developed will be discussed. Study Questions: 1. What are the objectives of phases 1 and 2 testing of new drugs for introduction into the market? 2. With relevant examples, discuss the roles played by receptors on the mechanism of drug action. 3. Give a comprehensive account of the various protein targets biological action. 4. What do you understand by the term Biological variation? 5. How has biological variation contributed to the understanding of toxicity of chemical compounds? Reading List: 1. Abou-Donia4, M.B.(1992): Disposition, Metabolism and Toxicokinetics In: Neurotoxicology. (Abou-Donia, M.B. ed) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL p256.

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2. Bi, F.H. Tra; Kon, M.W. & Kouam3, N.F. (2008). Antifungal activity of Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae) from Cte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 975-979. 3. Dulger, B. & Hacioglu3, N. (2008). Antifungal Activity of Endemic Salvia tigrina in Turkey.Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1051-1054. 4. Ekor M, Ashorobi RB, Ibitoye SF, Kasimi3 LS (2005). Acute Toxicity, Analgesic Potential and Preliminary Antimocrobial Studies of the Aqueous Plant Extract of Spilanthes Filicaulis. Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Sciences ; 4(1): 30-34.

Week 13:

Clinical evaluation of new drugs II

Objective: The student will learn the procedures for evaluating new drugs being considered for introduction into the market i.e phases 3 and 4. Description: First hour: In Phase 3, how the drug is evaluated in a much larger number of patients will be discussed. Second hour: In Phase 4, how the drug is eventually manufactured, released into the market and its usage monitored will be discussed. Study Questions: 1.What are the objectives of phases 3 and 4 testing of new drugs for introduction into the market? 2. Discuss the physiology and biochemical actions of the following drugs: Heroin, Tetracyclin and Aspirin. 3. Discuss the potential of use of medical plants
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Reading List: 1. Abou-Donia4, M.B.(1992): Disposition, Metabolism and Toxicokinetics In: Neurotoxicology. (Abou-Donia, M.B. ed) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL p256. 2. Bi, F.H. Tra; Kon, M.W. & Kouam3, N.F(2008). Antifungal activity of Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae) from Cte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 975-979. 3. Dulger, B. & Hacioglu3, N.(2008). Antifungal Activity of Endemic Salvia tigrina in Turkey.Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 1051-1054. 4. Ekor M, Ashorobi RB, Ibitoye SF, Kasimi3 LS (2005). Acute Toxicity, Analgesic Potential and Preliminary Antimocrobial Studies of the Aqueous Plant Extract of Spilanthes Filicaulis. Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Sciences ; 4(1): 30-34. 5. Abou-Donia4, M.B. (1992): Disposition, Metabolism and Toxicokinetics In: Neurotoxicology. (Abou-Donia, M.B. ed) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL p256.

Week 14: Class Test Description: The students will be assessed on all the treated topics from week 8 to 13 for 2hrs.

Week 15: Revision / Tutorial Exercises Description: Students are expected to seek explanation on any difficult concept or topic treated during the course.
5. GENERAL READING LIST: Suggested Further Reading List:
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6. Legend
1 2 3 4 5

-Available in the University Library -Available in local bookshops -Available on the web -Personal collection -Departmental library

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