Programming FundamentalsALLIED PUBLISHERS LIMITED Regd. Off. : 15 J.N. Heredia Marg, Ballard Estate, Mumbai 400001 Prarthna Flats (2nd Floot), Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380009 3-2-844/6 & 7 Kachiguda Station Road, Hyderabad 500027 16-A Ashok Marg, Patiala House, Lucknow 226001 Sth Main Road, Gandhinagar, Bangalore 560009 1/13-14 Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi 110002 17 Chittaranjan Avenue, Kolkata 700072 81 Hill Road, Ramnagar, Nagpur 440010 ‘751 Anna Salai, Chennai 600002 First published, 1988 © P.S, Grover, 1988 8th Reprint, 2001 ISBN 81-7764-193-X Published by Sunil Sachdev and printed by Ravi Sachdev at Allied Publishers Limited, Printing Division, A-104 Mayapuri, Phase-I], New Delhi - 110 064 2001i Preface Contents Chapter 1 : Introduction 1.1 Computers 1 1.2 Computer Systems 2 1.3 Computer Generations 14 Bit, Byte, Word and Number Systems 6 see Tone 1.6 Modes of Computer System Operations 18 Exercises _20 Chapter 2 : Problem Solving and Pascal 2.1 Algorithms 23 2.2 Data Assignment 25 2.3 Flowcharts 27 2.4 mming Languages and Pascal 35 2.5 Source and Object Programs 37 2.6 Features of Computer Programs 39 2.7 Syntax Di 41 Exercises 45 Chapter 3; Elementary Concepts and Primitive Data Types 3.1 Character Set_ 49 3.2 Numbers 49 3.3 Identifiers 51 3.4 Data Types 52 3.5 Type Declarations 54 3.6 Constants 56 3.7 Variables _58 3.8 Standard Built-in Functions _60 Exercises 63 Chapter 4; Expressions 4.1 Arithmetic Expressions 66 4.3 Boolean Expressions 73 4.4 Relational Expressions 75 Exercises 78 23 49 66Chapter 5: Chapter 6: CONTENTS Simple Statements and Programs 81 3:1 Structure of Pascal Program _81 5. ents in a 84 x Assignment Statement 84 5.4 Data Output Statements 87 5.5 Formatting of Output Data 91 5éyData Input Statements 94 put Statements 94 3.7 The Label Declaration 98 5.8 The Compound Statement _99 Exercises 102 Enumerated and Subrange Data Types 105 6.1 Enumerated Data T) 105 6.2 Subrange Data Types 109 6.3 Uses and Limitations of Subrange Data Types 113 Exercises 114 + Program Execution Control 116 7.1 The ifStatement 116 7.2 The case Statement 122 7.3 The goto Statement 126 Exercises 131 : Repetitive Computations 134 8.1 The for-do Statement 134 8.2 The while-do Statement 139 8.3 The repeat-until Statement_144 8.4 Differences between while-do and repeat-until Statements 148 Exercises 148 : Structured Data Type: Arrays 152 9.1 Subscripted Variables 152 9.2 Arrays 153 9.3 Two-dimensional Arrays. 159 E tidimensional Arrays 163 le Array 165 96 Packed Arrays 160 27 Character Sei 17 EeeCONTENTS xiii Chapter 10: Sul : Functions and Procedures 182 10.4 Local and Global Identifiers 196 10.5 Value and Variable Parameters 199 10.6 Arrays as Subprogram Parameters 203 10.7 Functions/Procedures as Subprogram Parameters 206 10.8 Recursion 207 10.9 Uses of Subprograms 210 Exercises 211 11: Record Data 218 LL1 Records and Files 218 11.2 Record Data 220 11,3 Accessing Fields of a Record 223 11.4 Hierarchical Records 224 11.5 Shared Record Variables 228 11.6 Arrays of Records 229 1L7 The with Statement__235 118 Variant Records 236 1.9 Packed Records 240 11.10 Differences between Arrays and Records 242 Exercises 242 Chapter 12: File Types 246 12.1 File Data Type 246 12.3 Communication with Files _250 12.4 Files as Parameters in Subprograms 256 12.5 Text Files 261 Exercises 263 Chapter 13; Set Operations and Data Types 268 13,1 Set Definition and Elementary Operations 268 13.2_Set Constants 270 13,3 Set Type and Variables 271 13.4 Set Operators and Expressions 273 13,5 Set Operator Hierarchy 278 Exercises 279xiv Chapter 14: Chapter 15 : ‘CONTENTS: Pointers and Dynamic Data Structures 282 14.1 Pointer Data Type 282 14.2 rations on Pointers 285 14,3 Differences between Static and Dynamic Variables 27 14.4 Creation and Annihilation of Dynamic Variables 287 14.5 Dynamic Data Structures 290 Exercises 297 Structured Program Design Concepts 300 15.1 Pseudocode 300 15.2 Modular Design 303 15.3 Structured Pro; 304 125 Basie Structured Constructs —305 15.5 Structured Programs 30! 15.6 Eetenaion of Seetured Constructs and use of pote Appendix I: Pascal Operators and their Precedence 327 Appendix If; Standard Identifiers and Pascal Reserved Words 328 TL: Pascal suj Functions and Procedures 329 IV: Syntax of P: 1 Diagrams 335 Appendix V; Syntax Diagrams _335 Appendix VI: ASCII and EBCDIC Character Sets 343 Bibliography 345 Index _347 Urheberrechtlich geschitztes MaterialChapter 1 Introduction A computer is an information processing machine. It can perform arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and take logical decisions. It has a memory and can store fot of information. The stored information may be retrieved, moved and operated upon as desired. _ Computations are done at an extremely fast speed with complete reliability and accuracy. The speed of execution of operations by modern computers ranges from several hundred million operations per second for fast computers to tens of thousands of operations per second for slow computers. 1.1 Computers There are basically two types of computers—analog and digital. (a) The analog computer accepts, processes and generates continuous (unbroken) data. Computations are carried out with physical quantities, such as length, voltage, current, etc. Slide rule, voltmeter, ammeter, potentiometer, are examples of analog devices. You know that when current is passed through an ammeter, the deflecton of the needle indicates the amount of current passing. Deflection is more for higher currents and less for lower currents. Now current and deflection are both continuous quantities. The ammeter receives current (input) and gives deflection (output) after detecting current (processing of input). Thus, ammeter is an analog device. Analog computers use this principle, though they are much more complicated and can perform sophisticated processing of data. Analog computers are comparatively slow and less accurate. They are designed for special applications only. We cannot use a given analog computer for all purposes. (b) The digital computer accepts, processes and produces discrete (discontinuous) data. Computations are done with discrete quantitics, such as numerical digits. Usual facit. machines, electronic calculators are simple examples of digital devices. Digital computers are much faster than analog computers and the computations are far more accurate. They come in various sizes-starting from pocket size to large systems which occupy few normal-sized rooms, Digital computers can be designed either for. special or for gencral purposes. Another type of computer which combines the salient features of both analog and digital computers, is referred to as Hybrid computer. It is faster than analog2 PASCAL PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS but much slower than digital computer. Hybrid computers find applications in special areas only. Normally, when we speak of a computer, it is understood as a digital computer. Nowadays these are the most widely used machines. 1,2, Computer Systems A computer system consists of a computer and supporting devices for input and output of data. The data to be processed are supplied to the computer with the help of input devices. The processing unit performs the desired operations on the information and the results of calculations/processing are obtained on the output devices. Several types of input/output devices can be attached to the computer. A computer consists of electronic circuits only, while the input/output devices have both electronic and mechanical components. A representative organization of a c-mputer system may be as shown in Fig. 1.1. Fig. 1.1: Organization of a computer system The input device supplies: data, us obtain from us, to the computer. Most commonly used input devices are: teletypewriter and cathode ray tube (In the past, it used to be card reader but not now). We specify the data in a form which we use in our everyday lite, that is, in the numeric and alphabetic form. These are converted into the form which the computer can ‘understand’. Data are stored in the computer in binary form (see later). (The conversion to the binary form is performed with the help of electronic circuits called Encoders). After the computer ‘has processed the data, results are tained in the human readable form on the output devices, such as printer, visual display unit (VDU). Computer data (as stored inside it) is changed into this form by electronic circuits called Decoders. In addition to encoders and decoders, there are other electronic circuits alsoINTRODUCTION 3 which perform several functions, such as correct transfer of data from the input device to the computer and from the computer to the output device, regulate flow of data, act as temporary data storage (buffering), ete. This is done with additional electronic circuits, referred to as control input/output unit, All input/output devices are connected to the computer via control units. The computer does all the computing and data processing work. Its components are: (a) Arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) (b) Control unit (CU) (c) Main memory unit (MMU). Information is transferred to and from among these units for all processing and.computing work as indicated by arrows in Fig, 1.2. Fig. 1.2; Information flow in the computer Anithmetic and Logical Unit This unit consists of a complicated clectronic circuits designed using the concepts of Boolean algebra. All arithmetic operations-addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations-comparison, decision, ¢tc. are performed by this unit. Control Unit The control unit also consists of electronic circuits. It acts as a supervisor in a computer system. It obtains instructions from the main memory, interprets them, decides the action to be taken and directs other units to execute them, It keeps check on correct information flow in the computer system. Normally, the instructions are executed sequentially (one after another) in the machine. The control umt also provides the facility to alter this sequence. The ALU and the CU are also referred to as Central Processing Unit (CPU). Main Memory Unit This unit stores all the data which are to be processed and the program4 PASCAL PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS instructions for carrying out the processing/computing work. The main memory is also referred to as primary or main storage. It is extremely fast (high speed memory). Information can be entered/retrieved at random from this memory. Commonly used memories have been magnetic cores (older systems) and semiconducting elements (modern systems). With these, it is possible to have very large and fast memories, Semiconductor memory consists of electronic circuits prepared on silicon chips. The electronic circuit is called a Flip-flop. A flip-flop circuit can generate cither 1 or O, that is, it is a two-state element. A flip-flop is also called a Storage Cell. Thousands of these storage cells can be prepared on a single silicon chip. Due to this, the physical size of the semiconductor memories is very small. Moreover, their cost is decreasing every year as the fabrication technology is advancing. The common type of semiconductor storage devices are: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read only Memory (ROM). Besides these, there are other forms of semiconducting memories as well. In RAM, information may be read or written into the memory at random, It is also called a Read/Write memory. It is a volatile memory, that is, information stored there is lost when the electrical power to the circuit is switched off. Normally, user programs and data are stored in RAM. In ROM, information is written permanently into the memory. It cannot be changed easily. Data can be read from the memory but cannot be written there. This is why the name ROM. Moreover, it is a non-volatile memory. ROMs are normally used to store information that the computer may need frequently for its own operation. 1.3 Computer Generations Several types of computers, having wide range of characteristics have been designed. The design, speed, size and performance of computers have been changing continuously. Due to this, it has become customary to divide computers into what has come to be known as “generations”. Broadly speaking, following are the generations of the computers. First Generation (~ 1946-1959) The computers of first gencration used vacuum tubes, They were bulky and slow, Their memory was limited and used punched-card and punched paper tape for input and output of data. These machines used low-level programming languages and involved manual controls. They were special purpose machines with limited applications. Examples of first generation computers include ENIAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 650. Second Generation (~ 1959-1965) The second generation computers are characterized by their use of tiny transistors as active elements. Due to this, these were compact and substantiallyINTRODUCTION 5 smaller in size. They required less power to operate. They were much more reliable as compared to the first generation computers. Second generation computers had more speed (about 10° operations per second), larger memory and faster input/output devices. They accepted procedure-oriented languages, such as Fortran, Cobol and other utility programs, Several companies started manufacturing computers. Systems were designed for special applications, such as business and scientific data processing. Prominent second generation computers have been IBM 1401, IBM 7090/7094 series, IBM 1620, Burroughs B5000, CDC 3600, GE 635, Honeywall 400 series, UNIVAC II, and several others, Third Generation (~ 1965-1975) The third generation computers used integrated circuits (electronic circuits designed on silicon chips) instead of transistors, The size of such circuits is hundreds of times smaller than the transistor circuit size. Moreover, the associated electronic circuitry is also reduced in dimensions many times. This leads to several advantages: (i) small size and increased processing speed (* 10° operations/second), (ii) more reliability and higher accuracy, (iii) easy maintenance and simple repair requirements. Moreover, these machines have very large storage capacity. Faster and more versatile input/output devices, such as video display, graphic terminals, plotters, magnetic disks, drums, tapes, etc. may be used with them. They have highly sophisticated operating systems, application software and packages. Third generation computers are mostly general purpose, that is, they may be used for processing business, scientific or text-oriented problems. Some examples of third generation systems are IBM 360 series, Burroughs 6700/7700 series, CDC 6000/7000 series, digital equipment PDP-8/11 series, UNIVAC 1108/9 series, ICL 1900/2900 series, and so on. Fourth Generation (~ 1972-1982) The fourth generation computers use very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits in their design. As compared to the third generation systems, these systems possess much larger computing powers. They have extremely large memories and are very versatile. In addition to conventional input/output devices, other minicomputers, magnetic ink readers, laser printers, optical readers, audio response terminals, ctc. can be attached to them. Some examples of fourth generation computers are IBM 370, AMADAHL 470, CRAY XMP, CYBER and many other systems. Fifth Generation and Beyond (~ 1981 onwards) The computer technology has made phenomenai progress, starting from first to fourth generation systems. Computers have been used to solve almost any type of prablem whose algorithm can be described explicitly. However, still there are6 PASCAL PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS. areas, where computers have not been used successfully. This is because the problems in those areas involve human intelligence, that is, reasoning, understanding, drawing inferences, adapting to new situations, making out relationship between facts, discovering meanings, recognizing truth, and so on. Attenipt is being made to incorporate such characterisitics into computers and computer programs. Such computers (though not commercially available as yet) have been said to belong to Fifth generation. Lot of work is being done on the hardware and software of such systems, These are also known as Knowledge Information Processing Systems (KIPS). They will have knowledge bases and are expected to be able to draw inferences from the knowledge and solve problems as humans do. These are the goals and their successful completion may completely revolutionize the computer field. 1.4 Bit, Byte, Word and Number Systems Binary number system is used for information representation and storage in computers. This system uses two digits: 0 and 1. Any object which can assume two states can be used to represent these digits. As for example an electric switch, an electric bulb, a magnetic core or some electric circuit, such as flip-flop, and so on. A magnetic core can be magnetized either clockwise or anticlowise. We can say that the clockwise state of magnetization represents 1 and the anticlockwise state of magnetization indicates 0. Thus, a collection of magnetic cores can be used to store binary digits. A binary digit is also called a Binary bit. Thus, each core represents a binary bit. Binary bits are grouped together. A collection of 4 bits is called a Nibble, while a group of 8 bits is referred to as a Byte. Normally, a byte is treated as a single memory location. It generally represents a single character of information. As for example, if we wish to store the character A in the computer memory, a byte (or 8 bits) may be required. Further bytes are grouped together to form a bigger unit. This unit is referred to as a Word. A word may consist of a single nibble (4-bit word), two nibbles (8-bit word), 3 nibbles (12-bit word), 4 nibbles/2 bytes (16 bit word) and so on, This depends on the make of the computer. The size of the computer memory is commonly expressed in terms of bytes/words. As for example, it is common to say that the memory size is 64 KB (kilo byte), 128 KB, 256 KB, and so on. Here k = 2!" = 1024 and indicates kilo. A memory of 16 KB will have 16 X 1024 X 8 = 131072 bits. Thus a semiconductor memory should have these many flip-flop circuits as each flip-flop represents one binary bit. Nowadays, very large memories are also available. Memory sizes in the range 1—8MB (or higher) are common. (MB = million bytes). Moreover, computers are available with different word sizes such as 8—, 16—, 32—, 64—, 96-bits and so on. Larger word size affords several advantages : ® bigger main memory size_