The Changing Sky

Observational exercises in astronomy

Queensland University of Technology

School of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education February, 2003

Acknowledgements
These resource materials have been written and compiled by: John Broadfoot Queensland University of Technology Assoc Prof Keith Lucas Queensland University of Technology Dr Ian Ginns Illustrations and photographs: John Broadfoot NASA (National Aeronautical Space Agency) USA Layout and diagrams: John Broadfoot Cover photograph: Saturn and rings (Voyager Mission, NASA) Queensland University of Technology

Queensland University of Technology 2003

The Changing Sky

Contents
Page
1. Prior beliefs Prior beliefs 2. The Changing Stars Finding North 3. Activity 2.1 Determining altitude and azimuth Activity 2.2 Recognising stars and constellations Star Patterns Star Movement Finding South Observing the night sky Astrophotography 4. Using binoculars and telescopes Types of telescopes Comparing telescopes 5. The Changing Moon Drawing Phases of the Moon Recording Phases of the Moon Model of Sun-Earth-Moon 6. Our star - the Sun! Projecting the suns image Movement of the Sun Keeping time Modelling eclipses 7. Our planets Observing the planets Planetary conjunctions Another conjunction The scale of things! The Terrestrials The Jovians The comets Activity 7.1 Activity 7.2 Activity 7.3 Activity 7.4 Activity 7.5 Activity 7.6 Activity 7.7 Activity 6.1 Activity 6.2 Activity 6.3 Activity 6.4 Activity 5.1 Activity 5.2 Activity 5.4 Activity 4.1 Activity 4.2 Activity 3.1 Activity 3.2 Activity 3.3 Activity 3.4 Activity 1.1 1 1 2 3 5 6 7 9 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 36 38

Movement of Sun, Earth and MoonActivity 5.3

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Module Outline
This module contributes to the study of the Unit: MDB391 Earth and Space

Why study this module?

Much prehistory and cultural traditions are associated with observations of the motion of celestial bodies and the stars. Some Pacific Islands cultures have strong associations with the constellations using these to navigate across oceans and seas.

Objectives
After studying this module you should be able to: identify your own prior knowledge about the changing sky find cardinal directions using the sun or stars identify some major stars and constellations use star charts and models to observe changes in the night sky predict the movement of star patterns observe and record the changing shape and position of the moon recognise the phases of the moon predict changes to moon phases and the changing position of the moon observe and predict the movement and the position of the sun and planets be persistent and systematic in collecting data sketch observations accurately interpret tables of data create pictorial representations report on observations in an informed manner

Content
The Changing Stars: Using coordinates to find direction and record observations; North; altitude and azimuth Recognising stars and constellations Observing the night sky; star patterns and movement; finding South; The Changing Moon Observing and recording phases of the Moon; movement of Sun, Earth and Moon; Model of Sun-Earth-Moon system Our star - the Sun: Projecting the suns image; movement of the Sun and seasons; eclipses. Our planets: Famous astronomers; observing planets; conjunctions

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Main ideas developed

! ! ! ! Our Earth is part of a planetary system including the Moon and the Sun. Measurement of the positions of celestial objects may be made using references to the Earth coordinates. Direction may be found using a knowledge of celestial navigation. Careful observation of the movement of stars, planets and the Sun provides evidence for the relationships between the bodies within the solar system and space. The tilt of the Earths axis and the annual revolution of the Earth around the Sun causes seasons. Alignment of the Moon and Sun may cause lunar and solar eclipses.

! !

Teaching and learning approaches

This module will be delivered through the use of support materials, a lecture program, laboratory and field based activities and a workshop/tutorial program. The practical component is strongly based on the application of observation and recording skills. Field studies are an integral part of the teaching program. Teaching and learning in this module is based on the constructivist model of learning to ensure students have a thorough grounding and understanding of the concepts. Throughout the teaching of this module there will be a strong emphasis on the constructivist approach to learning.

Assessment strategies
This module will be assessed in a way which provides students with the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the application of concepts and their ability to present an informed defensible opinion. Practical activities occur throughout the learning process. A field excursion forms part of the studeies and obeservational activities and field reports are part of the assessment program.

References
Books
Freedman, R.A. and Kaufmann, W.J. (III), (2002). Universe (6th Edn). Freeman. Seeds, M.A., (2001). Foundations of Astronomy (6th Edn). Brooks/ Cole. Seeds, M.A., (2002). Horizons: Exploring the Universe. Brooks/Cole. Burnham, R. (Ed.), (2002). Astronomy. Home Reference Library, Weldon Owen Pty Ltd. Fog: San Francisco.

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WEB sites
http://sci.esa.int/ This is the Home Page for the European Space Agency and has many links to excellent sites for information and photographs. It contains many detailed topics on the solar system. http://www.nasa.gov/ This is the home page for the National Aeronautical and Space Agency in the USA. http://spacescience.nasa.gov/education/index.htm This site contains many excellent topics and ideas for educators. The site also gives access to thousands of photographs - Hubble Space Telecsope (HST), Photogallery and Planets. Note: NASA and JPL images generally are not copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery, video and audio material for educational or informational purposes, including photo collections, textbooks, public exhibits and Internet Web pages. See http://www.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/guideline.html and http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/policy/ for further details. http://teachspacescience.stsci.edu/cgi-bin/ssrtop.plex An excellent site for many teaching resources for astronomy. Software: //www.seds.org/billa/astrosoftware.html There are a number of free and shareware programs listed on this site.

Gas Pillars in M16 - Eagle Nebula. Pillars of creation in a star-forming region, HST Photo No. STScIPRC95-44a (NASA 1995).

These eerie, dark pillar-like structures are actually columns of cool interstellar hydrogen gas and dust that are also incubators for new stars. The pillars protrude from the interior wall of a dark molecular cloud like stalagmites from the floor of a cavern. They are part of the "Eagle Nebula" , a nearby star-forming region 6,500 light-years away in the constellation Serpens.

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1.

Prior beliefs

What do you know already?

Many cultures throughout the world have many stories and beliefs relating to the origins and movement of the sun, moon, planets and stars. Melanesian and Polynesian groups are well known for using groups of stars to find their way across vast stretches of water. This is called navigation. Planting of staple crops and important festivals have also been associated with the sun, moon and appearance of stars at certain times of the year. You may know some of these stories and cultural beliefs?

Activity 1.1 What do you know already?

Write down your own ideas using the questions as a guide. Discuss these ideas as a group and try to form a consensus (if possible). Report the groups beliefs to the whole class. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Why did people rely on the changing appearance/position of the moon and sun to plant crops? Which stars or constellation can be used for navigation? What do you know about the way the sun and moon moves and the way stars move? In which direction would you look to watch the sunrise? How do you locate north? Where does the moon rise and set? How does the moons shape change? Is the moon always visible at night? Is the moon visible during the day? Are tides related to the changing moon? Where do the stars appear to rise and set? What is the Southern Cross? How is astrology related to astronomy?

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Research

Prior beliefs

Use references to find out more about some of the old beliefs or your own prior beliefs. You could interview friends or village elders to obtain a better insight into other beliefs.

2.

The Changing Stars

The night sky had many meanings to our ancestors. Ancient Babylonian, Greeks and Romans believed that the day and night skies contained many Gods and mythical creatures. Lives were controlled by beliefs in these ideas. Celtic tribes used astronomical events to predict important dates for festivals and agriculture. Some groups also used this knowledge to worship their gods and for pagan rituals. Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian sailors found their way across large distances of water using the stars, sun, moon, planets and wave patterns. In fact we are now discovering that many ancients knew their way around the worlds oceans.

Figure 2.1. The path of the zodiac signs on a mid year evening

Ancient Babylonian and Greek beliefs

In olden times, in the Mediterranean area, the scholars of Babylon and Greece used 12 Zodiac signs for the path of the animals. These zodiac signs appear at different elevations at different times of the year. Only part of the zodiac band is visible at any one time because the other signs are below our horizon. In mid year the band of zodiacal constellations is at a higher elevation. During the night these signs move across the sky from east to west as shown in figure 2.1

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Finding north
The direction of true north (towards the geographic north pole) can be found by watching the changing length of a shadow during the middle of the day. When the Sun passes the highest elevation in the sky it is said to transit the meridian, that is, the Sun crosses the line joining the north celestial to south celestial poles (figure 2.2). The highest position of the Sun will give the shortest shadow which lies along the north-south line.

Figure 2.2. The path of the Sun as it transits the meridian.

Activity 2.1

Finding North

Hypothesis:
You will need:

What happens to the length of a shadow throughout the day?

a piece of thick paper or cardboard (foolscap) a 75 to 100 mm nail with a flat head or another suitable pointed object a pair of compasses for drawing circles a protractor for measuring angles blue tack or gum

What to do: 1 Start your experiment soon after 11.00 a.m. and continue until about 1.00 p.m. Times may be different for different times of the year and daylight saving. Find a flat place outside in the sun. A concrete path is ideal or use a flat board. Make sure the paper or cardboard does not move or blow in the wind. Put heavy stones on it. Mark a point near the centre of your paper. Stand the nail or stick upright on the paper on this mark (figure 2.3). Mark where the shadow of the nail ends. Take away the nail and use your compass to quickly draw a circle with a radius less than the length of the shadow. Your circle should not reach the end of the shadow.

4 5

Figure 2.3. Stick is set up so that it is vertical.

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EARTH AND SPACE 6 7 Put the nail back in exactly the same position. Make sure the nail shadow ends where it did before. Leave the paper and nail in position for about 2 hours. Mark the point on the circle when the tip of the shadow just touches the circle you drew. You should also mark the position of the top of the nail shadow every 15 minutes. Watch carefully as the shadow lengthens again after local noon time. Mark the position when the top of the nails shadow again touches the circle. Figure 2.4 Remove the nail. Join the centre of your circle to the two points where the shadows touched the circle. Be careful not to move the paper.

Sun
Figure 2.4. Recording the position of the shadow.

West

East

Movement of the shadow end

10 Use a protractor or your compass to divide the angle between the shadow lines into two equal parts. Draw this line right across your circle. This line points true north and south. Mark this line on the concrete or ground. Now remove your paper. It is a good idea to paint the line or put some white paint on a post or object that is along this line. It can be used for other activities later on.

Questions
1 2 3 Describe the changes to the shadow direction and length as midday approaches. At what time is the shortest shadow seen? Draw a diagram to show how the shadow would change during a whole day.

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Locating and recording the position of objects

To locate and record the changing positions of objects in the sky we need to be able to measure angles in a simple way. You carry with you one of the best and easy to use devices for this It is called your hand. The activity that follows shows you how to estimate angles with your hand span.

Azimuth and altitude

We need a way of measuring two things to find the position of an object. The first is the direction or azimuth from true North which you found in the last activity. The second is the angle above the ground. This is called the altitude.

altitude

North 0 W est 270 South 180 East 90

Figure 2.5. This diagram shows the sun at azimuth 270 (west) and altitude 30

Activity 2.2

Altitude and azimuth

This activity is best done outside in the middle of a field or sports oval. What to do: To find the size of your hand span, stand up and stretch your arm out straight. Spread your fingers wide apart. Close one eye and line the outer edge of your thumb up with a distant tree or object. See what your little finger is lined up with. Move your thumb to this position. Keep doing this and keep count of the number of times to go around a complete circle (360). Divide the number of hand spans into 360. This will give you the size of your hand span.

Example: Number of hand spans in a circle Therefore one hand span

= 20

= 360/20 = 18 per hand span

The width across your knuckles (fist) will be approximately half of your hand span. To make it simple for you, most adults with average hands have a hand span of 20 and a knuckle span of 10. You now have two useful ways to measure angles.
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Questions
1 2 Using your hand span estimate the altitude of a tree or building in the grounds. A student with a hand span of 18 measures the position of the moon early one evening. The measurements are five hand spans from north and two hand spans up from the horizon. What is the azimuth and altitude of the moon?

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Extension:
1 2

Measuring the height of a tree.

Using your handspan devise a way to estimate the height of a tree or height of a building without using any other measuring devices. How could you find the width across a river without crossing it and without any equipment?

3. Recognising stars and constellations

This part will introduce you to some of the bright stars and constellations seen in the night sky. Many of the constellations seen in books have names given to them by ancient Babylonian and Greek scholars. You can see over 2500 stars on any clear night. The stars we see are only the brighter ones. There are many more, in fact some 4 to 5 billion in our own galaxy which is called the Milky Way. The stars that we see with our eyes are in our galaxy. There are millions of other galaxies that we know about. These are too far away for us to see the individual stars. Some stars are brighter than others. Astronomers label stars with a letter of the Greek alphabet to indicate relative brightness. These letters are similar to our own a, b, c, and so on. Alpha - ! , beta - ", gamma - #, and so on.

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Research
1 2

The Greek alphabet

Find a copy of the full Greek alphabet. Some well known bright stars are Sirius, Regulus, Canopus, Achernar, Arcturus, Vega, and Antares. Locate these on star maps and list the formal names.

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Star patterns
Many stars have been grouped together into recognisable groups or patterns called constellations. Some of these patterns were made up by the ancients and you need a lot of imagination to see some of the mythical creatures. Most of the names of the constellations are based on the ancient names however many southern star groups were only seen during the explorations into the southern oceans. The Southern Cross (Crux) was named by these early seafarers. However we should also recognise that the southern constellations were also well known, by different names and different legends, by southern civilisations. For example, the polynesians such as the Tongans call the Southern Cross Toloa (wild duck).

Activity 3.1
Hypothesis:

Star patterns

How do constellations appear to move during the night?

This activity enables you to investigate the apparent effect of the earths rotation on some constellations.
You will need:

a piece of dark coloured cardboard sticky tape pin and nail another small piece of cardboard

What to do: 1. 2. 3. Select one of the constellations in figure 3.1. Roll your cardboard into a tube, at least 80 mm across, and tape it. Obtain another piece of cardboard large enough to fit over the end of the tube. Use the nail or pin to make different sized holes to represent different brightness stars. (Large holes for bright stars!) Tape your constellation card over the end of the tube. Make sure the side you pricked faces the inside of the tube. It is now ready for use. Stand somewhere dark and look through the tube towards light.

4. 5.

Questions
1 2 What happens to the star pattern if you twist or rotate the tube? Without twisting your tube, move it from east to west over the top of your head. What happens to the appearance of the constellation? Where is top and bottom?

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3 4

Relate this to what happens to the stars at night. The constellation Orion rises with the three stars of the belt pointing east. Predict what you would observe when it sets? Sketch the changing orientation of Orion with reference to the cardinal points.

cardboard with pinholes to represent a constellation

cardboard tube (from paper towel or Gladwrap)

Figure 3.1.The viewer and star patterns for making the star movement model

Figure 3.2. The constellation Orion as it appears when rising in the East at night. Compare this appearance of Orion to that shown in the sketch above? (Photo: John Broadfoot)

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Star movement
During the night the stars appear to move from east to west. If you look south, you will notice that some stars appear to move in circles. This happens slowly during the night.

Activity 3.2

Star movement

In this activity you will make a model of some stars that may have been used by Polynesian and Melanesian sailors to find their way across vast expanses of ocean.
You will need:

One sheet of cardboard (A4) Scissors Circular star chart on page 10 Charcoal, black paint or texta pen Paper fastener

What to do: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Place the circular star map (figure 3.3) over the piece of cardboard. Mark the famous navigation stars by pushing through with your pencil. Mark the outline of the circle and its centre. Now take away the star map and mark the stars, circle and centre on your cardboard. Cut out the circle and push a small hole through the centre. Now use the remainder of your cardboard to mark and cut out the rectangular shape (figure 3.4) given on the bottom of the next page. Cut the slot along the line AB. Do not cut to the edges. Push a hole through the major centre point nearest you. Put your circle in the slot so that the two holes line up. Pin the two pieces of cardboard together. Colour the portion below the horizon black.

You now have a model of the stars around the South Celestial Pole as seen from your latitude. The pin or paper fastener is directly above the Earths South Pole. If you turn your disk clockwise you will see what the stars do at night. The approximate latitudes for the major centres in Eastern Australia are Cairns (17 S), Rockhampton (23 S), Brisbane (27.5 S), Sydney (34 S), Melbourne (38 S) and Hobart (43 S).

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Figure 3.3. Chart of the southern sky (from Rukl, A. (1979). The Amateur Astronomer. Prague: Octopus.) Melbourne (38 S) Sydney (34 S) Brisbane (27.5 S) Rockhampton (23 S) Cairns (17 S)

A Horizon line looking South Figure 3.4. Approximate positions of the South Celestial Pole are shown for the major centres in Eastern Australia. Select the position to use for the pin.

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SCP Horizon looking South Figure 3.5. The appearance of the stars as they revolve around the South celestial pole. The SCP is marked on the photograph. This point is about 4 degrees above the horizon. Can you pick out the Southern cross? At what latitude was the photograph taken?

Questions
1 2 Turn the disk clockwise (!). Describe what happens to the Southern Cross if you give the disk one complete turn. What do the other bright stars appear to do?

You could think of your model as a steering wheel like that in a car. Just imagine steering your boat across the ocean at night and using the stars as handles. By seeing the regular rotation of these stars, the ancient navigators could keep the boats pointed in the direction they were headed.

Draw a line through the long axis of Crux (Southern Cross) to the pin at the centre. Now draw another line from the pin to bisect the Pointers (! and b Centaurus). You have now discovered a way to find south. We are not sure if the olden time sailors used this method but it does work.

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4 5

Rotate the disk and see if you can find other ways that the old world sailors, Melanesians or Polynesians may have navigated. See if you can locate some of these important stars at night. Use the model to help you. There are some stars which go out of view for only a short time. Rotate your model to see which stars do this. How could these stars be useful in finding south? See if there are any stars that do not set. These are circumpolar stars. What is maximum angle of such stars from the South Celestial Pole?

Finding south
Stars may be used to construct imaginary shapes just as the ancients did. The diagram below shows the Southern Cross and the Pointers and Achernar. These stars rose and set in much the same position in ancient times as they do today.

Activity 3.3

Finding south

In this activity you will use the actual photograph (figure 3.6) that was taken of the southern part of the night sky. The Southern Cross and the Pointers are clearly visible above and between the trees. You will use this photograph to construct lines to locate the position of true South.
Figure 3.6. A photograph showing the Southern Cross and the Pointers. ! - crucis

pointers

horizon

What to do: 1. 2.

" - crucis

Draw a line along the long axis of the cross from ! - Crucis (left) to # - Crucis (right). Extend this line to the right out of the photograph. Now join the two pointers. Bisect them with a line at right angles. Extend this line out of the photograph until it crosses the line drawn

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The Changing Sky before. The intersection of these two lines is the South Celestial Pole. 3. 4. Now draw a vertical from the SCP to the horizon line. The point on the horizon is True South. Mark this point on the diagram. Now Refer to figure 3.3 again. Locate the stars Canopus and Peacock. Why would these stars have importance for celestial navigation? Suggest a possible way of finding South with these stars. Try to devise another way of finding South using the Southern Cross and the star Achernar.

5.

Observing the night sky

Naked eye viewing of the stars and constellations requires reliable and accurate star charts. General charts as in many textbooks are hard to use because they dont give the view from a local area. They are usually equatorial and based on celestial coordinates which are hard to understand. Star charts produced using azimuth and altitude positions for stars are easier to use from a local position on the Earths surface. These can be produced by a number of computer programs. The charts need to be based on the longitude and latitude of area in which you live. You will also need to remember how to use your hand and fist to estimate angles of azimuth and altitude.

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Activity 3.4
1.

Observing the night sky

Use your unaided (naked) eye to locate all major stars and constellations visible at this time of the year. Refer to altitude-azimuth star charts and use your hand and fist to estimate the positions. Observe and sketch the position of one zodiacal and one circumpolar constellation (e.g. Scorpio and Crux) at times one hour apart. Describe the differences in apparent positions and motion. Use the South Celestial Pole chart (figure 3.3) to locate the position of the South Celestial Pole (SCP). Why is the SCP positioned at an altitude equal to the latitude of your location? Use the model you made in Activity 3.2 to orient yourself to the current position of the stars. Now try to identify the circumpolar stars. Observe these over a period of one hour and describe the changes seen. Draw labeled sketches to indicate how at least two constellations, other than Crux, could be used to find your way (that is to locate azimuth directions). Refer to figure Activity 3.3. Locate any planets that are visible. Record there approximate positions. Use binoculars to observe and describe some major open clusters.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

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Astrophotography
Astrophotography is an exciting way to record views of the celestial sky which cannot easily be seen with the naked eye. Film can be far more sensitive to certain wavelengths of light than the eye. Expensive equipment is not necessary to obtain rewarding photographs, however, a good 35 mm SLR cameras with a B exposure setting is necessary. In addition to the camera a relatively inexpensive cable release is required (about $10.00) for extended time exposures using the B setting on the cameras shutter speed. Cameras may also connected to telescopes using Tmounts, which are reasonably cheap (about $20). Due to the rotation of the earth, celestial objects appear to move from east to west but this movement is not noticeable through a standard 50mm lens over 15 to 20 seconds. However, in order to gain the most out of long exposures the telescope and mount needs to be correctly aligned, that is, the polar axis of an equatorial mount must be exactly lined up with the south celestial pole. Due to the relatively short exposure times, alignment is not a major problem when photographing bright objects such as the moon or venus, however, when photographing more diffuse objects such as nebulae, long exposures and accurate guiding of the telescope and camera is necessary. As a guide the longest exposure that will give sharp images without a motor drive is shown below.
Effective focal length (mm) Time for critical work (secs) Time for some blur (secs)

90- 180 180- 350 350- 700 700-1500 1500-3000 3000-6000 6000 +

2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30

8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8

The following techniques and activities should provide a rewarding introduction to astrophotography.

Activity 3.5

Photographing stars

(a) Photographing constellations

The film and developer used will depend on the results wanted. Black and white film of 400 to 3200 ISO (ASA) will give sharp pinpoints of light while the slower colour films up to 400 ISO will show the colours of the stars. In general, the faster

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films are more grainy so some trading off is necessary in low light conditions, i.e. a faster film is needed to photograph celestial objects where light pollution is a problem. Fainter objects also require faster film to reduce the time of exposure. Fine-grain developers should be used to develop your own black and white films. Mount the camera on a tripod and use a cable release. Set the camera to face the stars or group of stars to be photographed. Set the camera aperture at a small fstop (lens aperture wide open) and the focus at infinity. A standard 50 mm lens allows up to a 30 second exposure without appreciable movement of the stars due to the rotation of the earth. If telephoto lenses are used, the exposure time reduces inversely to the focal length of the telephoto lens system. for example, a 300 mm telephoto lens reduces the maximum exposure time to 5 seconds. Obviously, this faster speed requires a much faster film to capture the starlight. This is where some of the faster films such as T-Max are advantageous. These photographs may be used to identify and name stars and constellations, compare the brightness of stars and estimate the temperature of individual stars. If a series of photographs of the same constellation are taken over several nights or weeks, many interesting phenomena may be recorded on film. Such phenomena include planets changing position along the ecliptic, comets and asteroids (many have been discovered in this way) and meteor trails.

(b) Photographing star trails

Use the same type of films as used for short exposures of stars. Mount the camera on a tripod to face the direction to be photographed and use a cable release. Set the camera to face the stars you are interested in. Expose, using B setting for any length of time from a few minutes to several hours. Greater declinations (positions close to the South Celestial Pole) give less trailing therefore needing greater exposure times. One problem with greater exposure times is that the film will often fail or become overexposed especially in areas of light pollution. Interesting effects can be created by doubly exposing the film, by photographing star trails in moonlight and by including dimly lit scenery in the photograph. Star trails are good for demonstrating several astronomical phenomena: (i) (ii) The temperatures of stars may be determined when using colour print or slide film. The length of a day may be calculated by multiplying the trail time by 3600 divided by the angle of the arc the stars have traversed on the film.If the time of the trail is carefully recorded, The location of the South Celestial Pole (circular trails) and the Celestial Equator (straight line trails). Meteor trails are often seen on star trail photographs.

(iii) (iv)

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4. Using binoculars and telescopes

In viewing the night sky you should become very familiar with the main constellations and bright stars which are visible from your local position. You should also be able to locate the main cardinal points on your horizon. Initially your observations of the night sky are based on the unaided or naked eye. Binoculars provide an excellent stepping stone to increase your visibility of celestial objects. The power should not be too great as binoculars of high power (greater than about 7x) become difficult to steady. Binoculars are excellent for viewing the moon, satellites of Jupiter, comets and large field stars clusters, galaxies and nebulae.

4.1 Types of telescopes

(a) Sketch an example of the two major types of telescopes: Refracting telescope Reflecting telescope (b) Show clearly the types of lenses and the paths of light rays through each type of telescope. (c) Record the focal length and f-ratio for each telescope (labels). (d) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of each type of telescope.

Powers of a telescope
There are three important powers to consider when using telescopes: # # # magnification light gathering power resolving power = focal length of objective focal length of eyepiece Light gathering power is proportional to the area of the objective. Resolving power (in seconds of arc) " = 11.6 Diameter of objective (D) f = 900 mm D = 75 mm A reflecting telescope has the label: f = 1200 mm D = 200 mm

The magnification of a telescope M

A refracting telescope has the following label.

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4.2 Comparing telescopes

During your field nights you will use different types of telescopes. The main two types used will be refracting and reflecting. (i) Draw labelled sketches of each type of telescope and note the physical parameters on the labels on each. (ii) Use the data to calculate the resolving power for each telescope. (iii) Compare the light gathering power of each telescope. (iii) If a 25 mm eyepiece is used for each telescope calculate the magnification for each. Do the same for a 40 mm eyepiece.

F-ratio
A fourth parameter is important when photographing celestial phenomena or objects, the f-ratio. This is related to light gathering and in general the lower the fratio the less time needed to obtain an image on film or by digital means (CCD). f-ratio = focal length of objective diameter of objective In 35 mm cameras this ratio can be varied by changing the size of the opening in the lens. This part of the camera is called the diaphragm. For example a camera with an f-ratio of 3.5 and a focal length of 50 mm would have an objective diameter of 14.3 mm.

Exercise
(a) A telescope has a focal length of 900 mm and an objective diameter of 75 mm. Calculate the f-ratio. (b) A second telescope has a focal length of 1200 mm and an objective diameter of 250 mm. Calculate the f-ratio. (c) How would these two telescopes compare when photographing deep sky objects?

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5. The changing moon

Does the moon look the same every night? Is it in the same place at the same time every night? Does it always rise at the same point on the horizon? Does it always set at the same time? This topic will introduce you to the movement of the Moon around the Earth. You will make first hand observations. These will be discussed in class. It is important that you make and record your own observations accurately. By observing the moon often you will begin to understand its changing appearance and position in the sky.

Figure 4.1. The Full Moon as seen from Earth

In early history the Moon was very important to many cultures. For example the Polynesian year was based on 13 cycles of the Moon as it changed from new moon to full moon and back to a new moon (one cycle). Did any other past cultures use the moons changes as a calendar? To fully appreciate the apparent motion of the moon around the earth and Sun you need to observe and record the changes in phases and positions over a full cycle. The following activities provide you with the opportunity to record the changes in a methodical way. After you complete activities 4.1 and 4.2 your results will be compiled and presented as part of your portfolio of observations. A model for the motion of the moon should be developed.

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Drawing phases of the Moon

It is very important to draw accurate representations of the moon as it changes from day to day. You need to record the position in the sky, the time and the shape during your observations from the New Moon for two to three weeks. In this first activity you will learn to record the moons shape as accurately as possible. This activity will be done in conjunction with activity 4.2 in which you will record the time, position and shape of the moon.

Figure 4.2. The Moons surface is heavily cratered. This is because the moon has no atmosphere to protect it from meteorites. The absence of an atmosphere is clearly seen in the top right of the photograph. There is an abrupt contrast between the surface and space.

Terminator

The moon has no atmosphere. This results in a clear demarcation between the lit and unlit portions of its surface (figure 4.2). The line so formed is called the terminator. The area enclosed by the terminator (an arc of an ellipse) and the nearer edge of the moon (an arc of a circle) is called a lune or simply a crescent. During a synodic month, about 29! days, the moon passes through its complete cycle of phases. The orientations of the lune vary in a complex fashion due to the varying setting azimuths and path of the moon with respect to the sun and earth. The following changes can be seen when the moon is in the west:

Horn Lune

New Moon evening Waxing Moon

Full Moon

Old Moon daytime Waning Moon

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Activity 5.1

Drawing phases of the moon

This exercise enables you to draw the terminator for any age moon. The lune, once drawn, is shaded appropriately to represent the phase of the moon. That is, for a crescent moon, the lune is left white while the remainder of the moon is shaded black and for a gibbous moon the lune or crescent is shaded black. The line between the lit and unlit parts of the moon should always begin and end on the diameter of the moon as shown in figure 4.3.
1. 2. 3. Use your compass to draw a circle on a blank sheet of A4 paper. Use a radius of 10 cm. Mark the diameter of the circle. Now use the lune widths as given in the table 4.1 on to sketch and shade 3, 7, 13, 22, 25 and 28 day old moons. All of the circles should have a 10cm radius. When you have completed your sketches, clearly label the phase on each. Draw an Earth-Moon-Sun diagram to show the position of the moon at each of these phases.

4.

5.

Table 4.1. Lune widths related to the age of the moon

Age of moon (days) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Lune width (cm) 0.2 0.9 2.0 3.4 5.1 7.1 9.2 8.7 6.6 4.7 3.0 1.7 0.7 0.1 0.0
Figure 4.3 Terminology used to describe the moons dimensions. Lune width Lune Horn Diameter Terminator

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Observing phases of the moon

Which way does the moon move? Where does the Moon appear to rise and set?
5. Draw an rth-M oon-Sun diag ram to sh ow thethrough position of t he mobservation. oon at each The answers toEa these questions only become a reality first hand of these phases.

In this activity you make observations of the moon for about three weeks beginning at a new moon. Your observations must be submitted as part of your field report.

Figure 4.4. Phases of the moon are due to the direction of sunlight as seen from where we stand on the Earths surface. Even the Earth shows phases when viewed from outer space.

"

Activity 5.2 Observing phases of the moon

Observe the moon at about 7 p.m. each evening. Use your hand span to estimate the position, azimuth and altitude of the moon from the horizon. You should have previously established the cardinal points (NESW) at your locality and the magnitude of your hand span. Record your observations in an appropriate manner to clearly show your data and observations. For each observation include a sketch showing clearly the relative position of the moon to the horizon and the cardinal points. Binoculars may be used to assist in recognising major features on the moons surface. Use a detailed surface map of the moon to identify major features. Questions

1 2 3 4 5

How does the moon change while you have observed it? Identify the phases and write these in your table of observations. On what date was the moon full? When the moon was full, about what time did it rise? Where did it rise? How does the moons position change each day?

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Activity 5.3 Movement of Sun, earth and moon

This activity is a role play. Organise into groups representing SUN, MOON and EARTH. Arrange your groups outside the classroom as shown below. This activity is valuable in that you will quickly understand the nature of lunar phases.
What to do: 1. 2. 3. 4. You only need yourselves and a large ball. Colour half of the ball white using water paint, whitewash or chalk. SUN group Stand, in the middle, in a small circle with backs to each other. You are the SUN. EARTH group A group of four students stands in a similar way about 10 metres away from the SUN. MOON group One student holds the ball that is half white above his or her head and about 3 metres from the EARTH. The white side must always face the SUN. The student should face the SUN with the white side of the ball also facing the SUN. The MOON now slowly walks around the EARTH making sure the white side of the ball always faces the SUN. Groups should interchange roles to enable everyone to gain a different perspective of the positions of the moon, sun and earth.

5. 6.

Sun

10 metres Earth

Moon 3 metres

Figure 4.5. How you should be arranged in your groups

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Questions 1 2 3 4 What does the SUN group notice about the appearance of the MOON? What does each of the EARTH group notice about the appearance of the MOON? Each person (EARTH only) should make a sketch of the white part of the ball. The four students in the EARTH group are to slowly turn and notice the different appearance of the white part of the ball. Take turns at being the EARTH so that all students see the changes to the moon.

After doing this activity you should by now realise that the moon does change its appearance as it moves around the earth.

Activity 5.4

Sun-earth-moon model

In this activity you are to build a model to represent the Moon orbiting the Sun and the Earth orbiting the Sun. After observing and recording the apparent motion of the Sun and Moon you should now be able to use basic materials to explain some of lunar changes you observed.
You will need:

One tennis ball (Earth), one ping pong ball or similar sized object (Moon) A large ball about the size of a volleyball or soccer ball (Sun), two sticks and a one metre length of string.

What to do: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Using your string and two sticks mark out a circle of 1 metre radius on the ground. Place the large ball at the position of the centre to represent the Sun. Place the smaller ball on the circle. This will represent the Earth. Now place the ping pong ball about 30 cm from the Earth. You now have a model for the Sun-Earth-Moon. The Earth and the Moon may be moved to represent different times of the year and different phases of the moon.

Investigate each of the following using the model

1 Place the moon in positions to represent the phases: new first quarter full last quarter

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Imagine that the earth turns anticlockwise and the moon orbits the earth anticlockwise, use your model to explain why the moon changes shape each lunar month. What might happen when the moon is between the sun and earth? What might happen when the earth is between the sun and moon? Use your model to explain why the first quarter moon doesnt rise until about midnight. Draw sketches of the model positions for the questions above.

3 4 5 6

6. Our star - the Sun!

In section two of these notes you were introduced to the Suns apparent movement while finding true north. The following activities enable you to observe and record the Suns motion in more detail and apply your findings to the construction of a sundial and to explain the occurrence of eclipses.

Projecting the Suns image

You must take great care not to look at the Sun because the intensity of the light can damage your eyes (retina). This is because the lens of your eye acts as a magnifying glass and concentrates the light energy onto a small spot which can become very hot and burn the tissues.

Activity 6.1
1. 2. 3.

Projecting the Suns image

Find a shady tree and observe the shapes of the sunlight on the ground. What regular shape do you observe for some of the images? Explain, using a sketch, what is happening . Now obtain a convex lens and a sheet of white cardboard. Place the cardboard on the ground and move the lens up and down until you get an image on the paper. Look carefully at the image. Describe and sketch the image. Do you see any features on the surface of the image? What might these be? This experiment can be extended by placing a dark filter between the sun and the lens. How might this change the experiment and the observations?

4.

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The Changing Sky 5. The suns image may also be projected using a pinhole in a card (figure 5.1). Obtain a piece of cardboard and pierce it with a pin. Now hold you pinhole between the sun and another whit sheet of cardboard. Move it up and down until you see an image. Describe the image and sketch hoe you think it formed. Finally you may make a pinhole camera to project the image of the sun onto an opaque surface such as acetate or tracing paper. Design such an instrument and report on its success or otherwise. You will find excellent ideas and designs on the web.

6.

Figure 6.1. Projecting the image of the Sun using a pinhole and white cardboard for a screen. This is the safest way to look at the Sun.

Figure 6.2. A telescope photograph of the Sun. The surface shows dark spots. These are called sun spots. They are areas that are cooler than the surrounding area. (Photograph: John Broadfoot)

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Movement of the Sun

In this activity you need to observe the suns rising or setting positions for approximately four weeks. Observations need only be made every 2 to 3 days as the Sun does appear to move slowly.

Activity 6.2

Movement of the Sun

Make a series of observations of the exact rising or setting of the sun and record the cardinal positions and the times of observation. Present these observations as a series of accurate sketches with your portfolio for assessment. Questions 1 2 3 4 5 6 Describe the changes in the cardinal rising or setting positions of the Sun. Predict where the sun would rise on June 22. Explain your answer. Predict where the sun would rise and set on about the 22 December. Prepare a model or a sketch to illustrate clearly how the Suns motion changes throughout a year. Label the model or sketch clearly. How do the changes throughout the year affect the shadows of vertical objects as seen in Brisbane. Design a method to use a knowledge of the Suns motion to find your longitude at any place on the earths surface.

Figure 5.3. Relationship between the orbits of the Earth and Moon around the Sun. When the Moon crosses a node an eclipse of the moon or sun may occur.

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Keeping time
Time keeping depends on a knowledge of the Earths motion around the sun or, from an earth-centred view, the apparent motion of the sun about the earth. It is now known that the Earth has an inclined axis (2327) on which it rotates giving day and night in a cycle of approximately 24 hours (23h56m04.1s to be more accurate). This period of rotation is called a sidereal day and is the time taken for the same place on Earth to complete one rotation with respect to a point in space. A solar day varies slightly and is the time taken for the same place on the earths surface to complete one rotation with respect to the Sun. Keeping time is a complex business due to the complex movement of the earth around the sun. The major factors affecting our time are due to the elliptical orbit of the Earth around the Sun. The Earth-Sun distance varies during the year and the velocity of the Earth varies being greater at perigee (closest to Sun) than apogee (furthest from the Sun). These small variations affect time! Sun dials were used in Egyptian times and can still be found in use as ornaments rather than exact timekeepers. Why? Sundials can be quite accurate however corrections need to be made for every different place on Earth. Imagine how unwieldy this would become if everyone had their own local time from sundials. For these reasons the invention of the chronometer soon saw sundials become a thing of the past. Following the rapid development of clocks the world adopted a Universal Time (UT) system based on Greenwich (near London). Universal Time is also known as Greenwich Mean Time. Therefore if you see time expressed as UT or GMT this is the time at 0 longitude.

How do you find the time in other places? We know that the Earth rotates once on its axis every 24 hours therefore a full circle of 360 must pass in 24 hours. This means that the Earth rotates at 15 per hour or 1 degree every 4 minutes. This knowledge can be applied to find the Local Mean Time at any location if the GMT and the longitude is known. For example, Brisbane is 153.02 east of Greenwich (0). This means that Brisbanes time is 153.02 x 4 minutes ahead of Greenwich. That is 10h12m ahead! Now it is not very useful to have every town or city calculate their own Local Mean Time therefore a system of time zones was created to unify the time for various longitudinal zones around the world. The eastern States of Australia have adopted the Zone Time based on the 150 meridian or longitude. This time zone is known as the Australian Eastern Standard Time (AEST) which is 10 hours ahead of GMT. Eastern Summer Time is a variation of the AEST applied by some Australian States for daylight saving! The clocks are advanced one hour during summer. No daylight is saved at all! In activity 2.1 you located True North by observing the shadow of a vertical stick. The time at which the shadow was shortest corresponded to the time (Local Noon) at which the Sun was highest in the sky. The Sun was seen to transit (pass) the local meridian (longitude).

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Activity 6.3
Time Zones
1.

Keeping time

Review Activity 2.1 Finding North and repeat this experiment by setting your watch or a clock to the GMT and using this time for your experiment. Note the exact GMT and AEST at which the Sun transits the meridian.

2.

Questions 1 2 3 4 5 What time (GMT) did the sun actually transit your meridian? Calculate the difference in longitude between Greenwich and your location using the GMT. What is your calculated longitude East of Greenwich? How does your answer compare to the actual value of 153.02 for Brisbane? Now compare the recorded AEST to the time of transit. Was it before or after noon? Explain any differences in terms of your knowledge about keeping time. Draw a labelled illustration of the Earth globe which you could use to explain the international system of time keeping to a primary or secondary class.

"

Research: Keeping Time

What methods were used to keep time before the invention of modern clocks and watches? Describe one of these in detail. If possible you may be able to make a model. How did Melanesians and Polynesians keep track of time and seasons?

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Eclipses
The occurrence of lunar and solar eclipses are generally well publicised in advance. To understand how these events occur, and especially why they do not occur as frequently as the normal textbook diagrams suggest they should, construction of scale models is useful.

Activity 6.4
1.

Modelling eclipses

Commence with any convenient world globe. As the moons diameter is approximately one quarter (1 / 4) that of Earth you need to select a sphere of appropriate size. If necessary, a white balloon inflated appropriately will serve well. It is essential that the Earth-Moon distance in your model is also to scale. This distance is approximately 9-5 times the Earths circumference. Take a length of cotton, and wrap it nine and one half times around the world globe used in your model. This length of cotton represents the scale distance between Earth and Moon in your model Find a large enough space, and set up your Earth-Moon system model with moon in the same plane as Earths equator. A slide projection placed as far as possible off to the side and in the same plane as Earth and Moon will serve well as a model sun.

2.

3.

Solar Eclipse
With the Moon between Sun and Earth, observe how the moons shadow falls on the Earth.

Questions 1 2 Does the moons shadow cover all of the Earths hemisphere facing towards the sun? Explain. Spin the model Earth, and estimate how long a solar eclipse might last at any point on Earths surface. Research this topic and explain any difference between your estimate and recorded values. Remember the angular size of the sun and moon and that the Earth rotates at 15 per hour. Move the moon slightly, about 5) above or below the equatorial plane of Earth. Does your model suggest that a solar eclipse would still occur under these circumstances? Remember that Earths axis is inclined at 23.5 to the orbital plane of Earth. Move the projector slightly above or below (say up to20) to simulate the orientation of Sun, Moon and Earth at various seasons. Does your model suggest that a solar eclipse will always occur when the moon is new? Explain.

3 4

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Lunar Eclipses
With the Earth between the Sun and the moon, the Earths shadow may fall on the moon. Use models to explore how the Earths shadow might eclipse the moon. The photographs shown below will assist with your thinking. Questions 1 2 Does Earths shadow cover all of the moon hemisphere directed towards the Sun? Explain. Move the moon slightly above or below the equatorial plane of Earth (say 50) Does your model suggest that a lunar eclipse would still occur under these circumstances? Research the occurrence of partial lunar eclipses. Arrange your model to show how such an event occurs. The Moons orbit is tilted approximately 5 to the plane of Earths orbit around the Sun. Explain why lunar eclipses do not occur every time the moon is full, but do occur sometimes when the moon is full.

3 4

Figure 5.4. A series of photographs showing a lunar eclipse from partial to total. The red colour is due to refraction of light around the edge of the earths atmosphere. (Photographs: John Broadfoot).

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7. Our planets
Discoveries by famous astronomers
Ancients have long realised that some stars appear to move relative to other stars. We now know these are actually planets. Johannes Kepler was the first astronomer to fully explain the orbits of the planets in detail. Keplers famous laws were based on 20 years of rigorous observations by Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman. Kepler was a mathematician and a critical thinker beyond his time. In fact we can also attribute modern calculus to Kepler. You should read you text or other astronomy books for more information on the significance of planets to the ancients and the discoveries in modern times.

"

Revisiting Brahe and Kepler

1. Read suitable astronomy books and prepare a summary of the important discoveries of these two famous astronomers. 2. Compare the differences between the way these two persons made contributions to our knowledge of planets.

Finding planets in the night sky

Because the planets revolve about the Sun, we are able to make periodic observations of them. The movement of our own planet enables us to see each of the planets at some time throughout the year. This apparent motion is through the ecliptic or zodiacal constellations. The centre line represents the Suns position relative to the Earth. When planets are viewed in the evening sky we describe their position as so many degrees east of the Sun (Elongation East) whereas, when the planet appears in the morning sky we describe its position as degrees west of the sun (Elongation West). If a planet is on the opposite side of the Earth as is the Sun then it is in opposition to the Sun. A conjunction occurs when planets appear to join together. Positions of Greatest Elongation occur for the planets inside of the Earths orbit. These are Mercury and Venus. These planets reach a maximum altitude above the horizon at regular predictable times. The inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, are best seen at elongation positions greater than 20 from the Sun due to the effect of twilight before sunrise and after sunset. The bright star-like object frequently seen above the eastern horizon before sunrise or above the western horizon after sunset is Venus. Mercury is best observed at Greatest Elongation during the shorter daylight months when there is also less twilight, that is, winter. The Inferior planets, because of the position of their orbits inside that of the Earth, also exhibit phases like the Moon. At Greatest Elongation positions, Mercury and Venus appear as quarter phases, and at closer positions to the Earth, as crescents.

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Venus in opposition Mercury

SUN Venus at greatest elongation west of the sun

Venus appears as a crescent

Earth Figure 5.5. Elongation and appearance of inferior planets

They appear as gibbous phases when further from us than the Greatest Elongation positions. Venus and Mars both show marked apparent size changes due to the large changes in distances separating them from Earth. The superior planets are
always outside of Earths orbit therefore phases are not seen. These planets are the most readily seen at higher altitudes in the night sky.

"

Activity 7.1
1 2 3

Observing the planets

Observe the position of the visible planet(s) at sunset or sunrise for one week. Use your hand span to estimate the position, azimuth and altitude, of the planet(s) from the horizon. Mark the positions on a sheet of white paper on which the horizon has been drawn. (You have previously established the cardinal points at your home and the magnitude of your hand span.) Record your observations in an appropriate manner to clearly show your data and observations. For each observation include a sketch showing clearly the relative position of the planets to your horizon and the cardinal points. Try to estimate the time each planet sets each day and record this data. Confirm your estimations using a suitable software program.

4 5 6

Questions 1 2 How do planet positions change during one week? Identify the planets by referring to an ephemeris, star charts or a suitable software package..

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3 4 5

Which planet has moved the fastest relative to the others? Why? Why do the planets appear to be in a straight line? What time did each planet rise and set each day?

A famous conjunction
On June 17, 2 BC one of the most spectacular and close conjunctions of planets ever witnessed by mankind occurred. to observers on earth it would have appeared as a single magnificent star in the western sky over Bethlehem. It would have easily been seen from Babylon and signalled, to the Magi, an important event in history.
(Jerusalem Christian Review, Vol. 7, Issue 7)

There has been much debate about when the birth of Jesus actually occurred. Astronomical evidence, calendar adjustments and the scriptures suggest that a conjunction of planets as being the most probable major celestial event at that time. In fact other significant events occurred about the same time. The Magi of Babylon were preoccupied with the movements of the sun, earth and planets and placed great significance on alignments or conjunctions of the planets. In the same period as the Venus-Jupiter conjunction, the planet Jupiter rose to meet Regulus (King star) on three occasions making a halo loop over the star. This convinced the Magi that a great event had occurred. In fact, astronomers, using the scriptures and very accurate ephemeral software, have been able to date the actual birth as early evening, 11 September, 3 BC.

7.2 Planetary conjunctions

To further investigate the motions of planets through the constellations the accurate positions of the planets over a series of dates may be provided by an Ephemeris or may be calculated using a suitable computer program. These positions expressed as celestial coordinates may then be plotted on a celestial map using the right ascension and declination positions for each position. You will be repeating some of the work done by Brahe and Kepler. Sets of data have been provided. These data are the positions of the planets Venus and Jupiter between 1 April and 31 May 1998. 1. Plot the data on a suitable star chart labelling each data point with the appropriate date.

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2. Join the points to indicate the movement of these two planets with respect to the background of stars. Jupiter
Date Right Ascension hr:min:sec 3 April 7 April 11 April 15 April 19 April 23 April 27 April 1 May 5 May 23:01:40 23:04:33 23:07:50 23:11:03 23:14:13 23:17:18 23:20:18 23:23:14 23:26:04

Venus
Right Ascension Declination hr:min:sec -704# -658# -638# -618# -559# -540# -522# -504# -446# 21:53:07 22:09:27 22:25:56 22:42:29 22:59:06 23:15:47 23:32:29 23:49:15 00:06:03 Declination -1146# -1042# -933# -817# -656# -530# -401# -228# -052#

1. 2. 3.

Describe the apparent motion of each planet with respect to the background stars. At what date do the planets appear to be very close to each other? Explain the apparent motion of these planets in terms of the heliocentric model of the solar system. You should draw a sketch to show the relative positions of the earth, sun and the two planets. At what position (label on the diagram) would Venus appear as a crescent if viewed through a telescope. When photographing Venus with a telescope astronomers need to use very fast shutter times such as 1/2000 second. How can this be when Venus appears to be very small and so far away?

4. 5.

There are also many computer programs that can be used to accurately predict the rising and setting times of planets. There is also of course the daily newspaper!

7.3
1. 2.

Another conjunction

Prepare a star chart showing the best times to view Saturn and Venus on 29 May 1998. Calculate the approximate rise and/or set times for these two planets.

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3. 4. 5.

Prepare for school students the best viewing times, instructions to enable them to find the planets and a list of interesting points about these planets. Describe using a sketch how Venus and Saturn will appear in a telescope. Draw and label a heliocentric diagram to show the paths and positions of Saturn and Venus.

7.4

The scale of things!

In this activity you will construct a scale model of the planets for display. You will need pieces of different coloured card to represent the planets, compass, pencil, scissors and glue or tape. You will work in pairs and each pair will be assigned a planet for this activity. (a) Complete the table below by referring to an astronomy reference. Calculate the scales sizes for your model.
For distances from the sun: For diameters of sun and planets: Object Distance from sun 1 cm = 1 million kilometres 1 mm = 500 kilometres Diameter Scale diameter

Scale distance

Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto (b) (c)

not applicable

Using suitable colours of cardboard construct each planet to scale. Prepare and fasten a label to each planet summarises the main features. (You may need to hang the features on a separate card as a mobile for the small planets). Along a suitable hallway or verandah measure and mark the distances from the sun for each planet. Hang each of your models at the scale distance.

(d)

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7.5

The Terrestrials

The terrestrial planets are also known as the inner planets which are mercury to mars. Read the accounts of these planets in the relevant chapters of your text and answer the following discussion questions. Discussion questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Why does the solar nebula theory predict that planetary systems are common? Why dont terrestrial planets have rings and large satellite systems like the Jovian (outer) planets? How does the solar nebula theory explain the dramatic density difference between the terrestrial and Jovian planets? If planets formed with one of the first stars to form in our galaxy, how would these planets be different from the planets of our solar system? How does plate tectonics create and destroy the Earths crust? What evidence do we have that plate tectonics does not occur on Venus or Mars? If we visited a planet in another solar system and discovered oxygen in its atmosphere, what might we predict about that planets surface? What does density tell us about the planets internal structure? Compare the densities of the outer planets to the inner planets. Why is there such a difference? Some planets have a strong magnetic field and some are only weak. What does this indicate about the structure and/or composition of these planets? Draw a diagram to explain why Mercury and Venus show phases similar to the Moon. Planets like Mercury and Venus show evidence of lava flows. What does this suggest about there history? Compare and contrast the atmospheres of the terrestrial planets. Suggest possible factors which may have contributed to changes in the atmospheres of these planets since their formation. It has been stated in some sources that Venus atmosphere could once have supported life. What evidence is there to suggest this?

14.

7.6

The Jovians

The Jovian planets are also known as the outer planets which are Jupiter to Pluto. Read the accounts of these planets in the relevant chapters of your text and answer the following discussion questions. Discussion questions 1. 2. Why are the belts and zones on Saturn less distinctive than those on Jupiter? How can a satellite (moon) produce a gap in the rings of Jupiter or Saturn?

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3.

What evidence do we have that catastrophic impacts have been common in our solar systems history?

Comets
The sudden and unheralded appearances in our sky, the abnormal paths they take across the celestial sphere, and the extraordinary spectacle that a large comet can produce, make comets the most remarkable of heavenly bodies visible to the unaided eye. Comets are nebulous bodies that revolve around the Sun in elongated ellipses often inclined at a considerable angle to the orbits of the planets. A comet may appear suddenly in any direction from the depths of space, rush past the Earth and round the Sun, and disappear in possibly quite another part of the sky. Because of the great distance between the Earth and a comet it moves slowly among the background stars. A typical comet consists of a bright nucleus, surrounded by a luminous cloud, the coma. The coma and nucleus together make up the head. The tail, if present, is usually a fainter streak of cloudy material joined to the head. The tail always points away from the Sun. Comets are always brightest when near the Sun, and are then seen in the western sky at sunset, or in the east at sunrise, their tails pointing upward from the horizon. The luminosity of a comet is due to solar radiation - gas molecules are ionised by the Suns ultraviolet radiation and the nucleus thus emits light. The solar wind forces gas and dust away from the comet and these shine by reflected light forming the coma and tail. As a comet approaches the Sun, its tail grows longer and larger, and the whole object brightens. As it swings around the Sun, the tail, still streaming away from the Sun, swings round also, so that it precedes the comet in its outward journey. Most comets are not seen like this. Most are small nebulous objects, vague in form, and without any kind of central condensation. Size. Even small comets have a head diameter of at least 15,000 km, the average size being from 50,000 to 250,000 km in diameter. The biggest ever observed was the great comet of 1811, whose enormous diameter of almost 2,000,000 km was greater than the diameter of the Sun itself. The tails of great comets are even more tremendous; the great comet of 1843 had a tail 320 million km in length, over twice the Earth-Sun distance. The apparent size of a comet depends on both its actual size and its distance from the Earth and Sun; thats why the great comet of 1861 had a tail no less than 118 in length, although it was by no means the largest of comets. Mass. Although comets may be enormous in size, their masses are always small. This may be estimated by the absence of perturbative effects, e.g. Comet Lexell crossed the orbits of the inner satellites of Jupiter in 1779, yet although the orbits of the satellites were in no way affected, the orbit of the comet was completely altered and it has never been seen since. It is concluded that the mass of the comet must have been less than one-millionth the mass of the Earth. Because of their small masses and large size, the mean density of comets must be extremely low - about half an ounce per cubic mile.

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Composition and Structure. There are several theories as to the physical structure of comets. Here we will mention only the two most acceptable models. In the first model, the nucleus is a mixture of ice-conglomerate consisting of a highly porous mass of solidified gases or ices of water, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide and dicyanogen. The mass also includes some solidified particles. The second model sees the comet nucleus and coma as a gigantic particle cloud of gas and dust particles whose mean distance of separation is large but concentrated towards the centre, giving rise to the appearance of a nucleus. The fact that most comets have little or no central solid mass is shown by the comet of 1862 and Halleys Comet of 1910 which both passed between the Earth and Sun, but nothing was seen of them as they passed across the face of the Sun. By planetary standards, the mass of comets is very small but they are by no means negligible. The collision of the Earth with a comet moving at several km per second would be catastrophic. The great explosion at Tungus, Siberia, in 1908 which was equal to a multi-megaton atomic explosion, is consistent with the theory that it was due to collision with a small comet. The spectra of comet nuclei show prominent lines of sodium also neutral iron, nickel, chromium, silicon, manganese and neutral and ionized calcium. The coma and tail show C2, CH, CN, OH, NH, NH2, CH2 and the ions N2+, CO+, CH+ and OH+, all of which are unstable and owe their existence to the extremely low density and freedom from collisions. Origins of the Comets. The precise origin of comets is not known. They may come from interstellar space, perhaps the residue left over from ancient star formation or perhaps they are created by shock waves as the Sun and other stars collide with dense interstellar clouds of gas and dust. On the other hand, they may be the rubble left over from the formation of the Solar System; perhaps great numbers of them orbit at a distance well beyond the orbit of Pluto. In either case, perturbations due to the motion of stars, can throw a comet on a path towards the sun. If the path of the comet takes it too close to a planet its orbit will be altered, and the comet captured, as is the case for Comet Halley and other periodic comets. Subsequent encounters with the planets can further alter a comets path. In this way some periodic comets are lost back into interstellar space.

7.7

The comets

Read the accounts of comets in the relevant chapters of your text and answer the following discussion questions. Discussion questions 1. 2. 3. How do observations of meteor showers reveal one of the sources of meteoroids? What evidence do we have that asteroids are possibly fragments of planetoids? How does the composition of meteorites give us an insight into planetary structures?
QUT

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The Changing Sky

4. 5. 6.

What evidence is there to support the dirty snowball model of the nuclei of comets? Why do short period comets tend to have orbits near the plane of the solar system? Describe the differences between impact craters of comets and meteorites on the earths surface. Name some examples of craters in Australia.

February, 2003

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