Context

THOUGH IT IS OFTEN VIEWED both as the archetypal Anglo-Saxon l terary !or" an# as a cornerstone o$ %o#ern l terat&re' Beowulf has a pec&l ar h story that co%pl cates both ts h stor cal an# ts canon cal pos t on n Engl sh l terat&re( )y the t %e the story o$ Beowulf !as co%pose# by an &n"no!n Anglo-Saxon poet aro&n# *++ A(D(' %&ch o$ ts %ater al ha# been n c rc&lat on n oral narrat ,e $or %any years( The Anglo-Saxon an# Scan# na, an peoples ha# n,a#e# the slan# o$ )r ta n an# settle# there se,eral h&n#re# years earl er' br ng ng ! th the% se,eral closely relate# Ger%an c lang&ages that !o&l# e,ol,e nto Ol# Engl sh( Ele%ents o$ the Beowulf story- ncl&# ng ts sett ng an# characters-#ate bac" to the per o# be$ore the % grat on( The act on o$ the poe% ta"es place aro&n# .++ A(D( /any o$ the characters n the poe%-the S!e# sh an# Dan sh royal $a% ly %e%bers' $or exa%ple-correspon# to act&al h stor cal $ g&res( Or g nally pagan !arr ors' the Anglo-Saxon an# Scan# na, an n,a#ers exper ence# a large-scale con,ers on to 0hr st an ty at the en# o$ the s xth cent&ry( Tho&gh st ll an ol# pagan story' Beowulf th&s ca%e to be tol# by a 0hr st an poet( The Beowulf poet s o$ten at pa ns to attr b&te 0hr st an tho&ghts an# %ot ,es to h s characters' !ho $re1&ently beha,e n # st nctly &n-0hr st an !ays( The Beowulf that !e rea# to#ay s there$ore probably 1& te &nl "e the Beowulf ! th !h ch the $ rst Anglo-Saxon a&# ences !ere $a% l ar( The ele%ent o$ rel g o&s tens on s 1& te co%%on n 0hr st an Anglo-Saxon !r t ngs 2 The Dream of the Rood' $or exa%ple3' b&t the co%b nat on o$ a pagan story ! th a 0hr st an narrator s $a rly &n&s&al( The plot o$ the poe% concerns Scan# na, an c&lt&re' b&t %&ch o$ the poe%4s narrat ,e nter,ent on re,eals that the poet4s c&lt&re !as so%e!hat # $$erent $ro% that o$ h s ancestors' an# that o$ h s characters as !ell( The !orl# that Beowulf #ep cts an# the hero c co#e o$ honor that #e$ nes %&ch o$ the story s a rel c o$ pre-Anglo-Saxon c&lt&re( The story s set n Scan# na, a' be$ore the % grat on( Tho&gh t s a tra# t onal story-part o$ a Ger%an c oral tra# t on-the poe% as !e ha,e t s tho&ght to be the !or" o$ a s ngle poet( It !as co%pose# n Englan# 2not n Scan# na, a3 an# s h stor cal n ts perspect ,e' recor# ng the ,al&es an# c&lt&re o$ a bygone era( /any o$ those ,al&es' ncl&# ng the hero c co#e' !ere st ll operat ,e to so%e #egree n !hen the poe% !as !r tten( These ,al&es ha# e,ol,e# to so%e extent n the nter,en ng cent&r es an# !ere cont n& ng to change( In the Scan# na, an !orl# o$ the story' t ny tr bes o$ people rally aro&n# strong " ngs' !ho protect the r people $ro% #anger-espec ally $ro% con$rontat ons ! th other tr bes( The !arr or c&lt&re that res&lts $ro% th s early $e&#al arrange%ent s extre%ely %portant' both to the story an# to o&r &n#erstan# ng o$ Saxon c , l 5at on( Strong " ngs #e%an# bra,ery an# loyalty $ro% the r !arr ors' !ho% they repay ! th treas&res !on n !ar( /ea#-halls s&ch as Heorot n Beowulf !ere places !here !arr ors !o&l# gather n the presence o$ the r lor# to #r n"' boast' tell stor es' an# rece ,e g $ts( Altho&gh these %ea#-halls o$$ere# sanct&ary' the early / ##le Ages !ere a #angero&s t %e' an# the parano # sense o$ $orebo# ng an# #oo% that r&ns thro&gho&t Beowulf e, #ences the constant $ear o$ n,as on that plag&e# Scan# na, an soc ety( Only a s ngle %an&scr pt o$ Beowulf s&r, ,e# the Anglo-Saxon era( For %any cent&r es' the %an&scr pt !as all b&t $orgotten' an#' n the 6*++s' t !as nearly #estroye# n a $ re( It !as not &nt l the n neteenth cent&ry that ! #esprea# nterest n the #oc&%ent e%erge# a%ong scholars an# translators o$ Ol# Engl sh( For the $ rst h&n#re# years o$ Beowulf4s pro% nence' nterest n the poe% !as pr %ar ly h stor cal-the text !as , e!e# as a so&rce o$ n$or%at on abo&t the Anglo-Saxon era( It !as not &nt l 6789' !hen the Ox$or# scholar :(;(;( Tol" en 2!ho later !rote The Hobbit an# The Lord of the Rings' !or"s hea, ly n$l&ence# by Beowulf3 p&bl she# a gro&n#brea" ng paper ent tle# <Beowulf= The /onsters an# the 0r t cs> that the %an&scr pt ga ne# recogn t on as a ser o&s !or" o$ art( Beowulf s no! ! #ely ta&ght an# s o$ten presente# as the $ rst %portant !or" o$ Engl sh l terat&re' creat ng the %press on that Beowulf s n so%e !ay the so&rce o$ the Engl sh canon( )&t beca&se t !as not ! #ely rea# &nt l the 6?++s an# not ! #ely regar#e# as an %portant 6

art!or" &nt l the 67++s' Beowulf has ha# l ttle # rect %pact on the #e,elop%ent o$ Engl sh poetry( In $act' 0ha&cer' Sha"espeare' /arlo!e' @ope' Shelley' Aeats' an# %ost other %portant Engl sh !r ters be$ore the 678+s ha# l ttle or no "no!le#ge o$ the ep c( It !as not &nt l the % #to-late t!ent eth cent&ry that )eo!&l$ began to n$l&ence !r ters' an#' s nce then' t has ha# a %ar"e# %pact on the !or" o$ %any %portant no,el sts an# poets' ncl&# ng W(H( A&#en' Geo$$rey H ll' Te# H&ghes' an# Sea%&s Heaney' the 677. rec p ent o$ the Nobel @r 5e n l terat&re' !hose recent translat on o$ the ep c s the e# t on &se# $or th s Spar"Note( Old English Poetry Beowulf s o$ten re$erre# to as the $ rst %portant !or" o$ l terat&re n Engl sh' e,en tho&gh t !as !r tten n Ol# Engl sh' an anc ent $or% o$ the lang&age that slo!ly e,ol,e# nto the Engl sh no! spo"en( 0o%pare# to %o#ern Engl sh' Ol# Engl sh s hea, ly Ger%an c' ! th l ttle n$l&ence $ro% Bat n or French( As Engl sh h story #e,elope#' a$ter the French Nor%ans con1&ere# the Anglo-Saxons n 6+99' Ol# Engl sh !as gra#&ally broa#ene# by o$$er ngs $ro% those lang&ages( Th&s %o#ern Engl sh s #er ,e# $ro% a n&%ber o$ so&rces( As a res&lt' ts ,ocab&lary s r ch ! th synony%s( The !or# <" ngly'> $or nstance' #escen#s $ro% the AngloSaxon !or# cyning' %ean ng <" ng'> !h le the synony% <royal> co%es $ro% a French !or# an# the synony% <regal> $ro% a Bat n !or#( Fort&nately' %ost st&#ents enco&nter ng Beowulf rea# t n a $or% translate# nto %o#ern Engl sh( St ll' a $a% l ar ty ! th the r&# %ents o$ Anglo-Saxon poetry enables a #eeper &n#erstan# ng o$ the Beowulf text( Ol# Engl sh poetry s h ghly $or%al' b&t ts $or% s 1& te &nl "e anyth ng n %o#ern Engl sh( Each l ne o$ Ol# Engl sh poetry s # , #e# nto t!o hal,es' separate# by a caes&ra' or pa&se' an# s o$ten represente# by a gap on the page' as the $ollo! ng exa%ple #e%onstrates= )eca&se Anglo-Saxon poetry ex ste# n oral tra# t on long be$ore t !as !r tten #o!n' the ,erse $or% conta ns co%pl cate# r&les $or all terat on #es gne# to help scops' or poets' re%e%ber the %any tho&san#s o$ l nes they !ere re1& re# to "no! by heart( Each o$ the t!o hal,es o$ an Anglo-Saxon l ne conta ns t!o stresse# syllables' an# an all terat ,e pattern must be carr e# o,er across the caes&ra( Any o$ the stresse# syllables %ay all terate except the last syllableC so the $ rst an# secon# syllables %ay all terate ! th the th r# together' or the $ rst an# th r# %ay all terate alone' or the secon# an# th r# %ay all terate alone( For nstance= Lade ne letton. Leoht eastan com. Lade, letton, leoht' an# eastan are the $o&r stresse# !or#s( In a## t on to these r&les' Ol# Engl sh poetry o$ten $eat&res a # st nct ,e set o$ rhetor cal #e, ces( The %ost co%%on o$ these s the kenning' &se# thro&gho&t Beowulf( A "enn ng s a short %etaphor cal #escr pt on o$ a th ng &se# n place o$ the th ng4s na%eC th&s a sh p % ght be calle# a <sea-r #er'> or a " ng a <r ng-g ,er(> So%e translat ons e%ploy "enn ngs al%ost as $re1&ently as they appear n the or g nal( Others %o#erate the &se o$ "enn ngs n #e$erence to a %o#ern sens b l ty( )&t the Ol# Engl sh ,ers on o$ the ep c s $&ll o$ the%' an# they are perhaps the %ost %portant rhetor cal #e, ce present n Ol# Engl sh poetry(