Fixity of species is a term which means all species remained unchanged throughout the history of the earth.
This belief is generally not accepted by the majority in present times because of the vast amount of evidence supporting evolution.
The inheritance of acquired characteristics is a hypothesis that physiological changes acquired over the life of an organism (such as the enlargement of a muscle through repeated use) may be transmitted to offspring. It is also commonly referred to as the theory of adaptation equated with the evolutionary theory of French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck known as Lamarckism.
Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden, short-lived, violent [1] events, possibly worldwide in scope. The dominant paradigm of modern geology is uniformitarianism (sometimes described as gradualism), in which slow incremental changes, such as erosion, create the Earth's appearance. This view holds that the present is the key to the past, and that all things continue as they were from the beginning of the world. Recently a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed, changing the scientific consensus to accept some catastrophic events in the geologic past. This held that there have been violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of major mountain chains. Plants and animals living in those parts of the world where such events occurred were often killed off, according to the 19th-century French scientist Georges Cuvier. Then new life forms moved in from other areas. As a result, the fossil record for a region shows abrupt changes in species. Cuvier's explanation relied solely on scientific evidence rather than biblical interpretation.
Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by Charles Darwin and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory. It originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance when Charles Darwinpublished On the Origin of Species, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, [1] the Weismann barrier or in genetics the central dogma of molecular biology. Though it usually refers strictly to biological evolution, the term has been used by creationists to refer to the origin of life, and has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both fields which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's, and his predecessors, work in [2][3] place of other theories including divine design and extraterrestrial origins. The meaning of "Darwinism" has changed over time, and varies depending on its context. In the United States, the term "Darwinism" is often used by creationists as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as atheistic naturalism, but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, evolution by natural [5] selection. The term was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in April 1860, and was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts such as Spencerism. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and
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Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During this period, which has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an [7] updated form. While the term has remained in use amongst scientific authors when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary [5][8] [9] theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of yet more recent [10] developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift for example.
Evidence for Evolution
During and since Darwin's time, people have been looking for and studying evidence in nature that teaches them more about evolution. Some types of evidence, such as fossils and similarities between related living organisms, were used by Darwin to develop his theory of natural selection, and are still used today. Others, such as DNA testing, were not available in Darwin's time, but are used by scientists today to learn more about evolution. Five types of evidence for evolution are discussed in this section: ancient organism remains, fossil layers, similarities among organisms alive today, similarities in DNA, and similarities of embryos. Another important type of evidence that Darwin studied and that is still studied and used today is artificial selection, or breeding.
1. EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION Fossil Record Biochemical Comparative Anatomy Observable Events
2. EVOLUTION IS Genetic change in a population through time . 3. Charles Darwin On his journey around the world, Darwin found evidence of gradual change (evolution). Darwin cited evidences he found in fossil records, geographic distribution and homologous structures.
4. Evidences of Evolution Today most evidences for evolution are grouped into four main categories: Biochemical Fossil Record Comparative Anatomy Observable Events
5. 1 - FOSSIL RECORD Paleontology study of fossils Fossil remains or traces of an organism that lived long ago Remains: ex. bone, tooth, or shell Traces: ex. burrow, footprint, or imprint
6. 1 - FOSSIL RECORD Most fossils are found in layered sedimentary rock Oldest fossils are on the lowest layer
7. 1 - FOSSIL RECORD Comparing fossils from different layers shows: Life on Earth has changed Increased number of life forms
8. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL THE GENETIC CODE Triplets of DNA nitrogen-base sequences that code for specific amino acids The amino acid triplet is the same in almost all organisms.
9. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL The similarity of triplet DNA codes making-up amino acids shows: A probable common ancestor for all life on Earth
10. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL Universal GENETIC CODE Similar genes Over the ages, the genetic code has passed unchanged (or nearly so) from parent to offspring.
11. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL AMINO ACID SEQUENCING The amino acid sequence in a particular protein is compared between organisms. Number of differences from human hemoglobin 45 1 67 8 27 125
12. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL Comparing amino acid sequence shows: Closeness of relationship A probable common ancestor Amino Acid Difference in Hemoglobin Compared with Human Human hemoglobin has 146 amino acids Amino Acid Sequencing is probably the STRONGEST evidence for relationships among organisms. Species Difference Gorilla 1 Rhesus Monkey 8 Mouse 27 Chicken 45 Frog 67 Lamprey 125
13. 2 - BIOCHEMICAL CLADOGRAM: diagram that shows the evolutionary relationship among a group of organisms. What organism belongs at each branch? Amino Acid Difference in Hemoglobin Compared with Human G F E D C B A Common ancestor Where would the common ancestor be? Species Difference Gorilla 1 Monkey 8 Mouse 27 Chicken 45 Frog 67 Lamprey 125 Number of Amino Acid Differences 150 100 50 0 40 20 30 10
14. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES structures with similar structure but different function ex: limbs of vertebrates (turtle, alligator, bird, mammal) Turtle Alligator Bird Mammal
15. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Homologous structures show Similar genes Descent from a common ancestor Turtle Alligator Bird Mammal Ancient lobe-finned fish
16. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES organs so reduced in size that they are nonfunctioning remnants of similar organs in other species ex: human tailbone, appendix, whale pelvis
17. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Vestigial structures show: an organisms evolutionary past a common ancestor with species that have similar structures that are still functioning
18. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY EMBRYOLOGY Embryos of different species may appear similar in early stages of development ex: vertebrate development
19. 3 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Comparison of similarities in embryos can show: Relationship to a common ancestor
20. 4 - OBSERVABLE EVENTS Some changes in species have been observed and studied: Peter & Rosemary Grants Study of Beak Size Shift in Darwins Finches H. Kettlewells Study of Peppered Moth Color Shifts
21. 4 - OBSERVABLE EVENTS Observable events show that evolution is an ongoing process Peter & Rosemary Grants Study of Beak Size Shift in Darwins Finches H. Kettlewells Study of Peppered Moth Color Shifts
22. Works Cited Geographic Distribution of Organisms photo: Miller, Kenneth and Levine, Joseph. (2004). Biology . Prentice Hall.
organic evolution - (biology) the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms Microevolution is the changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift.
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Macroevolution is evolution on a scale of separated gene pools.[1] Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species, in contrast withmicroevolution,[2] which refers to smaller evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population.[3] Contrary to claims bycreationists, macro and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different time scales.[1][4]
Natural selection is the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. It is a key mechanism of evolution. The term "natural selection" was popularized by Charles Darwin who intended it to be compared with artificial selection, which is now called selective breeding.
Pre-conditions for natural selection. The preconditions to natural selection are excess fecundity and the consequent competition for limited resources. Weeds produce many more seed than will survive. Many more seed germinate and form seedlings than will mature to produce their own seed. Only the successful competitors will reproduce, mortality is very high. Four (4) conditions for natural selection. Four conditions are needed for natural selection to occur: reproduction, heredity, variation in fitness or organisms, variation in individual characters among members of the population. If they are met, natural selection automatically results. 1: Reproduction: the act or process of producing offspring
A condition necessary for evolution to occur is that a parent plant produces more offspring than can normally survive. The net (average) result of reproduction is that a parent plant leaves one descendant that reproduces, yet many more are produced that die. See Life History for full treatments of reproduction in weedy populations. 2: Heredity: the mechanism of transmission of specific characters or traits from parent to offspring. inheritance: the transmission of genetic information from ancestors or parents to descendants or offspring. A condition necessary for evolution to occur is that the traits of the "fittest" phenotypes that survive are inherited by the successful progeny. The offspring must tend to resemble their parents. Molecular genetics and biochemistry provide significant information about how this process occurs. 3: Variation in fitness of organisms. Definitions of fitness: 1: the average number of offspring produced by individuals with a certain genotype, relative to the numbers produced by individuals with other genotypes. 2: the relative competitive ability of a given genotype conferred by adaptive morphological, physiological or behavioral characters, expressed and usually quantified as the average number of surviving progeny of one genotype compared with the average number of surviving progeny of competing genotypes; a measure of the contribution of a given genotype to the subsequent generation relative to that of other genotypes A condition necessary for evolution to occur is variation in fitness of organisms according to the state they have for a heritable character. Individuals in the population with some characters must be more likely to reproduce, more fit. Organisms in a population vary in reproductive success. We will discuss fitness in Life History when we discuss competition, interference and the effects of neighbor plants. See also pages on Fitness & Fecundity in the reproductive life history section. 4: Variation in individual characters among members of the population
Darwin's Conditions for Natural Selection Understood correctly natural selection is not itself a mechanism. Rather, it is the outcome of the operation of three mechanisms: Variety: There are always variations between the characteristics of the members of any population of living organisms. These variations need not be extreme, as illustrated by the relatively large changes that animal and plant breeders have accomplished, using relatively slight differences in physical appearance and
behavior among domestic animals and plants. Heredity: The different variations noted above must be heritable from parents to offspring. Darwin couldnt propose a mechanism for such inheritance, as none was known at the time. Inste ad, he simply appealed to the common sense and experience of his readers, counting on them to grant that variations (however acquired) are generally heritable from parents to offspring. Fecundity: Living organisms have a tendency to produce more offspring than can possibly survive. Among those individuals that survive, those that also reproduce pass on to their offspring whatever characteristics made it possible for them to survive and reproduce. This was the missing piece in his theory that Darwin got from his reading of Malthus essay on population.
Given these three pre-conditions, the following outcome is virtually inevitable: Non-random, unequal survival and reproduction. Survival and reproduction are almost never random. Instead, individuals survive and successfully reproduce at least partly as a result of their characteristics. It is these characteristics that provide the basis for evolutionary adaptations. Darwin had no empirical (i.e. "observational") evidence for natural selection. Instead, he used imaginary examples and analogies to animal and plant breeding. In particular, he began to study the processes of animal and plant breeding very intensively, culminating in an essay that he wrote on the subject in 1842, which he later revised in 1844, and finally published as part of the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin began the Origin of Species by arguing that the various breeds of domesticated pigeons are analogous to the products of natural selection. He pointed out that all domesticated pigeon breeds are descendants of the wild rock dove (Columba livia). He went on to note that, although "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", they are not separate species. However, they are at least as different from each other as natural species are in the wild. From his interviews with pigeon breeders, Darwin concluded that pigeon breeders of his time believed that all of the various breeds of pigeons were derived from separate kinds of pigeons that existed in the wild. That is, that no evolution or selection had taken place to produce such breeds. Darwin concluded otherwise: that all 700+ breeds of pigeons had been derived from the wild rock dove by means of artificial selection. He asserted that pigeon breeders were denying the evidence right in front of them: that their choices of breeding pairs were shaping the breeds that exist. Darwin asserted that most of the artificial selection done by animal and plant breeders was probably done unconsciously, by breeders choosing desirable traits among their domesticated animals and plants.
