obesity reviews

doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00908.x
Supplement: Fat Metabolism
Key Papers from a meeting organized by the Product Research Group of
Lucozade Sport
Fat burners: nutrition supplements that increase
fat metabolismobr_908 841..851
A. E. Jeue!dru" #!d $. $#!de%%
&'(oo% o) &"ort #!d
Exer'ise &'ie!'es*
+!iversity o)
,ir-i!.(#-*
,ir-i!.(#-* +/
Received 3 March 20!
revised 2 "une
20! accepted 2 "une
20
Address )or
'orres"o!de!'e: 0ro)essor
AE Jeue!dru"* &'(oo% o)
&"ort #!d Exer'ise
&'ie!'es* +!iversity o)
,ir-i!.(#-* Ed.b#sto!*
,ir-i!.(#- ,11 222* +/.
E--#i%:
#.e.jeue!dru"3b(#-.#'.
u
841
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obesity reviews
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00908.x
obesity reviews
842 8#t bur!ers #$ %$ "eu&endrup ' R$ Rande((
S
u
m
m
a
r
y
The term fat burner is used
to describe nutrition
supplements that are claimed
to acutely increase fat
metabolism or energy
ependiture! impair fat
absorption! increase "eight
loss! increase fat oidation
during eercise! or
someho" cause long#term
adaptations that promote
fat metabolism. $ften!
these supplements contain a
number of ingredients! each "ith its o"n proposed mechanism
of action and it is often claimed that the combination of these
substances "ill ha%e additi%e effects. The list of supplements
that are claimed to increase or impro%e fat metabolism is
long& the most popular supplements include caffeine!
carnitine! green tea! con'ugated linoleic acid! fors(olin!
chromium! (elp and fucoanthin. )n this re%ie" the e%idence
for some of these supplements is briefly summari*ed. +ased
on the a%ailable literature! caffeine and green tea ha%e data to
bac( up its fat metabolism#enhancing properties. ,or many
other supplements! although some sho" some promise!
e%idence is lac(ing. The list of supplements is industry# dri%en
and is li(ely to gro" at a rate that is not matched by a similar
increase in scientific underpinning.
Keywords: -affeine, carnitine, con'ugated linoleic acid,
fors(olin, green tea,
taurin
e.
obesity reviews 92011: 12* 8417811
Introducti
on
$ne of the most popular categories of
nutrition supplements is often referred to as
fat burners. The reasons for the popularity
of these supplements generally include the
pro# posed impro%ements in health!
impro%ements in perfor# mance! "eight loss
or a combination of these factors. The term
fat burner is used to describe nutrition
supplements that are claimed to acutely
increase fat metabolism or energy
ependiture! impair fat absorption! increase
"eight loss! increase fat oidation during
eercise! or someho" cause long#term
adaptations that promote fat metabolism .,ig.
1/. $ften! these supplements contain a
number of ingredients!
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obesity reviews
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00908.x
each "ith its o"n proposed mechanism of
action. )t is often claimed that the
combination of a number of these sub#
stances "ill ha%e additi%e effects. The
ad%ertisements for many of these
supplements are often accompanied by too#
good#to#be#true before and after photographs
of indi%idu# als. The purpose of this re%ie" is
to eamine the e%idence for a number of the
most popular ingredients that are proposed to
enhance fat metabolism in some "ay and0or
the supple# ments that ha%e some research to
support or not support their use. )t is beyond
the scope of this short re%ie" to discuss all
a%ailable supplements .Table 1/ that appear in
this rather dynamic mar(et. There "ill be a
focus on studies performed in humans "hen
these studies are a%ailable.
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Figure 1 2(e i!ter#'tio! o) ;)#t bur!ers< o! i!'re#si!. )#t -et#bo%is- #!d "ro-oti!.
wei.(t %oss.
Table 1 8#t bur!ers
Caffeine =i(ydroxy#'eto!e
Conugated linoleic acid
>#%'iu-
>(o%i!e
!reen tea e"tracts 0yruv#te
?ydroxy'itr#te 9?>A: @eu'i!e
Chromium @i"#se Fors#olin
@e'it(i! A# (u#!. ,et#-sitostero%
Fuco"anthin $elp >#ye!!e "e""er
9>#"s#i'i!:
B#r'i!i#
'#-bo.i#
5!osito% %pigallocatechin&
'&gallate (%!C!)
>#"s#i'i! Taurine Tea
(C*
+) Carnitine
E"(edr# 0sy%%iu-
is etensi%ely metaboli*ed by the
cytochrome 1#450 oidase system "ith 213
45 being ecreted in the urine as free
caffeine.
6 lot of the interest in the effects of caffeine
on metabo#
A %ist o) #v#i%#b%e su""%e-e!ts t(#t (#ve
bee! "ro"osed to i!'re#se )#t -et#bo%is-.
&u""%e-e!ts i! bo%d wi%% be dis'ussed i!
t(is review.
Caffein
e
-affeine .1!4!7#trimethylanthine/ is an
al(aloid deri%a# ti%e found naturally in! and
added to! a %ariety of foods and be%erages.
8ost of the caffeinated be%erages con#
sumed "orld"ide are etracted from coffee
beans or tea lea%es or eaten as chocolate
deri%ed from the cacao bean. There are a
%ariety of other metabolites in coffee and tea
including other al(aloids .theobromine!
paraanthine! theophylline/ and polyphenols
.tannins and fla%onoids/. -onsumption of
caffeine containing tablets and supple#
mented foods should not be directly e9uated to
the consumption of tea and coffee!
especially from a health perspecti%e.
-affeine is absorbed from foods and be#
%erages "ith a time to pea( plasma
concentration of
40390 min and half#life of approimately 43
: h. -affeine
tions. The theory "as de%eloped that
caffeine mobili*ed fat and spared muscle
glycogen resulting in performance
enhancement. ;ater! these t"o effects ha%e
been dissociated from each other! and the
ergogenic effect of caffeine is more li(ely due
to central mechanisms.
<e%ertheless! caffeine has been sho"n to
increase sym# pathetic ner%ous system
.=<=/ acti%ity! liberating fatty acids from
the adipose and0or intramuscular stores.
This mechanism! occurring indirectly
through increased circu# lating adrenaline
le%els! has the potential to enhance the
a%ailability of fatty acids for oidation.
-affeine has also been associated "ith a more
direct effect on lipolysis. )t has been suggested
from in vitro studies that caffeine inhibits
phosphodiesterase .4/! the en*yme responsible
for degrad# ing cyclic 681 .c681/. 6n
increase in the c681 half#life enhances
lipolysis! subse9uently increasing fatty acid
a%ail# ability for fuel use. >hether such an
effect also plays a role in vivo is unclear.
-affeine has sho"n to elicit short#term
thermogenic effects .43:/. 6cheson et al. .4/
found that administering
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a high dose of caffeine .8 mg (g
#1
/
significantly increased resting metabolic rate
.?8?/ .@0 (A m
#@
h
#1
/ in the 4 h after
ingestion. )nterestingly! in the final hour of
mea# surements! fat oidation "as
significantly higher after caffeine ingestion
compared to placebo! reaching 75
4 mg min
#1
. )n agreement "ith these
findings! Bulloo et al. .5/ reported that
e%en a lo" dose of caffeine .100 mg/ has
the potential to induce a thermogenic effect
at rest. $%er a 150#min period! ?8? "as
increased by
4345 in both lean and post#obese
indi%iduals. )n the same study! ?8? "as
further augmented "hen repeated doses .@#
h inter%als o%er 1@ h/ of caffeine "ere
ingested .83115 increase/ .5/. )t is un(no"n
"hether this increase "as due to increased
fat oidation! increased carbohy# drate
oidation or both. 6strup et al. .7/
obser%ed a linear dose#dependent response
of caffeine ingestion on energy ependiture.
Co"e%er! this "as attributed to e9ual
increases in both fat and carbohydrate
oidation! as res# piratory 9uotient .?D/ did
not differ from placebo. )n a follo"#up
study! 6strup et al. .8/ supplemented
obese patients "ith caffeine! o%er a @4#"ee(
period! "hile on an energy#restricted diet.
$%er time! there "as a pronounced "eight
loss in indi%iduals that consumed both the
caffeine and placebo supplement. Co"e%er!
total "eight loss did not differ bet"een
these t"o groups. )n the same study! "hen
ephedrine .a (no"n stimulant of the
=<=/ "as ingested alongside caffeine! "eight
loss "as significantly greater than the
placebo group .1:.: :.8 (g %s.
14.@ :.: (g respecti%ely/! proposing a
supra#additi%e effect on thermogenesis and
body "eight "ith a combi# nation of t"o
=<= stimulants. This "as also sho"n more
recently in a study in "hich :#month ingestion
of an ephedra0caffeine supplement
promoted body "eight .#5.4 5.0 (g/
and body fat .#4.4 4.4 (g/ reduction
compared to placebo .9/. The obser%ation
that ingestion of green tea3caffeine
supplement did not sho" greater "eight
maintenance in a group of habitually high#
caffeine consumers suggests that sensiti%ity
to caffeine could be lost o%er a period of time
.10/. Thus! acute caffeine inges# tion has the
potential to enhance metabolism! but it may
not be potent enough alone to act as a
"eight loss product if ingested o%er a
longer period of time or in habitually high#
caffeine consumers.
)n summary! in some circumstances
caffeine can increase energy ependiture .at
rest/ or fat oidation .at rest and during
lo"#intensity eercise/! but these effects are
less ob%ious during moderate# to high#
intensity eer# cise. -affeine on its o"n has
not been sho"n to be effec# ti%e in reducing
body "eight and if caffeine increases fat
metabolism! the effects are generally small
.E@05/. $f course! it cannot be ecluded
that such changes still ha%e significant
practical %alue. ,or a complete re%ie" of
the effects of caffeine on substrate
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metabolism! see Fraham et al. .11/. *&
carnitine
>#r!iti!e i! t(e
body
;#carnitine .carnitine/! a substance present
in relati%ely large 9uantities in meat .the
;atin "ord caro#carnis means meat or
muscle/! has recei%ed a lot of attention o%er
the past @0 years. -arnitine is claimed to
impro%e fat metabo# lism! reduce fat mass and
increase muscle mass. Therefore! carnitine is
often used to lose "eight! reduce body fat and
impro%e sharpness. Gndurance athletes use
carnitine to increase the oidation of fat and
spare muscle glycogen.
;#carnitine is deri%ed from red meats and
dairy products in the diet and from
endogenous production in the body. G%en
"hen dietary carnitine is insufficient! healthy
humans produce enough from methionine
and lysine to maintain functional body
stores .for this reason! carnitine is not
regarded as a %itamin! but as a %itamin#li(e
substance/. -ar# nitine is synthesi*ed in the
li%er and (idney! "hich together contain only
1.:5 of the 2@7 g "hole#body carnitine
store. 6bout 985 of the carnitine of the
human body is present in s(eletal and heart
muscle. =(eletal muscle and the heart are
dependent upon transport of carnitine
through the circula# tion! "hich contains
about 0.55 of "hole#body carnitine.
8uscle ta(es carnitine up against a %ery large
.21!000#fold/ concentration gradient .plasma
carnitine is 403:0 mmol ;
#1
! and muscle
carnitine is 4 mmol ;
#1
to 5 mmol ;
#1
/ by a
saturable acti%e transport process.
-arnitine is an end product of human
metabolism and is only lost from the body %ia
ecretion in urine and stool. Baily losses are
minimal .E:0 mg d
#1
/ and are reduced to less
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than @0 mg d
#1
on meat# free and carnitine#free
diets .1@/. These minimal losses imply that the
rate of endogenous biosynthesis! "hich is
needed to maintain functional body stores!
is also only about
@0 mg d
#1
. The amounts lost in stool can
usually be ignored ecept after ingestion of
oral supplements.
2(e ro%e o) '#r!iti!e i! )#t
-et#bo%is-
;#carnitine plays an important role in fat
metabolism. )n the o%ernight fasted state and
during eercise of lo" to moderate intensity!
long#chain fatty acids are the main energy
sources used by most tissues! including
s(eletal muscle. The primary function of ;#
carnitine is to transport long#chain fatty acids
across the mitochondrial inner mem# brane!
as the inner membrane is impermeable to both
long# chain fatty acids and fatty acyl#-o6
esters .1@/. $nce inside the mitochondria!
fatty acids can be degraded to acetyl#-o6
through b#oidation and proceed to the
tricar# boylic acid cycle. -arnitine also
plays an important role in maintaining the
mitochondrial acetyl#-o60-o6=C ratio!
"hich is a regulator of the flu through the
pyru%ate dehydrogenase .1BC/ comple and
thus carbohydrate metabolism .14!14/.
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>#r!iti!e #!d )#t
-et#bo%is-
The belief that carnitine supplementation
helps "eight loss is based on the assumption
that regular oral ingestion of carnitine
increases the muscle carnitine
concentration. 6nother assumption is that if
carnitine concentration in the muscle
increases! fat oidation also increases! thus
lead# ing to a gradual loss of the body fat
stores. -arefully conducted studies .15!1:/
ha%e demonstrated clearly that oral carnitine
ingestion .up to : g d
#1
for 14 days/ does not
change the muscle carnitine concentration.
6lso! calcula# tions based on en*yme (inetics
indicate that human muscle in resting
conditions has more than enough free carnitine
to allo" the en*yme carnitine palmitoyl
transferase ) .-1T )/ to function at maimal
acti%ity. -laims that carnitine pro# motes
"eight loss therefore are not only
unfounded but also theoretically impossible
.17/.
?ecently! ho"e%er! there has been some
rene"ed interest in carnitine. =tephens et al.
.18!19/ sho"ed that if muscle carnitine can
be increased! this can reduce muscle glycogen
brea(do"n and possibly enhance fat
metabolism. They increased muscle
carnitine by simultaneously increasing the
insulin concentration .by insulin infusion or
feeding large amounts of carbohydrate/ and
pro%iding carnitine at the same time .by
infusion or ingestion/ .18!19/. >all et al.
.@0/ recently supplemented athletes "ith
80 g of carbohydrate per day or 80 g of
carbohydrate plus @ g of ;#carnitine ;#
tartrate for @4 "ee(s. They obser%ed a
reduction in glycogen brea(do"n during
eercise at 505 H$
@
ma! and reported a
reduced acti%ation of the 1BC
comple at that
intensity. Co"e%er! at 805 H$
@
ma!
"hich "ould
be closer to most competiti%e e%ents! these
effects "ere not present.
>hile it is possible that carnitine may be
ele%ated and may ha%e some effects on fat
metabolism after se%eral months of ingesting
carnitine in combination "ith a relati%ely
large amount of carbohydrate! it is too early
to dra" any conclu# sions. )f used for "eight
loss reasons! it seems counterproduc# ti%e to
consume large amounts of carbohydrate to
increase insulin to ma(e sure carnitine
concentrations in the muscle are slightly
ele%ated and might result in small
impro%ements in fat oidation in the long
term. 1otentially for athletes "ho ha%e %ery
high energy ependitures any"ay and
consume carnitine "ith their meals or energy
drin(s! it may be possible to raise muscle
carnitine concentrations. $%erall! ho"e%er!
the practical implications of this are currently
unclear and there is not enough e%idence to
recommend carnitine for "eight loss or to
increase fat oidation.
Fors#oli
n
,ors(olin is a diterpene of the labdane family
that is pro# duced by the )ndian -oleus plant
.Coleus forskohlii/. ,or# s(olin is often used
to raise le%els of c681 in the study and
research of cell physiology. The effects of
fors(olin on c681 ha%e been described in
detail as early as the 1980s and can be
obser%ed in isolated cell preparations as "ell
as in intact tissue. )f this mechanism is also
acti%e in vivo in humans after fors(olin
ingestion! it could result in an acti# %ation of
hormone#sensiti%e lipase! and increase
lipolysis enabling greater fat oidation.
)t has been demonstrated that fors(olin
can stimulate lipolysis in adipose tissue in rats
.@1!@@/. There is only one study that
in%estigated the effects of fors(olin on body
composition and metabolic rate in humans
.@4/. )n this study! 40 obese men "ere
supplemented "ith fors(olin .@50 mg of a
105 fors(olin etract t"ice a day/ for 1@
"ee(s. The authors concluded that
fors(olin ingestion resulted in fa%ourable
changes in body composition deter# mined by
dual#emission #ray absorptiometry.
,ollo"ing fors(olin supplementation body
fat mass "as significantly decreased by
#11.@45! compared to #1.745 in the
placebo group. This reduction in body fat
mass! "ith for# s(olin ingestion! "as
accompanied "ith a significant reduc# tion in
body fat percentage from baseline .45.17
8.045 to 41.04 7.9:5/. Infortunately!
no measurements of fat metabolism "ere
reported! although the authors did report
that energy ependiture "as not different
bet"een the fors(olin#supplemented group
and the placebo group. =o although there is
a theory that is promising! there is only one
study at the present time and more "or( is
re9uired before fors(olin can be
recommended as a fat metabolism# enhancing
substance.
Fuco"anth
in
,ucoanthin is a carotenoid found in edible
bro"n sea# "eeds .Undaria pinnatifida/. )n
animal studies it has been demonstrated that
long#term fucoanthin supplementation can
result in "eight loss. ,or eample! a study
by 8aeda et al. .@4/ demonstrated that
fucoanthin .0.45 of body mass/ or etract
that contained fucoanthin resulted in a
significant reduction in "hite adipose tissue
after 4 "ee(s. The mechanisms may be related
to an up#regulation of mitochondrial
uncoupling protein 1 .I-11/ .@4/! "hich
"ould result in an increase in resting energy
ependiture. $ther potential mechanisms
include a suppression of adi# pocyte
differentiation and lipid accumulation by
inhibiting glycerol#4#phosphate
dehydrogenase acti%ity .@5/ or do"n#
regulation of peroisome proliferator#
acti%ated receptor#g .116?#g/ responsible for
adipogenic gene epression .@5/. Co"e%er! a
9uic( calculation "ould re%eal that 0.45
body mass in human "ould e9uate to @80 g
of fucoanthin per day for an a%erage 70#(g
person and "ould be considered a totally
unrealistic dose. Co"e%er! recently a
?ussian study "as published that used
fucoanthin for the first time in humans .@:/.
)n this study! the effects of a product "ere
in%estigated that contained bro"n marine
algae fucoan#
thin as "ell as pomegranate seed oil. Baily
administration of :00 mg of an etract that
contained @.4 mg fucoanthin per day
resulted in a significant "eight loss compared
"ith placebo after 1: "ee(s. The authors also
reported increases in resting energy
ependiture! decreases in body and li%er fat
content and impro%ements in the plasma
lipid profile. >eight reductions "ere about
5 (g more in the supple# mented group
compared "ith the placebo group .the
placebo group also lost a small amount
of "eight/. Co"e%er! caution must be
eercised "hen interpreting these findings.
6t least one of the authors is "or(ing for the
company that holds the patents for
fucoanthin. 6t this point in time this is the
only human study and therefore more
studies need to be conducted to confirm any
effects of fucoanthin in humans.
$el
p
Jelp is bro"n sea"eed! and the acti%e
ingredient "ith respect to fat metabolism is
belie%ed to be fucoanthin! "hich has
already been discussed abo%e. $ther than the
fucoanthin studies discussed! there appear to
be no studies that ha%e in%estigated the effect
of a (elp supplement on fat metabolism.
Te
a
Tea originates from the lea%es of Camellia
Sinensis L! a species of the Theaceae family.
The lea%es are processed as green! oolong
and blac( tea! differing in composition
because of differences in the fermentation
process. Freen tea is processed from non#
oidi*ed0non#fermented lea%es! therefore
contains high 9uantities of catechin
polyphe# nols! "hich are absent in blac( tea.
The most abundant of the catechin
polyphenols are epicatechin! epigallocate#
chin! epicatechin#4#gallate and
epigallocatechin#4#gallate .GF-F/! the latter
being the most abundant and pharma#
cologically acti%e. $olong tea lea%es %ary
in the degree of fermentation .103705/
and are often referred to as partially
oidi*ed but contain the same polyphenol
cat# echins as green tea. +lac( tea lea%es
contain many com# pounds including
polyphenols such as theafla%ins and
thearubigins! "hich are both products of
full oidation of fla%an#4#ols during
fermentation. -affeine is present in all teas
regardless of the fermentation process. )n
recent years tea has recei%ed a gro"ing
interest in the literature partly because of
its potential ability to stimulate fat
oidation.
-atechins! more specifically GF-F! are
thought to stimulate fat oidation
through direct inhibition of catechol#O#
methyltransferase! an en*yme that degrades
norepinephrine .@7/. This acute increase in
=<= stimulation results in ele%ated
concentrations of catecholamines! thus
potentially increasing fatty acid
mobili*ation and oida#
tion. 6lthough this is the mechanism that is
%ery often referred to! there is no con%incing
e%idence.
A'ute e))e'ts o) .ree!
te#
)n a short#term human study! encapsulated
green tea etract .FTG/ plus caffeine .1@0 mg
FTG050 mg caffeine/! caffeine .50 mg/ or
placebo "ere consumed three times a day
on three separate occasions .@8/. ?elati%e
to placebo! consumption of FTG0caffeine
significantly increased @4#h fat oidation .7:.@
10.: and 104 14 g respecti%ely/.
)nterestingly! @4#h fat oidation! seen fol#
lo"ing ingestion of FTG! eceeded that
"hich "as obser%ed "hen sub'ects
recei%ed caffeine alone .@05 higher/. These
findings! determined using a respiratory
chamber! suggest that green tea has fat
metabolism# enhancing properties
independent of its caffeine content .@8/.
=imilar obser%ations "ere found "hen
oolong tea .GF-F K caffeine! @44 and @70
mg d
#1
respecti%ely/ "as consumed three days
prior to @4#h calorimetry measure# ments
.@9/. These t"o studies seem to suggest that the
consumption of a tea etract containing
moderate 9uan# tities of GF-F .@443@70 mg
d
#1
/ can augment fat oida# tion at rest. )t is
generally thought that the stimulating effect
on fat metabolism is a function of the
GF-F content. Co"e%er! "hen sub'ects
ingested FTG supple# ments "ith differing
GF-F content .@7031!@00 mg/ "ith a
relati%ely high dose of caffeine .:00 mg/ .40/!
no effect on fat metabolism "as found.
Fregersen et al. .41/ found no effect of FTG
ingestion! "ith %arying le%els of acti%e
ingredients! on fat metabolism. )n this study!
authors administered capsules containing
caffeine enriched "ith either GF-F or a
miture of all catechins! in addition to a
caffeine and placebo control. ,at oidation
rates during a 14#h period in a respiratory
chamber did not differ follo"ing
supplementation of a FTG or caffeine
compared to placebo .41/. Co"e%er! this
finding might be eplained by the
supplementation proto# col employed.
=ub'ects recei%ed lo" doses .403101 mg0
capsule GF-F/ intermittently throughout
the day. 6 dosage belo" 100 mg GF-F per
administration could be beneath the
threshold to elicit the substrate enhancing
effect seen in other studies.
Cursel et al. .4@/ recently conducted a
meta#analysis on four articles "hich
in%estigated acute catechin3caffeine
supplementation on resting fat oidation.
$f the four studies! three found an increase
in fat oidation rates o%er a @4#h period!
"hich resulted in the authors reporting that a
catechin3caffeine miture can increase rates
by 1:5. Thus! it seems that FTG
consumption does ha%e the poten# tial to
increase fat oidation at rest. Co"e%er! the
literature is still inconclusi%e "ith respect to
the most effecti%e supplementation protocol!
the optimal catechin dosage and the
inclusion0eclusion of caffeine.
>(ro!i' e))e'ts o)
.ree! te#
The abo%e studies pro%ided a green tea
supplement and performed measurements in
the follo"ing @4 h. Co"e%er! it is possible
that the supplements are more effecti%e "hen
supplemented o%er a longer period of time.
Carada et al. .44/ supplemented the diet
of 1@ men "ith a high .594 mg d
#1
/ or
lo" .78 mg d
#1
/ catechin be%erage o%er a
1@#"ee( period. Gcretion of labelled -$
@
.
14
-$
@
/ of
a
14
-#labelled fatty meal "as significantly
increased in the high#catechin group at "ee(
1@ compared to baseline measurements. )n
another study! the ?D of sub'ects ingest# ing
a FTG .2140 mg d
#1
/ "as significantly lo"er
after 8 "ee(s than placebo .0.81 and 0.84
respecti%ely/. Co"e%er! this effect had
diminished by "ee( 1@ .44/.
;ong#term FTG supplementation has also
been reported to ha%e positi%e effects on
reducing and maintaining body "eight .453
49/. >esterterp#1lantenga et al. .10/
adminis# tered a FTG to sub'ects during a
"eight maintenance period of 4 months
.@70 mg d
#1
GF-F/. -ompared to placebo!
body "eight regain "as significantly smaller in
the group that recei%ed the FTG but only in
those "ho "ere lo" habitual caffeine
consumers. )n this same cohort of sub'ects!
?D "as significantly lo"er in this "eight
main# tenance period. )n contrast! Biep%ens
et al. .40/ found that FTG .1!1@5 mg d
#1
catechins/ ingested alongside a lo"# energy
diet had no effect on any body composition
param# eters or post#absorpti%e ?D in
moderate caffeine users. =ubstantial "eight
loss of 14 (g "as found "hen sub'ects on a
hypocaloric diet consumed 400 mg d
#1
of
catechins! compared to 5 (g lost in the diet#
only group .41/. -om# pared to other
studies! catechin inta(e "as lo" and the
authors did not report the le%els of
circulating plasma catechins! therefore the
results of this study should be inter# preted
"ith caution. Co"e%er! a recent meta#
analysis found a fa%ourable effect of catechin
ingestion on "eight loss and "eight
maintenance. )t "as estimated from results
of 11 studies that sub'ects in a green tea
inter%ention group lost on a%erage 1.41 (g
more "eight! o%er a 1@# to 14#"ee(
supplementation period! than the control
group. ,urther# more! the effect si*e "as
larger in populations "ith a lo" habitual
caffeine inta(e compared to moderate#to#
high. )nterestingly! the re%ie" also
highlighted the interaction of ethnicity as a
moderator. =tudies that used 6sian sub'ects
had a larger effect si*e than -aucasian .4@/.
The e9ui%ocal findings in the area of FTG
supplementation and "eight loss may be
due to confounding %ariables such as
habitual caffeine inta(e and ethnicity. These
factors should be ta(en into account "hen
conducting future studies.
)n animal models green tea seems to ha%e
a consistent effect on body "eight. ,or
eample! ;ee et al. .44/ dem# onstrated that
in high#fat diet#induced obese mice! diets
supplemented "ith GF-F resulted in
reductions of body "eight and mass of
adipose tissues at %arious sites in a
dose#dependent manner. )n the epididymal
"hite adipose tissue of GF-F diet#fed
mice! the m?<6 le%els of adipogenic
genes such as 116?#g! --66T
enhancer# binding protein#a .-0G+1#a/!
regulatory element#binding protein#1c
.=?G+1#1c/! adipocyte fatty acid#
binding protein .a1@/! lipoprotein lipase and
fatty acid synthase "ere significantly
decreased. Co"e%er! the m?<6 le%els of
-1T#1! uncoupling protein @ .I-1@/! as "ell
as lipoly# tic genes such as hormone#sensiti%e
lipase and adipose triglyceride lipase! "ere
significantly increased. )n another study FTG
ingestion increased the epression of 116?#g
and -1T#1 .44/. 6lthough this increased
epression of proteins in%ol%ed in fat
metabolism has not consistently been found
.45/! the data seem to suggest that chronic
FTG supplementation can cause some
adaptations in fat metabolism. 6n increase in
the aforementioned genes! in humans! "ould
result in a more efficient and augmented fat
oidation! "hich ultimately could result
in "eight loss.
Bree! te# #!d )#t oxid#tio! duri!.
exer'ise
Gercise increases metabolic rate se%eral
fold and moderate#intensity eercise has
been found to elicit
maimal fat oidation rates
.453:55 H$
@
ma/ .4:!47/. 6
fe" studies ha%e
systematically in%estigated the interactions
bet"een FTG and substrate metabolism
during eercise. 6nimal studies ha%e
consistently sho"n that "hen FTG is
supplemented into the diet! fat oidation rates
are signifi# cantly increased during eercise
.48350/.
Henables et al. .51/ in%estigated the
effects of acute
FTG ingestion .day before and 'ust
before eercise
24:: mg d
#1
GF-F/ on substrate
metabolism during moderate#intensity
eercise in humans. ,at oidation
rates!
during a 40#min cycling at :05 H$
@
ma! "ere sig#
nificantly higher .175/ follo"ing FTG
ingestion com# pared to placebo. =imilar
effects "ere seen "ith chronic feeding.
>hen @18 mg d
#1
of GF-F "as ingested!
during a 4#month eercise training period!
@45 higher fat oi# dation rates "ere
found during eercise compared to
placebo .5@/. Co"e%er! this effect "as not
seen "hen a much lo"er dose of FTG .70
mg d
#1
GF-F/ "as admin# istered o%er 4
"ee(s .54/. These findings suggest that
higher doses of FTG .GF-F/ may ha%e the
potential to increase fat oidation during
eercise.
,e" studies ha%e in%estigated the effects of
chronic green tea ingestion in combination
"ith an eercise inter%ention. 8urase et al.
.49/ sub'ected mice to a 10#"ee( inter%en#
tion of dietary FTG ingestion .0.@5 and
0.55 FTG/ in combination "ith eercise
training. ,ollo"ing the inter%en# tion! b#
oidation acti%ity significantly increased
in the FTG K eercise group abo%e that of
eercise alone .745 and 4:5
respecti%ely/. )n a follo"#up study!
m?<6 epression of en*ymes in%ol%ed in
fat metabolism "as
measured. 6 mar(ed increase "as obser%ed
in fatty acid translocase in the mice that
ingested 0.55 and 0.@5 GF-F. 6 recent
study in%estigated the long#term .10#
"ee(/ effects of FTG consumption in
combination "ith a training regimen in
humans .54/. -hronic ingestion of a FTG
supplement lo"ered the respiratory
echange ratio .?G?/ during a 90#min cycle
eercise bout from 0.84 to
0.8@. 6lthough highly speculati%e! these
results ta(en together suggest that chronic
FTG supplementation in combination "ith
eercise may augment fat metabolism by
increased epression of certain fat
metabolism en*ymes.
>o!'%usi
o!
Freen tea has the potential to increase fat
metabolism at rest! also during eercise! and
may help to lose body fat and body "eight.
6s "ith caffeine! the effects appear to be
relati%ely small. The underlying mechanisms
for the meta# bolic effects of FTG are
incompletely understood and so are the
practical implications.
Chromiu
m
6n enormous mar(eting hype has
surrounded this popular supplement o%er the
past years! as it is said to be a muscle builder
and fat burner. -hromium is a trace
element that is present in foods such as
bre"ers yeast! 6merican cheese!
mushrooms and "heat germ! and it is
considered an essential nutrient. +ecause of
insufficient methods to assess chromium
status! the I= ,ood and <utrition
+oard could not establish an recommended
daily allo"ance for chromium. )nstead! an
ade9uate inta(e "as agreedL
@0340 mg .55/. 6nderson and Jo*lo%s(y
.5:/ suggested that many people in the
I=6 are not ingesting e%en
50 pg d
#1
of chromium. -hromium is
mar(eted predomi# nantly in the form of
chromium picolinate! although chro# mium
nicotinate and chromium chloride
supplements also eist. 1icolinic acid is an
organic compound that binds chromium and
is thought to enhance the absorption and
transport .57/.
G%ans .57/ "as the first to report that
ingesting chro# mium increased lean tissue in
eercising humans. )n those studies!
untrained college students and trained
football players "ere gi%en @00 mg of
chromium picolinate or a placebo each day
for 40 to 4@ d! "hile they "ere on a
resistance training programme. Those
sub'ects "ho too( chromium supplements
gained significantly more lean body mass
compared "ith the placebo group. Co"e%er!
lean body mass "as only estimated from
circumference mea# sures! and the changes
obser%ed "ere small! so measure# ment error
could ha%e influenced the results.
=ubse9uent studies .583:@/ ha%e not
confirmed the results of G%ans .57/. )n these
carefully controlled studies! "hich used more
sophisticated techni9ues to measure body
composition! no effects "ere found in
lean body mass .58!59/. )n one of the studies
;u(as(i et al. .:@/ concluded that under
conditions of controlled energy inta(e!
chro# mium supplementation of "omen did
not independently influence body "eight or
composition. Thus! claims that
supplementation of @00 mg of chromium
promotes "eight loss and body composition
changes are not supported.
Thus! the ma'ority of the studies sho"
that chromium supplements are not effecti%e
in increasing lean body mass. +ased upon
laboratory studies of cultured cells!
chromium picolinate "as suggested to
accumulate in cells and cause chromosome
damage .:4/. 6lthough this finding has not
been confirmed in human studies .:4/! caution
must be eercised in the use of chromium
supplements.
Conugated linoleic
acid
-on'ugated linoleic acids .-;6/ are a group
of positional and geometric isomers of the
omega#: essential fatty acid linoleic acid.
Cis-9,trans-11 .c9,t11/ is the ma'or isomer
found in foods such as ruminant meats .beef
and lamb/ and dairy products .mil( and
cheese/! "hereas the commercial
preparations contain e9ual 9uantities of
c9,t11 and trans-
10,cis-12 .t10,c12/. )t has been suggested that
-;6 can act as an anti#obesity agent
through its ability to decrease energy and
food inta(e! decrease lipogenesis and
increase energy ependiture! lipolysis and fat
oidation.
A%ter#tio!s i! body -#ss*
'o-"ositio! #!d )#t oxid#tio!
?odent studies ha%e obser%ed alterations in
body "eight and composition "hen the ad
liitum diet is supplemented "ith -;6. 8ice
supplemented "ith 0.55 -;6 ehibited
:05 reductions in body fat and 145
increases in lean body mass compared to
controls .:5/. =imilarly! "hen young rats
"ere supplemented "ith 15 -;6 for 4
"ee(s! body "eight gain "as significantly
reduced "ith reductions of 445 in fat pad
si*e .::/. Muc(er diabetic fatty rats
supplemented "ith 1.55 -;6 also had
significantly reduced body "eight .:7/.
$n the basis of the results from animal
studies! there is potential for -;6 to ha%e
"eight loss effects in humans. 8alpuech#
+rugNre et al. .:8/ conducted a study
in%estigat# ing the effects of t"o -;6 isomers
.c9,t11 and t10,c12/ on body fat mass. 6fter
a :#"ee( run#in period! consuming high
oleic sunflo"er oil .4 g/ daily! o%er"eight
healthy men "ere allocated into one of fi%e
groups. These fi%e groups included daily
consumption of high .4 g/ and lo" .1.5 g/
doses of c9,t11 and t10,c12 daily for 18
"ee(s! plus a placebo control group.
,ollo"ing the inter%ention period there
"ere no significant changes! among all fi%e
of the treatments groups! in body fat mass
and other body com# position parameters
.body mass inde! "eight! per cent
body fat/. 8ore recent studies "here chronic
-;6 supple# mentation has been
administered! as a miture containing both
c9,t11 and t10,c12! ha%e found fa%ourable
effects on body composition. Faullier and
colleagues found a signifi# cant reduction in
body fat mass after : .#4.45/ .:9/ and 1@
months .#8.75 -;6#TF! #:.95 -;6#,,6/
.70/ of -;6 supplementation compared to
placebo. The interest in -;6! as a body fat
regulator! has resulted in many studies
differing in -;6 isomers! dose and
study duration. >higham et al. .71/
performed a meta#analysis of 18 studies
"hich had all in%estigated the influence of
-;6 on impro%ing body composition.
+ased on three studies! a conclusion cannot
be made on supplementation of single -;6
isomers .c9,t11 and t10,c12/ and their
potential to reduce body fat. Co"e%er! this
meta#analysis concluded that 4.@ g -;6 per
day is effecti%e in producing modest fat loss
.0.05 0.05 (g per "ee(& ! E 0.001/.
Ae'(#!is
-s
6lthough it has been sho"n that -;6
supplementation can lead to reductions in
food inta(e .7@/! this is usually not
sufficient to account for the changes in body
mass and e%en "ithout reductions in food
inta(e! reductions in body fat mass are
apparent .:5/. -;6 supplementation can
increase energy ependiture .74/ to a le%el
sufficient to induce body fat loss and although
it has been obser%ed that -;6 supple#
mentation can increase I-1@ epression!
this is not thought to be a %alid
mechanism. ?odent studies ha%e pro%ided
e%idence that the alterations in body
composition and fat oidation "ere
associated "ith increases in -1T acti%ity in
bro"n adipose tissue! s(eletal muscle and
li%er by up to @.5 times that of the control!
"ith increased rates of lipolysis being e%ident
.:5!::/.
)n addition to the actions of -;6 on fat
oidation and "eight loss! there are claims
that -;6 can benefit those "ith impaired
glucose tolerance. )nitial studies using
Muc(er diabetic fatty rats "ith a feeding
schedule of 1.55 -;6 for 14 d ha%e sho"n
normali*ed glucose tolerance and
attenuated fasting hyperinsulinemia and
plasma fatty acid concentrations .:7/. This
effect appears to occur at the le%el of the
adipocyte %ia the acti%ation of 116?#g. The
obser%ed response is also isomer#specific "ith
the t10,c12 isomer being more effecti%e than
the c9,t11 isomer .74/.
>hile the effects of -;6
supplementation in rodents appear positi%e!
the effects in humans are inconsistent. )n
patients "ith non#insulin#dependent
diabetes mellitus!
: g d
#1
of -;6 for @ "ee(s "as associated
"ith a correla# tion bet"een body "eight and
plasma concentrations of the isomer t10,c12
.75/. Co"e%er! in healthy obese and non#
obese men and "omen! no change in body
"eight "as obser%ed .7:!77/. ,urthermore!
4#month daily ingestion of c9,t11 .4 g d
#1
/
.78/ and t10,c12 .4.4 g d
#1
/ .79/ has been
found to significantly lo"er insulin
sensiti%ity .#155 in
both treatment groups/ in o%er"eight
-aucasian men. 6s insulin resistance and
obesity are associated "ith the meta# bolic
syndrome! increasing the ris( of life#
threatening diseases! -;6 may not be
suitable as a "eight#regulating supplement.
The biological effects of -;6 are isomer#
dependent and cis#9!trans#11 and trans#
10!cis#1@ may ha%e distinctly different
effects. )t is also li(ely that some effects are
induced and0or enhanced by these isomers
acting syn# ergistically. )t has been suggested
that the trans#10!cis#1@ isomer is responsible
for reduction in body fat and is also referred
to as the most effecti%e isomer affecting
blood lipids.
>o!'%usi
o!
)n conclusion! it "ould appear that the
ma'ority of infor# mation "ith regards to the
effects of -;6 on altering body "eight and
composition has been gained from
eperiments on animals. )n human studies!
modest fat loss may be achie%ed through
long#term supplementation of 24 g d
#1
-;6. ,uture studies should also address the
safety issues.
Taurin
e
Taurine "as recently lin(ed to increased fat
metabolism. )n a study by ?utherford et
al. .80/! it "as in%estigated "hether acute
taurine ingestion before prolonged cycling
"ould impro%e time#trial performance
compared "ith a control trial and a placebo
trial in "hich participants "ere told they
recei%ed taurine but did not. 1articipants
cycled at
:75 H$
@
ma for 90 min follo"ed by a time trial. $ne
hour before the start of eercise! they
ingested 1.:: g of taurine .or control or
placebo/. The authors obser%ed no effects on
performance! but interestingly they reported
a
1:5 higher total fat oidation o%er the 90#
min eercise period "ith taurine ingestion
compared "ith control and placebo. 6 closer
loo( at the results re%eals that although the
authors reported an increase in fat
oidation "ith taurine! ?G? "as not
significantly different from control or placebo.
)t also appears that there is already a difference
in fat oidation at the start of eercise! and
the difference seems to get smaller as
eercise progresses. This could indicate that
a difference already eisted that "as indepen#
dent of taurine or that taurine ingested in the
hour before eercise is particularly effecti%e
in increasing fat oidation in the first minutes
of eercise. The findings need to be confirmed
but cannot be dismissed at this point.
The findings are seemingly in contrast to
t"o earlier studies "hich reported no effects
of taurine on fat oida# tion .81!8@/.
Co"e%er! it could be argued that these studies
also ga%e carbohydrate either immediately
before eercise or during eercise! and this
may ha%e mas(ed any effect that taurine
might ha%e had. ?utherford et al. .80/ sug#
gested that! in their study! the taurine might
ha%e had an
effect through adenylyl cyclase
acti%ation! increasing c681! thereby
increasing lipolysis and fat oidation.
Ta(en together! there is insufficient e%idence
that taurine has a stimulating effect on fat
metabolism! but one "ell# conducted study
suggests that it is "arranted to further
in%estigate a role for taurine.
Concluding
remar#s
,or most supplements discussed here! there
is a lac( of scientific data. +ased on the
a%ailable data! caffeine and green tea ha%e
e%idence that they indeed ha%e some prop#
erties that enhance fat metabolism.
Co"e%er! effects in humans ha%e generally
been small and more consistent in lo"
habitual caffeine consumers. ,or most other
supple# ments! although some sho" potential
to enhance fat metabolism! li(e -;6!
conclusi%e e%idence is lac(ing. The e%er
increasing list of fat#burning supplements is
industry# dri%en and is li(ely to gro" at a rate
that is not and cannot be matched by a similar
increase in scientific underpinning.
Conflict of Interest
Statement
<o conflict of interest "as
declared.
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,unayama J! 8iyashita J. ,ucoanthin
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