Encyclopedia 0f Geology (2004), vol.

1, Elsevier, Amsterdam
AFRICA/Pan-African Orogeny 1
Contents
Pan-African Orogeny
North African Phanerozoic
Rift Valley
Pan-African Orogeny
A Krner, Universitt Mainz, Mainz, Germany
R J Stern, University of Texas-Dallas, Richardson
TX, USA
O 2005, Elsevier Ltd. Al l Rights Reserved.
lntroduction
The term 'Pan-African' was coined by WQ Kennedy in
1964 on the basis of an assessment of available Rb-Sr
and K-Ar ages in Africa. The Pan-African was inter-
preted as a tectono-thermal event, some 500 Ma ago,
during which a number of mobile belts formed, sur-
rounding older cratons. The concept was then extended
to the Gondwana continents (Figure 1) although
regional names were proposed such as Brasiliano
for South America, Adelaidean for Australia, and
Beardmore for Antarctica. This thermal event was
later recognized to constitute the final Part of an
orogenic cycle, leading to orogenic belts which are
currently interpreted to have resulted from the amal-
gamation of continental domains during the period
-870 to -550 Ma. The term Pan-African is now used
t o describe tectonic, magmatic, and metamorphic ac-
tivity of Neoproterozoic to earliest Palaeozoic age,
especially for crust that was once Part of Gondwana.
Because of its tremendous geographical and temporal
extent, the Pan-African cannot be a Single orogeny
but must be a protracted orogenic cycle reflecting the
opening and closing of large oceanic realms as well
as accretion and collision of buoyant crustal blocks.
Pan-African events culminated in the formation of
the Late Neoproterozoic supercontinent Gondwana
(Figure 1). The Pan-African orogenic cycle is time-
equivalent with the Cadomian Orogeny in western
and central Europe and the Baikalian in Asia; in
fact, these parts of Europe and Asia were probably
Part of Gondwana in pre-Palaeozoic times as were
small Neoproterozoic crustal fragments identified in
Turkey, Iran and Pakistan (Figure 1).
Within the Pan-African domains, two broad types of
orogenic or mobile belts can be distinguished. One type
consists predominantly of Neoproterozoic supracrustal
and magmatic assemblages, many of juvenile (mantle-
derived) origin, with structural and metamorphic his-
tories that are similar to those in Phanerozoic collision
and accretion belts. These belts expose upper to middle
crustal levels and contain diagnostic features such as
ophiolites, subduction- or collision-related granitoids,
island-arc or passive continental margin assemblages as
well as exotic terranes that permit reconstruction of
their evolution in Phanerozoic-style plate tectonic scen-
arios. Such belts include the Arabian-Nubian shield of
Arabia and north-east Africa (Figure 2), the Damara-
Kaoko-Gariep Belt and Lufilian Arc of south-central
and south-western Africa, the West Congo Belt of
Angola and Congo Republic, the Trans-Sahara Belt of
West Africa, and the Rokelide and Mauretanian belts
along the western Part of the West African Craton
(Figure 1).
The other type of mobile belt generally contains
polydeformed high-grade metamorphic assemblages,
exposing middle to lower crustal levels, whose origin,
environment of formation and structural evolution are
more difficult to reconstruct. The protoliths of these
assemblages consist predominantly of much older
Mesoproterozoic to Archaean continental crust that
was strongly reworked during the Neoproterozoic.
Well studied examples are the Mozambique Belt of
East Africa, including Madagascar (Figure 2) with ex-
tensions into western Antarctica, the Zambezi Belt of
northern Zimbabwe and Zambia and, possibly, the
little known migmatitic terranes of Chad, the Central
African Republic, the Tibesti Massif in Libya and the
western parts of Sudan and Egypt (Figure 1). It has been
proposed that the latter type of belt represents the
deeply eroded Part of a collisional orogen and that
the two types of Pan-African belts are not fundamen-
tally different but constitute different crustal levels of
collisional andlor accretional Systems. For this reason,
the term East African Orogen has been proposed for
the combined upper crustal Arabian-Nubian Shield
and lower crustal Mozambique Belt (Figure 2).
2 AFRICAlPan-African Orogeny
Pacific Ocean
Figure 1 Map of Gondwana at the end of Neoproterozoic time (-540 Ma) showing the general arrangement of Pan-African belts. AS,
Arabian Shield; BR, Brasiliano; DA, Darnara; DM, Dom Feliclano; DR, Denman Darling; EW, Eilsworth-Whitrnore Mountains; GP,
Gariep; KB, Kaoko; MA, Mauretanides; MB, Mozarnbique Belt; NS, Nubian Shield; PM, Peterman Ranges; PB, Pryolz Bay; PR,
Parnpean Ranges; PS, Paterson; QM, Queen Maud Land; RB, Rokelides; SD, Saldania; SG, Southern Granulite Terrane; TS, Trans-
Sahara Belt; WB, West Congo; ZB, Zarnbezi. (Reproduced with perrnission from Kusky etal., 2003.)
The Pan-African System of orogenic belts in Africa,
Brazil and eastern Antarctica has been interpreted as a
network surrounding older cratons (Figure 1) and es-
sentially resulting from closure of several major Neo-
proterozoic oceans. These are the Mozambique Ocean
between East Gondwana (Australia, Antarctica, south-
em India) and West Gondwana (Africa, South
America), the Adamastor Ocean between Africa and
South America, the Damara Ocean between the Kala-
hari and Congo cratons, and the Trans-Sahara Ocean
between the West African Craton and a poorly known
pre-Pan-African terrane in north-central Africa vari-
ously known as the Nile or Sahara Craton (Figure 1).
Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS)
A broad region was uplifted in association with Ceno-
zoic rifting to form the Red Sea, exposing a large tract
of mostly juvenile Neoproterozoic crust. These expos-
ures comprise the Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS). The
ANS makes up the noahern half of the East African
orogen and stretches from southem Israel and Jordan
south as far as Ethiopia and Yemen, where the ANS
transitions into the Mozambique Belt (Figure 2). The
ANS is distinguished from the Mozambique Belt by its
dominantly juvenile nature, relatively low grade of
metamorphism, and abundance of island-arc rocks
and ophiolites. The ANS, thus defined, extends about
3000 km north to south and >500 km on either side of
the Red Sea (Figure 3). It is flanked to the West by a
broad tract of older crust that was remobilized during
Neoproterozoic time along with a significant amount
of juvenile Neoproterozoic crust, known as the Nile
Craton or 'Saharan Metacraton'. The extent of juvenile
Neoproterozoic crust to the east in the subsurface of
Arabia is not well defined, but it appears that Pan-
African crust underlies most of this region. Scattered
outcrops in Oman yielded mostly Neoproterozoic
radiometric ages for igneous rocks, and there is no
evidence that a significant body of pre-Pan-African
crust underlies this region. The ANS is truncated to
the north as a result of rifting at about the time of the
Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which generated
crustal fragments now preserved in south-east Europe,
Turkey and Iran.
The ANS is by far the largest tract of mostly juvenile
Neoproterozoic crust among the regions of Africa that
were affected by the Pan-African orogenic cycle. It
Sbike-slip fault
North
Afri a 0.74
) Suture
1 i , sE&mzo;
Figure 2 PreJurassic configuration of elernents of the East
African Orogen in Africa and surrounding regions. Regions in-
clude Egypt (Eg), Sudan (Su), Sinai-Israel-Jordan (SIJ), Afif ter-
rane, Arabia (Aa), rest of Arabian Shield (Ar), Eritrea and
northern Ethiopia (En), southern Ethiopia (Es), eastern Ethiopia,
Somalia, and Yernen (ESY), Kenya (K), Tanzania (T), and
Madagascar (M). Nurnbers in italics beneath each region label
are rnean Nd-rnodel ages in Gy.
formed as a result of a multistage process, whereby
juvenile crust was produced above intra-oceanic con-
vergent plate boundaries (juvenile arcs) and perhaps
oceanic plateaux (CU. 870-630 Ma), and these juvenile
terranes collided and coalesced to form larger compos-
ite terranes (Figure 4). There is also a significant amount
of older continental crust (Mesoproterozoic age crust
of the Afif terrane in Arabia; Palaeoproterozoic and
Archaean crust in Yemen, Figure 2) that was over-
printed by Pan-African teaonomagmatic events. ANS
terrane boundaries (Figure 3) are frequently defined by
suture zones that are marked by ophiolites, and the
terranes are stitched together by abundant tonalitic to
granodioritic plutons. Most ANS ophiolites have trace
element chemical compositions suggesting formation
above a convergent plate margin, either as part of a
back-arc basin or in a fore-arc setting. Boninites have
been identified in Sudan and Eritrea and suggest a fore-
arc setting for at least some ANS sequences. Sediments
are mostly immature sandstones and wackes derived
from nearby arc volcanoes. Deposits that are diagnostic
of Neoproterozoic 'snowbail Earth' episodes have been
recognized in parts of the ANS, and banded iron for-
mations in the northern ANS may be deep-water ex-
pressions of snowball Earth events. Because it mostly
lies in the Sahara, and Arabian deserts, the ANS has
alrnost no vegetation or soil and is excellently exposed.
This makes it very amenable to study using imagery
from remote sensing satellites.
Juvenile crust of the ANS was sandwiched between
continental tracts of East and West Gondwana
(Figure 4). The precise timing of the collision is still
being resolved, but appears to have occurred after
~ 6 3 0 Ma when high-magnesium andesite 'schistose
dykes' were emplaced in southern Israel but before
the ~ 6 1 0 Ma post-tectonic 'Mereb' granites were
emplaced in northern Ethiopia. By analogy with the
continuing collision between India and Asia, the ter-
minal collision between East and West Gondwana
may have continued for a few tens of millions of
years. Deformation in the ANS ended by the begin-
ning of Cambrian time, although it has locally con-
tinued into Cambrian and Ordovician time farther
south in Africa. The most intense collision (i.e.
greatest shortening, highest relief, and greatest ero-
sion) occurred south of the ANS, in the Mozambique
belt. Compared to the strong deformation and meta-
morphism experienced during collision in the Mo-
zambique belt, the ANS was considerably less
affected by the collision. North-west trending left-
lateral faults of the Najd fault System of Arabia and
Egypt (Figures 1 and 2) formed as a result of escape
tectonics associated with the collision and were active
between about 630 and 560 Ma. Deformation associ-
ated with terminal collision is more intense in the
southern ANS, with tight, upright folds, steep thrusts,
and strike-slip shear zones controlling basement
fabrics in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and southern Arabia.
These north-south trending, collision-related struc-
tures obscure the earlier structures in the southern
ANS that are related to arc accretion, and the inten-
sity of this deformation has made it difficult to iden-
tify ophiolitic assemblages in southern Arabia,
Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Thus, the transition between
the ANS and the Mozambique Belt is marked by a
change from less deformed and less metamorphosed,
juvenile crust in the north to more deformed and
more metamorphosed, remobilized older crust in the
south, with the structural transition occurring farther
north than the lithological transition.
The final Stages in the evolution of the ANS
witnessed the emplacement of post-tectonic 'A-type'
Flgure 9 Terrane map of the Arabian-Nubian Shleld. (Reproduced with permission from Johnson PR and Woldehaimanot B (2003)
Development of the Arabian-Nubian Shield: perspectives on accretion and deformation in the northern East African Orogen and the
assembly of Gondwana. In: Yoshlda M, Windley BF and Dasgupta S (eds.) Proterozuic Easf Gondwana: Supercontinent AssemWy and
Breakup. Geologicai Soeiety, London, Special Publications 206, pp. 289-325.)
granites, bimodal volcanics, and molassic sediments.
These testify to strong extension caused by orogenic
collapse at the end of the Neoproterozoic. Extension-
related metamorphic and magmatic core complexes
are recognized in the northern ANS but are even more
likely to be found in the more deformed regions of the
southern ANS and the Mozambique Belt. A well de-
veloped peneplain developed on top of the ANS crust
before basal Cambrian sediments were deposited,
possibly cut by a continental ice-sheet.
The ANS has been the source of gold since Phar-
aonic Egypt. There is now a resurgence of mining
and exploration activity, especially in Sudan, Arabia,
Eritrea, and Ethiopia.
Mozambique Belt (MB)
This broad belt defines the southern Part of the East
African Orogen and essentiaiiy consists of medium- to
high-grade gneisses and voluminous granitoids. It ex-
tends south from the Arabian-Nubian Shield into
southern Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia via Tanzania
to Malawi and Mozambique and also includes
Madagascar (Figure 2). Southward continuation of
the belt into Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica
(Figure 1) has been proposed on the basis of geophys-
ical Patterns, structural features and geochronology.
Most parts of the belt are not covered by detailed map-
ping, making regional correlations difficult. There is no
AFRICAiPan-Afncan Orogeny 5
-
Seafloar spreading, arc and
back-arc basin formation,
and terrane accretion
Continental cdllsion and fomation
of the East African Orogen
-630-800 Ma
Greater +
Gondwana
Continued shortening, escape
tectonics, and orogenic collapse
-600-540 Ma
Figure 4 A diagram of the suggested evolution of the Arablan-Nublan Shield.
? Underplated
Cmst
h----------
sub'
'mw 1
Fiiure 5 A schematlc block diagram showing tectonic interdigitation of basement and Cover rocks in the Mozambique Belt of
Kenya. (Reproduced with permission from Mosley PN (1993) Geological evolution of the Late Proterozoic 'Mozambique Belt' of
Kenya. Tectonophysics 221 : 223-250.)
overall model for the evolution of the MB although
most workers agree that it resulted from collision be-
tween East and West Gondwana. Significant differences
in rock type, structural style, age and metamorphic
evolution suggest that the belt as a whole constitutes a
Pan-African Collage of terranes accreted to the eastern
margin of the combined Congo and Tanzania cratons
and that significant volumes of older crust of these
cratons were reconstituted during this event.
Mapping and geochronology in Kenya have recog-
nized undated Neoproterozoic supracrustal sequences
that are structurally sandwiched between basement
gneisses of Archaean and younger age (Figure 5).
A ~ 7 0 0 Ma dismembered ophiolite complex at the
KenyanIEthiopian border testifies to the consumption
and obduction of marginal basin oceanic crust. Major
deformation and high-grade metamorphism is as-
cribed to two major events at ~ 8 3 0 and ~620Ma ,
based on Rb-Sr dating, but the older of these appears
questionable.
A similar situation prevails in Tanzania where the
metamorphic grade is generally high and many granu-
lite-facies rocks of Neoproterozoic age show evidence
of retrogression. Unquestionable Neoproterozoic su-
pracrustal sequences are rare, whereas Late Archaean
to Palaeoproterozoic granitoid gneisses volumetrically
greatly dominate over juvenile Pan-African intru-
sives. These older rocks, strongly reworked during
6 AFRICAlPan-African Orogeny
the Pan-African orogenic cycle and locally migma-
tized andlor mylonitized, either represent eastward ex-
tensions of the Tanzania Craton that were structurally
reworked during Pan-African events or are separate
crustal entities (exotic blocks) of unknown origin.
The significance of rare granitoid gneisses with proto-
lith ages of -1000-1100Ma in southern Tanzania
and Malawi is unknown. From these, some wor-
kers have postulated a major Kibaran (Grenvillian)
event in the MB, but there is no geological evidence to
relate these rocks to an orogeny. A layered gabbro-
anorthosite complex was emplaced at -695 Ma in
Tanzania. The peak of granulite-facies metamorphism
was dated at 620-640 Ma over wide areas of the MB in
Tanzania, suggesting that this was the major collision
and crustal-thickening event in this part of the belt.
In northern Mozambique the high-grade gneisses,
granulites and migmatites of the MB were interpreted
to have been deformed and metamorphosed during
two distinct events, namely the Mozambican cycle
at 1100-850 Ma, also known as Lurian Orogeny, and
the Pan-African cycle at 800-550Ma. Recent high-
precision zircon geochronology has confirmed the
older event to represent a major phase of granitoid
plutonism, including emplacement of a large layered
gabbro-anorthosite massif near Tete at -1025 Ma, but
there is as yet no conclusive evidence for deformation
and granulite-facies metarnorphism in these rocks
during this time. The available evidence points to only
one severe event of ductile deformation and high-grade
metamorphism, with a peak some 615-540Ma ago.
A sirnilar situation prevails in southern Malawi where
high-grade granitoid gneisses with protolith ages of
1040-555 Ma were ductilely deformed together with
supracrustal rocks and the peak of granulite-facies
metamorphism was reached 550-570 Ma ago.
The Pan-African terrane of central and southern
Madagascar primarily consists of high-grade ortho-
and paragneisses as well as granitoids. Recent high-
precision geochronology has shown that these rocks
are either Archaean or Neoproterozoic in age and
were probably structurally juxtaposed during Pan-
African deformation. Several tectonic provinces have
been recognized (Figure 6), including a domain consist-
ing of low-grade Mesoproterozoic to Early Neoproter-
ozoic metasediments known as the Itremo group whch
was thrust eastwards over high-grade gneisses. A Pan-
African suture Zone has been postulated in eastem
Madagascar, the Betsimisaraka Belt (Figure 6), con-
sisting of highly strained paragneisses decorated with
lenses of mafic-ultramafic bodies containing podiform
chromite and constituting a lithological and isotopic
boundary with the Archaean gneisses and granites of
the Antongil block east of this postulated suture which
may correlate with similar rocks in southern India.
\. 4. . Shear Zone
Antongil
M&
Antananarivo
bio& with
1
Figure 6 A simplified geological map showing the major
tectonic units of the Precambrian basement in Madagascar.
Rs, Ranotsara Shear Zone; BSZ, Betsileo Shear Zone.
(Reproduced with permission from Collins and Windley 2002.)
Central and northern Madagascar are separated
from southern Madagascar by the Ranotsara Shear
Zone (Figure 6), showing sinistral displacement of
>I00 km and correlated with one of the major shear
zones in southern India. Southern Madagascar con-
sists of several north-south trending shear-bounded
AFRICAiPan-African Orogeny 7
30 East Africa and Madagascar
t
(all ages, n = 695)
Figure 7 Histogram of radiometric ages for the Mozambique Belt of East Africa and Madagascar. Data from Meert JG (2003)
A Synopsis of events related to the assembly of eastern Gondwana. Tectonophysics362: 1-40, with updates.
tectonic units consisting of upper amphibolite to
granulite-facies para- and orthogneisses, partly of
pre-Neoproterozoic age. The peak of granulite-facies
metamorphism in central and southern Madagascar,
including widespread formation of charnockites, was
dated at 550-560 Ma.
The distribution of zircon radiometric ages in the MB
suggests two distinct peaks at 610-660 and 530-570
Ma (Figure 7) from which two orogenic events have
been postulated, the older East African Orogeny
(-660-610Ma) and the younger Kuunga Or-
ogeny (~570-530 Ma). However, the are no reliable
field criteria to distinguish between these postulated
phases, and it is likely that the older age group
charaaerizes synteaonic magrnatism whereas the
younger age group reflects post-tectonic granites and
pegrnatites which are widespread in the entire MB.
Zambezi Belt
The Zambezi Belt branches off to the West from the
Mozarnbique Belt in northernmost Zimbabwe along
what has been described as a triple junction and ex-
tends into Zambia (Figures 1 and 8). It consists pre-
dominantly of strongly deformed amphibolite- to
granulite-facies, early Neoproterozoic ortho- and para-
gneisses which were locally intruded by -860Ma,
layered gabbro-anorthosite bodies and generally dis-
plays south-verging thrusting and transpressional
shearing. Lenses of eclogite record pressures up to
23 kbar. Although most of the above gneisses seem
to be 850-870 Ma in age, there are tectonically inter-
layered granitoid gneisses with zircon ages around
1100Ma. The peak of Pan-African metamorphism
occurred at 540-535 Ma. The Zambezi Belt is in tec-
tonic contact with lower-grade rocks of the Lufilian
Arc in Zambia along the transcurrent Mwembeshi
shear Zone.
Lufilian Arc
The Lufilian Arc (Figure 8) has long been interpreted
to be a continuation of the Damara Belt of Namibia,
connected through isolated outcrops in northern
Botswana (Figure 1). The outer Part of this broad arc
in the Congo Republic and Zambia is a north-east-
verging thin-skinned, low-grade fold and thrust belt,
whereas the higher-grade southern Part is characterized
by basement-involved thrusts. The main lithostrati-
graphic unit is the Neoproterozoic, copper-bearing
Katanga succession which contains volcanic rocks
dated between 765 and 735 Ma. Thrusting probably
began shortly after deposition, and the main phase of
thrusting and associated metamorphism occurred at
566-550 Ma.
Damara Belt
This broad belt exposed in central and northern
Namibia branches north-west and south-east near
8 AFRICNPan-Afnican Orogeny
Palaeozoic to Recent rod<s
Granitoids, partly intrusive into
Katanga supergroup
Katanga supergroup, wlth
trend lines
Mafic lava in Lufilian Belt
Basement inlier in Lufilian belt
MetaSediments end sheared base-
rnent of Zarnbezi Belt
Block of uncertain correlation
Area affected by Kibaran tectono-
thermal cyde (1.4-1.3 Ga)
asernent and sedimeniary cover
of Bangweulu Block
Basement of Archaean to
Palaeoproterozoic age
Strike-slip fault
Thnist
Lake
Flgure 8 A sirnplified geological rnap of the Lufilian ArC ana rarnbezi Beit. (Aeproduced with perrnission frorn Porada H and
Berhorst V (2000) Towards a new understanding of the Neoproterozoic-early Palaeozoic Lufilian and northern Zarnbezi belts in Zarnbia
and the Dernocratic Republic of Congo.)
the Atlantic coast and continues southwards into the
Gariep and Saldania belts and northwards into
the Kaoko Belt (Figure 1). The triple junction so pro-
duced may have resulted from closure of the Adamas-
tor Ocean, followed by closure of the Damara Ocean.
The main lithostratigraphic unit is the Damara super-
group which records basin formation and rift-related
magrnatism at -760 Ma, followed by the formation
of a broad carbonate shelf in the north and a turbidite
basin in the south. The turbidite sequence contains
interlayered, locally pillowed, amphibolites and meta-
gabbros which have been interpreted as remnants
of a dismembered ophiolite. Of particular interest
are two distinct horizons of glaciogenic rocks which
can probably be correlated with similar Strata in the
Katanga sequence of south central Africa and reflect a
severe glaciation currently explained by the snowball
Earth hypothesis.
The Damara Belt underwent north- and south-
verging thrusting along its respective margins, whereas
the deeply eroded central Zone exposes medium- to
high-grade ductilely deformed rocks, widespread mig-
matization and anatexis in which both the Damara
supracrustal sequence and a 1.0-2.0 Ga old basement
are involved. Sinistral transpression is Seen as the cause
for this orogenic event which reached its peak at
-550-520Ma. Voluminous pre-, syn- and post-
tectonic granitoid plutons intruded the central part of
the belt benveen -650 and -488 Ma, and highly dif-
ferentiated granites, hosting one of the largest Open-
Cast uraniurn mines in the world (Rssing), were dated
at 460 Ma.
Uplift of the beltduring the Damaran Orogeny led
to erosion and deposition of two Late Neoproterozoic
to Early Palaeozoic clastic molasse sequences, the
Mulden group in the north and the Nama group in
the south. The latter contains spectacular examples of
the Late Neoproterozoic Ediacara fauna.
GarPep and Saldania Belts
These belts fringe the high-grade basement along
the south-western and southern margin of the Kala-
hari craton (Figure 1) and are interpreted to result
from oblique closure of the Adamastor Ocean. Deep
marine fan and accretionary pnsm deposits, oceanic
AFRICAlPan-African Orogeny 9
seamounts and ophiolitic assemblages were thrust over
Neoproterozoic shelf sequences on the craton margin
containing a major Zn mineralization just north of
the Orange River in Namibia. The main deformation
and metamorphism occurred at 570-540Ma, and
post-tectonic granites were emplaced 536-507Ma
ago. The famous granite at Sea Point, Cape Town,
which was described by Charles Darwin, belongs to
this episode of Pan-African igneous activity.
Kaoko Belt
This little known Pan-African Belt branches off to
the north-west from the Damara Belt and extends
into south-western Angola. Here again a well deve-
loped Neoproterozoic continental margin sequence
of the Congo Craton, including glacial deposits, was
overthrust, eastwards, by a tectonic mixture of pre-
Pan-African basement and Neoproterozoic rocks dur-
ing an oblique transpressional event following closure
of the Adamastor Ocean. A spectacular shear Zone, the
mylonite-decorated Puros lineament, exemplifies this
event and can be followed into southern Angola. High-
grade metamorphism and migmatization dated be-
tween 650 and 550 Ma affected both basement and
Cover rocks, and granitoids were emplaced between
733 and 550 Ma. Some of the strongly deformed base-
ment rocks have ages between -1450 and ~ 2 0 3 0 Ma
and may represent reworked material of the Congo
Craton, whereas a small area of Late Archaean granit-
oid gneisses may constitute an exotic terrane. The West-
ern part of the belt consists of large volumes of
Ca. 550 Ma crustal melt granites and is poorly exposed
below the Namib sand dunes. No island-arc, ophiolite
or high-pressure assemblages have been described from
the Kaoko Belt, and current tectonic models involving
collision between the Congo and Rio de la Plata cratons
are rather speculative.
West Congo Belt
This belt resulted from rifting between 999 and
912 Ma along the western margin of the Congo Craton
(Figure I), followed by subsidence and formation of
a carbonate-rich foreland basin, in which the West
Congolian group was deposited between Ca. 900 and
570 Ma, including two glaciogenic horizons similar t o
those in the Katangan sequence of the Lufilian Arc.
The structures are dominated by east-verging deform-
ation and thrusting onto the Congo Craton, associ-
ated with dextral and sinistral transcurrent shearing,
and metamorphism is low to medium grade. In the
west, an allochthonous thrust-and-fold stack of
Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic basement rocks overrides
the West Congolian foreland sequence. The West
Congo Belt may only constitute the eastern part of
an orogenic system with the western part, including
an 800Ma ophiolite, exposed in the Aracuai Belt of
Brazil.
Trans-Sa haran Belt
This orogenic Belt is more than 3000 km long and
occurs t o the north and east of the >2 Ga West African
Craton within the Anti-Atlas and bordering the Tuareg
and Nigerian shields (Figure 1). It consists of pre-
Neoproterozoic basement strongly reworked during
the Pan-African event and of Neoproterozoic oceanic
assemblages. The presence of ophiolites, accretionary
prisms, island-arc magmatic suites and high-pressure
metamorphic assemblages makes this one of the best
documented Pan-African belts, revealing ocean Open-
ing, followed by a subduction- and collision-related
evolution between 900 and 520Ma (Figure 9). In
southern Morocco, the -740-720 Ma Sirwa-Bou
Azzer ophiolitic mklange was thrust southwards, at
-660 Ma, over a Neoproterozoic continental margin
sequence of the West African Craton, following north-
ward subduction of oceanic lithosphere and preceding
oblique collision with the Saghro Arc.
Farther south, in the Tuareg Shield of Algeria, Mali
and Niger, several terranes with contrasting litholo-
gies and origins have been recognized, and ocean
closure during westward subduction produced a col-
lision belt with Pan-African rocks, including oceanic
terranes tectonically interlayered with older base-
ment. The latter were thrust westwards over the
West African Craton and to the east over the so-called
LATEA (Laouni, Azrou-n-Fad, Tefedest, and Egkrk-
Aleksod, parts of a single passive margin in central
Hoggar) Superterrane, a completely deformed com-
posite crustal Segment consisting of Archaean to
Neoproterozoic assemblages (Figure 9). In Mali, the
730-710Ma Tilemsi magmatic arc records ocean-
floor and intra-oceanic island-arc formation, ending
in collision at 620-600 Ma.
The southern part of the Trans-Saharan Belt is ex-
posed in Benin, Togo and Ghana where it is known as
the Dahomeyan Belt. The western part of this belt
consists of a passive margin sedimentary sequence in
the Volta basin which was overthrust, from the east,
along a well delineated suture Zone by an ophiolitic
melange and by a 613 My old high-pressure meta-
morphic assemblage (up to 14 kbar, ~700" C) , includ-
ing granulites and eclogites. The eastern Part of the
belt consists of a high-grade granitoid-gneiss terrane
of the Nigerian province, partly consisting of Palaeo-
proterozoic rocks which were migmatized at -600
Ma. This deformation and metamorphism is con-
sidered to have resulted from oblique collision of
10 AFRICAJPan-African Orogeny
lforas Granulite Unit (IGU)
(ca. 680-61 0 Ma)
Western subduction
(680-620 Ma)
Late Palaeoproterozoic
Sedimentary rocks
Phanisian subduction
West IGU IGU Pharusian Terrane
(ca. 690-650 ? Ma)
subduction wbduction (iu,,eniie rmst)
\ I ISKEL temne
Western suture
West African \
Craton I
\ I LATEA Superterrana
Eastem suture =
Mure 4 50' shear Zone
EKEL
'W
Thrusting and Exhumation
(ca 620-520 ? Ma)
Figure 9 Diagrarns showing the geodynarnic evolution of western central Hoggar (Trans-Sahara Belt) between -900 and -520 Ma.
Stars denote high-pressure rocks now exposed. (Reproduced with perrnission frorn Caby R (2003) Terrane assernbly and geodynamic
evolution of central-western Hoggar: a synthesis.)
the Nigerian shield with the West African Craton, basement, much of which was structurally and
followed by anatectic doming and wrench faulting. thermally overprinted during the Pan-African event
and intruded by granitoids. The terrane is variously
known in the literature as 'Nile Craton', 'East Sahara
Pan-African Belt in Central Africa
(Cameroon, Chad and Central
Craton' or 'Central Sahara Ghost Craton' and is geo-
African Republic)
logically poorly known. Extensive reworking
is ascribed by some to crustal instability following
The Pan-African Belt between the Congo Craton in delamination of the subcrustal mantle lithosphere,
the south and the Nigerian basement in the north-west and the term 'Sahara Metacraton' has been coined
consists of Neoproterozoic supracrustal assemblages to characterize this region. A 'metacraton' refers to a
and variously deformed granitoids with tectonically craton that has been remobilized during an orogenic
interlayered wedges of Palaeoproterozoic basement
(Figure 10). The southern Part displays medium- to
high-grade Neoproterozoic rocks, including 620 Ma
granulites, which are interpreted to have formed in a
continental collision Zone and were thrust over the
Congo Craton, whereas the central and northern
parts expose a giant shear belt characterized by thrust
and shear zones which have been correlated with
similar structures in north-eastern Brazil and which
are late collisional features. The Pan-African Belt con-
tinues eastward into the little known Oubanguide Belt
of the Central African Republic.
Pan-African Reworking of Older
Crust in North-Eastern Africa
event but is still recognizable through its rheological,
geochronological and isotopic characteristics.
Rokelide Belt
This belt occurs along the south-western margin of
the Archaean Man Craton of West Africa (Figure 1)
and is made up of high-grade gneisses, including
granulites (Kasila group), lower-grade supracrustal
sequences (Marampa group) and volcano-sediment-
ary rocks with calc-alkaline affinity (Rokel River
group). Pan-African deformation was intense and
culminated in extensive thrusting and sinistral
strike-slip deformation. The peak of metamorphism
reached 7 kb and 800C and was dated at -560 Ma.
Late Pan-African emplacement ages for the protoliths
A large area between the western Hoggar and the river of some of the granitoid gneisses contradict earlier
Nile largely consists of Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic hypotheses arguing for extensive overprinting of
AFRICAIPan-African Orogeny 1 1
\
\
I
Niger
Figure 10 A Sketch map showing Pan-African dornalns in West central Africa. 1, Post-Pan-African Cover; 2, Pan-African domains; 3,
pre-Mesozoic platforrn deposits; 4, Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic cratons; 5, craton lirnits; 6, major strlke-slip faults; 7, state
boundaries. CAR, Central African Republic; CM, Cameroun. (Reproduced with permission from Toteu SF, Penaye J and Djornani YP
(20'341.1
Archaean rocks. The Rokelides may be an accretion-
ary belt, but there are no modern structural data and
only speculative geodynamic interpretations.
Gondwana Correlations
The Pan-African orogenic cycle was the result of
ocean closure, arc and microcontinent accretion and
final suturing of continental fragments to form the
supercontinent Gondwana. It has been suggested
that the opening of large Neoproterozoic oceans be-
tween the Brazilian and African cratons (Adamastor
Ocean), the West African and Sahara-Congo cratons
(Pharusian Ocean) and the African cratons and Indial
Antarctica (Mozambique Ocean) (Figure 1) resulted
from breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent some
800-850Ma, but current data indicate that the
African and South Arnerican cratons were never
Part of Rodinia. Although arc accretion and continent
formation in the Arabian-Nubian shield are reason-
ably well understood, this process is still very specu-
lative in the Mozambique Belt. It seems clear that
Madagascar, Sri Lanka, southern India and parts of
East Antarctica were Part of this process (Figure I),
although the exact correlations between these frag-
ments are not known. The Southern Granulite
Terrane of India (Figure 1) consists predominantly
of Late Archaean to Palaeoproterozoicc gneisses and
granulites, deformed and metamorphosed during the
Pan-African event and sutured against the Dharwar
Craton. Areas in East Antarctica such as Ltzow-
Holm Bay, Central Dronning Maud Land and the
Shackleton Range, previously considered to be Meso-
proterozoic in age, are now interpreted to be Part of
the Pan-African Belt System (Figure 1). Correlations
between the Pan-African belts in south-western
Africa (GariepDamara-Kaoko) and the Brasiliano
belts of south-eastern Brazil (Ribeira and Dom
Feliciano) are equally uncertain, and typical hall-
marks of continental collision such as ophiolite-
decorated sutures or high-pressure metamorphic
assemblages have not been found. The most convin-
cing correlations exist between the southern end of
the Trans-Saharan Belt in West Africa and Pan-Afri-
can terranes in north-eastern Brazil (Figure 1).
Following consolidation of the Gondwana supercon-
tinent at the end of the Precambrian, rifting processes
at the northern margin of Gondwana led to the for-
mation of continental fragments (Figure 1) which
drifted northwards and are now found as exotic ter-
ranes in Europe (Cadomian and Armorican terrane
assemblages), in the Appalachian Belt of North
12 AFRICAlNorth African Phanerozoic
America (Avalonian Terrane assemblage) and in
various parts of central and eastern Asia.
See Also
Arabia and The Gulf. Australia: Proterozoic. Brazil.
Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Palaeomagnetism.
Tectonics: Mountain Building and Orogeny. Tertiary To
Present: Pleistocene and The Ice Age.
Further Reading
Abdelsalam MG and Stern RJ (1997) Sutures and shear
zones in the Arabian-Nubian Shield. Journal of African
Earth Sciences 23: 289-3 10.
Caby R (2003) Terrane assembly and geodynamic evolution
of central-western Hoggar: a synthesis. Journal of
African Earth Sciences 37: 133-159.
Cahen L, Snelling NJ, Delhal J, and Vail JR (1984)
The Geochronology und Evolution of Africa. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Clifford TN (1968) Radiometric dating and the pre-Silurian
geology of Africa. In: Hamilton EI and Farquhar RM
(eds.) Radiometric Dating for Geologists, pp. 299-416.
London: Interscience.
Collins AS and Windley BF (2002) The tectonic evolution
of central and northern Madagascar and its place in the
final assembly of Gondwana. Journal of Geology 110:
325-339.
Fitzsimons ICW (2000) A review of tectonic events in the
East Antarctic shield and their implications for Gon-
dwana and earlier supercontinents. Journal of African
Earth Sciences 31: 3-23.
Hanson RE (2003) Proterozoic geochronology and tectonic
evolution of southern Africa. In: Yoshida M, Windley BF,
and Dasgupta S (eds.) Proterozoic East Gondwana:
Supercontinent Assembly und Breakup. Geological Soci-
ety, London, Special Publications 206, pp. 427-463.
Hoffman PF and Schrag DP (2002) The snowball Earth
hypothesis: testing the limits of global change. Terra
Nova 14: 129-155.
Johnson PR and Woldehaimanot B (2003) Development
of the Arabian-Nubian Shield: perspectives on accretion
and deformation in the northern East African orogen
and the assembly of Gondwana. In: Yoshida M,
Windley BF, and Dasgupta S (eds.) Proterozoic East
Gondwana: Supercontinent Assembly und Breakup.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications 206,
pp. 289-325.
Krner A (2001) She Mozambique belt of East Africa and
Madagascar; significance of zircon and Nd model ages
for Rodinia and Gondwana supercontinent formation
and dispersal. South African Journal of Geology 104:
151-166.
Kusky TM, Abdelsalam M, Stern RJ, and Tucker RD (eds.)
(2003) Evolution of the East African and related oro-
gens, and the assembly of Gondwana. Precambrian Res.
123: 82-85.
Meert JG (2003) A synopsis of events related to the
assembly of eastern Gondwana. Tectonophysics 362:
1-40.
Miller RMcG (ed.) (1983) Evolution of the Damara Oro-
gen of South West AfricalNamiba. Geological Society of
South Africa, Special Publications, 11.
Mosley PN (1993) Geological evolution of the late Protero-
zoic 'Mozambique Belt' of Kenya. Tectonophysics 221:
223-250.
Porada H and Berhorst V (2000) Towards a new under-
standing of the Neoproterozoic-early Palaeozoic Lufilian
and northern Zambezi belts in Zambia and the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo. Journal of African Earth
Sciences 30: 727-771.
Stern RJ (1994) Arc assembly and continental collision in
the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: implications
for the consolidation of Gondwanaland. Annual Reviews
Earth Planetary Sciences 22: 319-351.
Toteu SF, Penaye J, and Djomani YP (2004) Geodynamic
evolution of the Pan-African belt in central Africa with
special reference t o Cameroon. Canadian Journal of
Earth Science 41: 73-85.
Veevers JJ (2003) Pan-African is Pan-Gondwanaland: ob-
lique convergence drives rotation during 650-500Ma
assembly. Geology 31: 501-504.