Next: Elements of Style

Narrative
A narrative is a sequence of events that a narrator tells in story form. A narrator is
a storyteller of any kind, whether the authorial voice in a novel or a friend telling you
about last nights party.
Point of View
The point of view is the perspective that a narrative takes toward the events it
describes.
First-person narration: A narrative in which the narrator tells the story from hisher
own point of view and refers to himherself as !".# The narrator may be an active
participant in the story or $ust an observer. %hen the point of view represented is
specifically the authors, and not a fictional narrators, the story is autobiographical
and may be nonfictional &see 'ommon (iterary )orms and *enres below+.
Third-person narration: The narrator remains outside the story and describes the
characters in the story using proper names and the third,person pronouns !he,#
!she,# !it,# and !they.#
Omniscient narration: The narrator knows all of the actions, feelings, and
motivations of all of the characters. )or e-ample, the narrator of (eo
Tolstoys Anna Karenina seems to know everything about all the characters
and events in the story.
Limited omniscient narration: The narrator knows the actions, feelings,
and motivations of only one or a handful of characters. )or e-ample, the
narrator of (ewis 'arrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland has full
knowledge of only Alice.
Free indirect discourse: The narrator conveys a characters inner thoughts
while staying in the third person. *ustave )laubert pioneered this style in
Madame Bovary, as in this passage. !Sometimes she thought that these
were after all the best days of her life, the honeymoon, so,called.#
Obective narration: A style in which the narrator reports neutrally on the outward
behavior of the characters but offers no interpretation of their actions or their inner
states. Ernest /emingway pioneered this style.
!nreliable narration: The narrator is revealed over time to be an untrustworthy
source of information. /umbert in 0ladimir 1abokovs Lolita and Stevens in 2a3uo
"shiguros The Remains of the Day are good e-amples of unreliable narrators.
"tream-of-consciousness narration: The narrator conveys a sub$ects thoughts,
impressions, and perceptions e-actly as they occur, often in dis$ointed fashion and
without the logic and grammar of typical speech and writing. 4olly 5looms
monologue in the final chapter of 6ames 6oyces 7lysses is an e-ample of stream of
consciousness. %hile stream,of,consciousness narration usually is written in the
first person, it can, by means of free indirect discourse &see above+, be written in
the third person, as in 0irginia %oolfs Mrs. Dalloay.
#haracter
A character is a person, animal, or any other thing with a personality that appears
in a story.
Protagonist: The main character around whom the story revolves. "f the
protagonist is admirable, he or she is called the hero or heroine of the story. A
protagonist who is not admirable, or who challenges our notions of what should be
considered admirable, is called an antihero or antiheroine$ )or e-ample, %illy
(oman in Arthur 4illers Death of a !alesman is an antihero because he is ordinary
and pathetic, whereas 4eursault in Albert 'amuss The !tran"er is an antihero
because he challenges the traditional conception of what a hero should be.
%ntagonist: The primary character or entity that acts to frustrate the goals of the
protagonist. The antagonist typically is a character but may also be a nonhuman
force. )or e-ample, 'laudius is the antagonist in Shakespeares #amlet, whereas
the military bureaucracy is the antagonist in 6oseph /ellers $atch%&&.
"toc& character: A common character type that recurs throughout literature.
1otable e-amples include the witty servant, the scheming villain, the femme fatale,
the trusty sidekick, the old miser, and so on. A stock character that holds a central
place in a cultures folklore or consciousness may be called an archet'pe &see
Thematic 4eaning, belo+.
Foil: A character who illuminates the qualities of another character by means of
contrast. "n 6ohn 2eatss !8de to a 1ightingale,# the swiftly traveling nightingale
serves as a foil to 2eatss sleepy, opium,laden narrator.
Plot
A plot is the arrangement of the events in a story, including the sequence in which
they are told, the relative emphasis they are given, and the causal connections
between events.
(lements of a plot: A plot can have a complicated structure, but most plots have
the same basic elements.
1. #onflict: The central struggle that moves the plot forward. The conflict can
be the protagonists struggle against fate, nature, society, or another person.
"n certain circumstances, the conflict can be between opposing elements
within the protagonist.
2. )ising action: The early part of the narrative, which builds momentum and
develops the narratives ma$or conflict.
3. #limax: The moment of highest tension, at which the conflict comes to a
head. The word !clima-# can refer either to the single moment of highest
tension in the plot or, more generally, to any episode of high tension. An
anticlimax occurs when the plot builds up to an e-pected clima- only to
tease the reader with a frustrating non,event. 6ane Austens novels, such as
!ense and !ensibility, are full of romantic anticlima-es.
4. Falling action: Also called the denouement* this is the latter part of the
narrative, during which the protagonist responds to the events of the clima-
and the various plot elements introduced in the rising action are resolved.
5. )eversal: Sometimes called by its *reek name, peripeteia* a reversal is a
sudden shift that sends the protagonists fortunes from good to bad or vice
versa.
6. )esolution: An ending that satisfactorily answers all the questions raised
over the course of the plot.
T'pes of plot: 9lots can take a wide variety of forms, ranging from orderly
sequences of clearly related events to chaotic $umbles of loosely connected events.
#hronological plot: Events are arranged in the sequence in which they
occur. Ernest /emingways The 'ld Man and the !ea, for e-ample, tells a
roughly straightforward story from beginning to end.
%chronological plot: Events are not arranged in the sequence in which they
occur. )or e-ample, /omers (liad is full of flashbacks and digressions that
relate what happened before and after the central conflict of the poem.
#limactic plot: All the action focuses toward a single clima-. Aeschyluss
A"amemnon is a classic e-ample of a climactic plot.
(pisodic plot: A series of loosely connected events. 'ervantess Don
)ui*ote is episodic.
Non se+uitur plot: 4ore of an !anti,plot,# the non sequitur plot defies
traditional logic by presenting events without any clear sequence and
characters without any clear motivation. The theater of the absurd &see
(iterary 4ovements, belo+ is particularly famous for its non sequiturs.
"ubplot: A secondary plot that is of less importance to the overall story but
may serve as a point of contrast or comparison to the main plot. )or
e-ample, the subplot involving *loucester and his sons in Shakespeares
Kin" Lear serves this function.
"etting
"etting is the location of a narrative in time and space. "t may be specifically
historical or geographical, as in the ancient :ome of :obert *ravess (, $laudius, or
it may be imaginary, as in the 1everland of 6. 4. 5arries +eter +an. The suggestive
mood that the setting may create is called the atmosphere$ )or e-ample, the open
windows of the nursery in +eter +an create an atmosphere of innocence and magic.

(lements of "t'le

Figures of Speech
Figures of speech are e-pressions that stretch words beyond their literal
meanings. 5y connecting or $u-taposing different sounds and thoughts, figures of
speech increase the breadth and subtlety of e-pression.
%lliteration: The repetition of similar sounds, usually consonants, at the beginning
of words. )or e-ample, :obert )rosts poem !8ut, out;# contains the alliterative
phrase !sweet scented stuff.#
%posiopesis: A breaking,off of speech, usually because of rising emotion or
e-citement. )or e-ample, !Touch me one more time, and " swear;#
%postrophe: A direct address to an absent or dead person, or to an ob$ect, quality,
or idea. %alt %hitmans poem !8 'aptain, 4y 'aptain,# written upon the death of
Abraham (incoln, is an e-ample of apostrophe.
%ssonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words.
)or e-ample, Alfred, (ord Tennyson creates assonance with the !o# sound in this
line from !The (otos,Eaters#. !All day the wind breathes low with mellower tone.#
#acophon': The clash of discordant or harsh sounds within a sentence or phrase.
'acophony is a familiar feature of tongue twisters but can also be used to poetic
effect, as in the words !anfractuous rocks# in T. S. Eliots !Sweeney Erect.# Although
dissonance has a different musical meaning, it is sometimes used interchangeably
with !cacophony.#
#hiasmus: Two phrases in which the synta- is the same but the placement of
words is reversed, as in these lines from Samuel Taylor 'oleridges !The 9ains of
Sleep#. !To be beloved is all " need, And whom " love, " love indeed.#
#lich,: An e-pression such as !turn over a new leaf# that has been used so
frequently it has lost its e-pressive power.
#ollo+uialism: An informal e-pression or slang, especially in the conte-t of formal
writing, as in 9hilip (arkins !Send 1o 4oney#. !All the other lads there %ere
itching to have a bash.#
#onceit: An elaborate parallel between two seemingly dissimilar ob$ects or ideas.
The metaph'sical poets &see (iterary 4ovements, belo+ are especially known for
their conceits, as in 6ohn <onnes !The )lea.#
(pithet: An ad$ective or phrase that describes a prominent feature of a person or
thing. !:ichard =the (ionheart # and ! =Shoeless 6oe 6ackson# are both e-amples of
epithets.
(uphemism: The use of decorous language to e-press vulgar or unpleasant ideas,
events, or actions. )or e-ample, !passed away# instead of !died#> !ethnic cleansing#
instead of !genocide.#
(uphon': A pleasing arrangement of sounds. 4any consider !cellar door# one of
the most euphonious phrases in English.
-'perbole: An e-cessive overstatement or conscious e-aggeration of fact. !"ve
told you about it a million times already.#
.diom: A common e-pression that has acquired a meaning that differs from its
literal meaning, such as !its raining cats and dogs# or !a bolt from the blue.#
Litotes: A form of understatement in which a statement is affirmed by negating its
opposite. !/e is not unfriendly.#
/eiosis: "ntentional understatement, as, for e-ample, in Shakespeares Romeo
and ,uliet, when 4ercutio is mortally wounded and says it is only !a scratch.#
4eiosis is the opposite of h'perbole and often employs litotes to ironic effect.
/etaphor: The comparison of one thing to another that does not use the terms
!like# or !as.# Shakespeare is famous for his metaphors, as in Macbeth. !(ife is but a
walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage.#
/ixed metaphor: A combination of metaphors that produces a confused or
contradictory image, such as !The companys collapse left mountains of debt
in its wake.#
/eton'm': The substitution of one term for another that generally is associated
with it. )or e-ample, !suits# instead of !businessmen.#
Onomatopoeia: The use of words, such as !pop,# !hiss,# and !boing,# that sound
like the thing they refer to.
Ox'moron: The association of two contrary terms, as in the e-pressions !same
difference# or !wise fool.#
Paradox: A statement that seems absurd or even contradictory on its face but often
e-presses a deeper truth. )or e-ample, a line in 8scar %ildes !The 5allad of
:eading *aol#. !And all men kill the thing they love.#
Paralipsis: Also known as praeteritio* the technique of drawing attention to
something by claiming not to mention it. )or e-ample, from /erman 4elvilles
Moby%Dic-. !%e will not speak of all ?ueequegs peculiarities here> how he
eschewed coffee and hot rolls, and applied his undivided attention to beefsteaks,
done rare.#
Parallelism: The use of similar grammatical structures or word order in two
sentences or phrases to suggest a comparison or contrast between them. "n
Shakespeares !Sonnet @AB#. !5efore, a $oy proposed> behind, a dream.#
9arallelism also can refer to parallels between larger elements in a narrative &see
(iterary Techniques, belo+.
Pathetic fallac': The attribution of human feeling or motivation to a nonhuman
ob$ect, especially an ob$ect found in nature. )or e-ample, 6ohn 2eatss !8de to
4elancholy# describes a !weeping# cloud.
Periphrasis: An elaborate and roundabout manner of speech that uses more words
than necessary. Saying !" appear to be entirely without financial resources# instead
of !"m broke# is an e-ample. Euphemisms often employ periphrasis.
Personification: The use of human characteristics to describe animals, things, or
ideas. 'arl Sandburgs poem !'hicago# describes the city as !Stormy, husky,
brawling, 'ity of the 5ig Shoulders.#
Pun: A play on words that e-ploits the similarity in sound between two words with
distinctly different meanings. )or e-ample, the title of 8scar %ildes play The
(m.ortance of Bein" /arnest is a pun on the word !earnest,# which means !serious
or sober,# and the name !Ernest,# which figures into a scheme that some of the
plays main characters perpetrate.
)hetorical +uestion: A question that is asked not to elicit a response but to make
an impact or call attention to something. )or e-ample, the question !"snt she
greatC# e-presses regard for another person and does not call for discussion.
"arcasm: A simple form of verbal iron' &see (iterary Techniques, belo+ in which
it is obvious from conte-t and tone that the speaker means the opposite of what he
or she says. Sarcasm usually, but not always, e-presses scorn. 'ommenting !That
was graceful# when someone trips and falls is an e-ample.
"imile: A comparison of two things through the use of !like# or !as.# The title of
:obert 5urnss poem !4y (ove "s (ike a :ed, :ed :ose# is a simile.
"'naesthesia: The use of one kind of sensory e-perience to describe another,
such as in the line !/eard melodies are sweet# in 6ohn 2eatss !8de on a *recian
7rn.#
"'necdoche: A form of metonymy in which a part of an entity is used to refer to the
whole, for e-ample, !my wheels# for !my car.#
Trope: A category of figures of speech that e-tend the literal meanings of words by
inviting a comparison to other words, things, or ideas. 4etaphor, metonymy, and
simile are three common tropes.
0eugma: The use of one word in a sentence to modify two other words in the
sentence, typically in two different ways. )or e-ample, in 'harles <ickenss The
+ic-ic- +a.ers, the sentence !4r. 9ickwick took his hat and his leave# uses the
word !took# to mean two different things.


Literary Techniques
%hereas figures of speech work on the level of individual words or sentences,
writers also use a variety of techniques to add clarity or intensity to a larger
passage, advance the plot in a particular way, or suggest connections between
elements in the plot.
%llusion: An implicit reference within a literary work to a historical or literary
person, place, or event. )or e-ample, the title of %illiam )aulkners novel The
!ound and the 0ury alludes to a line from Shakespeares Macbeth. Authors use
allusion to add symbolic weight because it makes subtle or implicit connections with
other works. )or e-ample, in /erman 4elvilles Moby%Dic-, 'aptain Ahabs name
alludes to the wicked and idolatrous biblical king Ahab;a connection that adds
depth to our understanding of Ahabs character.
%nagnorisis: A moment of recognition or discovery, primarily used in reference to
*reek tragedy. )or e-ample, in Euripides The Bacchae, Agave e-periences
anagnorisis when she discovers that she has murdered her own son, 9entheus.
1athos: A sudden and une-pected drop from the lofty to the trivial or e-cessively
sentimental. 5athos sometimes is used intentionally, to create humor, but $ust as
often is derided as miscalculation or poor $udgment on a writers part. An e-ample
from Ale-ander 9ope. !De *odsE Annihilate but Space and Time And make two
lovers happy.#
#aricature: A description or characteri3ation that e-aggerates or distorts a
characters prominent features, usually to elicit mockery. )or e-ample, in $andide,
0oltaire portrays the character of 9angloss as a mocking caricature of the optimistic
rationalism of philosophers like (eibni3.
Deus ex machina: *reek for !*od from a machine.# The phrase originally referred
to a technique in ancient tragedy in which a mechanical god was lowered onto the
stage to intervene and solve the plays problems or bring the play to a satisfactory
conclusion. 1ow, the term describes more generally a sudden or improbable plot
twist that brings about the plots resolution.
(piphan': A sudden, powerful, and often spiritual or life changing reali3ation that a
character reaches in an otherwise ordinary or everyday moment. 4any of the short
stories in 6ames 6oyces Dubliners involve moments of epiphany.
Foreshadowing: An authors deliberate use of hints or suggestions to give a
preview of events or themes that do not develop until later in the narrative. )or
e-ample, in Emily 5rontFs Wutherin" #ei"hts, the nightmares (ockwood has the
night he spends in 'atherines bed prefigure later events in the novel.
In medias rest: (atin for !in the middle of things.# The term refers to the technique
of starting a narrative in the middle of the action. )or e-ample, 6ohn 4iltons
+aradise Lost, which concerns the war among the angels in /eaven, opens after
the fallen angels already are in /ell and only later e-amines the events that led to
their e-pulsion from /eaven.
.nterior monologue: A record of a characters thoughts, unmediated by a narrator.
"nterior monologue sometimes takes the form of stream-of-consciousness
narration &see 9oint of 0iew, above+ but often is more structured and logical than
stream of consciousness.
.nvocation: A prayer for inspiration to a god or muse usually placed at the
beginning of an epic. /omers (liad and 'dyssey both open with invocations.
.ron': A wide,ranging technique of detachment that draws awareness to the
discrepancy between words and their meanings, between e-pectation and
fulfillment, or, most generally, between what is and what seems to be.
Verbal iron': The use of a statement that, by its conte-t, implies its
opposite. )or e-ample, in Shakespeares ,ulius $aesar, Antony repeats,
!5rutus is an honorable man,# while clearly implying that 5rutus is
dishonorable. "arcasm &see )igures of Speech, above+ is a particularly blunt
form of verbal irony.
"ituational iron': A technique in which one understanding of a situation
stands in sharp contrast to another, usually more prevalent, understanding of
the same situation. )or e-ample, %ilfred 8wens !<ulce et <ecorum Est#
comments on the grotesque difference between politicians high,minded
praise of the noble warrior and the unspeakably awful conditions of soldiers
at the front.
)omantic iron': An authors persistent reminding of his or her presence in
the work. 5y drawing attention to the artifice of the work, the author ensures
that the reader or audience will maintain critical detachment and not simply
accept the writing at face value. (aurence Sterne employs romantic irony in
Tristram !handy by discussing the writing of the novel in the novel itself.
2ramatic iron': A technique in which the author lets the audience or reader
in on a characters situation while the character himself remains in the dark.
%ith dramatic irony, the characters words or actions carry a significance that
the character is not aware of. %hen used in tragedy, dramatic irony is called
tragic iron'$ 8ne e-ample is in Sophocles 'edi.us Re*, when 8edipus
vows to discover his fathers murderer, not knowing, as the audience does,
that he himself is the murderer.
#osmic iron': The perception of fate or the universe as malicious or
indifferent to human suffering, which creates a painful contrast between our
purposeful activity and its ultimate meaninglessness. Thomas /ardys novels
abound in cosmic irony.
/elodrama: The use of sentimentality, gushing emotion, or sensational action or
plot twists to provoke audience or reader response. 4elodrama was popular in
0ictorian England, but critics now deride it as manipulative and hokey. 'harles
<ickenss The 'ld $uriosity !ho., for e-ample, is a particularly melodramatic work.
Parallelism: Similarities between elements in a narrative &such as two characters
or two plot lines+. )or instance, in Shakespeares Kin" Lear, both (ear and
*loucester suffer at the hands of their own children because they are blind to which
of their children are goodhearted and which are2ing (ear, evil. 9arallelism can also
occur on the level of sentences or phrases &see )igures of Speech, above+.
Pathos: )rom the *reek word for !feeling,# the quality in a work of literature that
evokes high emotion, most commonly sorrow, pity, or compassion. 'harles <ickens
e-ploits pathos very effectively, especially when describing the deaths of his
characters.
Poetic diction: The use of specific types of words, phrases, or literary structures
that are not common in contemporary speech or prose. )or e-ample, %ilfred
8wens !Sonnet 8n Seeing a 9iece of 8ur Artillery 5rought "nto Action,# though
written in the AGth century, uses antiquated diction and the time,tested sonnet form.
The intentional discrepancy creates an ironic contrast between the horrors of
modern war and the way poets wrote about war in the past. !5e slowly lifted up,
thou long black arm, *reat gun towering toward /eaven, about to curse.#
Poetic license The liberty that authors sometimes take with ordinary rules of synta-
and grammar, employing unusual vocabulary, metrical devices, or figures of speech
or committing factual errors in order to strengthen a passage of writing. )or
e-ample, the poet e. e. cummings takes poetic license in violating rules of
capitali3ation in his works.
3it: A form of wordplay that displays cleverness or ingenuity with language. 8ften,
but not always, wit displays humor. 8scar %ildes plays are famous for their witty
phrases, which e-pose the hypocrisies of the intellectual beliefs of %ildes time.


Thematic Meaning
(iterature becomes universal when it draws connections between the particular and
the general. 8ften, certain levels of a literary works meaning are not immediately
evident. The following terms relate to the relationship between the words on the
page and the deeper significance those words may hold.
%rchet'pe: A theme* motif* s'mbol* or stoc& character that holds a familiar and
fi-ed place in a cultures consciousness. )or e-ample, many cultures across the
world feature an archetype of the resurrected god to herald the coming of spring.
The )isher 2ing, 6esus 'hrist, and the goddess 9ersephone are three familiar
instances of this archetype in %estern culture.
(mblem: A concrete ob$ect that represents something abstract. )or e-ample, the
Star of <avid is an emblem of 6udaism. An emblem differs from a s'mbol in that an
emblems meaning is fi-ed. the Star of <avid always represents 6udaism,
regardless of conte-t.
.mager': (anguage that brings to mind sense,impressions, especially via figures of
speech. Sometimes, certain imagery is characteristic of a particular writer or work.
)or e-ample, many of Shakespeares plays contain nautical imagery.
/otif: A recurring structure, contrast, or other device that develops or informs a
works ma$or themes. A motif may relate to concrete ob$ects, like Eastern vs.
%estern architecture in E. 4. )orsters A +assa"e to (ndia, or may be a recurrent
idea, phrase, or emotion, like (ily 5arts constant desire to move up in the world in
Edith %hartons The #ouse of Mirth.
"'mbol: An ob$ect, character, figure, or color that is used to represent an abstract
idea or concept. )or e-ample, the two roads in :obert )rosts poem !The :oad 1ot
Taken# symboli3e the choice between two paths in life. 7nlike an emblem* a
symbol may have different meanings in different conte-ts.
Theme: A fundamental and universal idea e-plored in a literary work. )or e-ample,
a ma$or theme of 6ohn Steinbecks /ast of /den is the perpetual contest between
good and evil.
Thesis: The central argument that an author makes in a work. Although the term is
primarily associated with nonfiction, it can apply to fiction. )or e-ample, the thesis of
7pton Sinclairs The ,un"le is that 'hicago meatpacking plants sub$ect poor
immigrants to horrible and un$ust working conditions, and that the government must
do something to address the problem.
Tone: The general atmosphere created in a story, or the narrators attitude toward
the story or reader. )or e-ample, the tone of )yodor <ostoevskys 1otes from
2nder"round is outraged, defiant, and claustrophobic.
(lements of Poetr'
Poetr' is a literary form characteri3ed by a strong sense of rhythm and meter and
an emphasis on the interaction between sound and sense. The study of the
elements of poetry is called prosod'$ )or an in,depth e-planation of poetry and
poetic forms, see the Poetry "par& #hart$

Rhythm and Meter
:hythm and meter are the building blocks of poetry. )h'thm is the pattern of sound
created by the varying length and emphasis given to different syllables. The rise
and fall of spoken language is called its cadence$
/eter
/eter is the rhythmic pattern created in a line of verse. There are four basic kinds
of meter.
%ccentual 4strong-stress5 meter: The number of stressed syllables in a line is
fi-ed, but the number of total syllables is not. This kind of meter is common in
Anglo,Sa-on poetry, such as Beoulf. *erard 4anley /opkins developed a form of
accentual meter called sprung rh'thm* which had considerable influence on AGth,
century poetry.
"'llabic meter: The number of total syllables in a line is fi-ed, but the number of
stressed syllables is not. This kind of meter is relatively rare in English poetry.
%ccentual-s'llabic meter: 5oth the number of stressed syllables and the number
of total syllables is fi-ed. Accentual,syllabic meter has been the most common kind
of meter in English poetry since 'haucer in the late 4iddle Ages.
6uantitative meter: The duration of sound of each syllable, rather than its stress,
determines the meter. ?uantitative meter is common in *reek, (atin, Sanskrit, and
Arabic but not in English.
The Foot
The foot is the basic rhythmic unit into which a line of verse can be divided. %hen
reciting verse, there usually is a slight pause between feet. %hen this pause is
especially pronounced, it is called a caesura$ The process of analy3ing the number
and type of feet in a line is called scansion$
These are the most common types of feet in English poetry.
.amb: An unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. !to da' #
Trochee: A stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. ! car ry#
2act'l: A stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. ! diff icult#
%napest: Two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. !it is
time #
"pondee: Two successive syllables with strong stresses. 7stop* thief8
P'rrhic: Two successive syllables with light stresses. !up to#
4ost English poetry has four or five feet in a line, but it is not uncommon to see as
few as one or as many as eight.
/onometer: 8ne foot
2imeter: Two feet
Trimeter: Three feet
Tetrameter: )our feet
Pentameter: )ive feet
-exameter: Si- feet
-eptameter: Seven feet
Octameter: Eight feet
T'pes of %ccentual-"'llabic /eter
Accentual,syllabic meter is determined by the number and type of feet in a line of
verse.
.ambic pentameter: Each line of verse has five feet &pentameter+, each of which
consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable &iamb+. "ambic
pentameter is one of the most popular metrical schemes in English poetry.
1lan& verse: 7nrhymed iambic pentameter. 5lank verse bears a close
resemblance to the rhythms of ordinary speech, giving poetry a natural feel.
Shakespeares plays are written primarily in blank verse.
1allad: Alternating tetrameter and trimeter, usually iambic and rhyming. 5allad
form, which is common in traditional folk poetry and song, en$oyed a revival in the
:omantic period with such poems as Samuel Taylor 'oleridges !The :ime of the
Ancient 4ariner.#
Free verse: 0erse that does not conform to any fi-ed meter or rhyme scheme. )ree
verse is not, however, loose or unrestricted. its rules of composition are as strict
and difficult as traditional verse, for they rely on less evident rhythmic patterns to
give the poem shape. %alt %hitmans Leaves of 3rass is a seminal work of free
verse.


Line and Stanza
9oetry generally is divided into lines of verse. A grouping of lines, equivalent to a
paragraph in prose, is called a stan9a$ 8n the printed page, line breaks normally
are used to separate stan3as from one another.
T'pes of )h'me
8ne common way of creating a sense of musicality between lines of verse is to
make them rh'me$
(nd rh'me: A rhyme that comes at the end of a line of verse. 4ost rhyming poetry
uses end rhymes.
.nternal rh'me: A rhyme between two or more words within a single line of verse,
as in !*ods *randeur# by *erard 4anley /opkins. !And all is seared with trade>
bleared, smeared with toil.#
/asculine rh'me: A rhyme consisting of a single stressed syllable, as in the rhyme
between !car# and !far.#
Feminine rh'me: A rhyme consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable, as in the rhyme between !mother# and !brother.#
Perfect rh'me: An e-act match of sounds in a rhyme.
"lant rh'me: An imperfect rhyme, also called obli+ue rh'me or off rh'me* in
which the sounds are similar but not e-actly the same, as between !port# and
!heart.# 4odern poets often use slant rhyme as a subtler alternative to perfect
rhyme.
)h'me "chemes
:hymes do not always occur between two successive lines of verse. /ere are
some of the most common rh'me schemes$
#ouplet: Two successive rhymed lines that are equal in length. A heroic couplet is
a pair of rhyming lines in iambic pentameter. "n Shakespeares plays, characters
often speak a heroic couplet before e-iting, as in these lines from /amlet. !The time
is out of $oint. 8 cursed spite, That ever " was born to set it rightE#
6uatrain: A four,line stan3a. The most common form of English verse, the quatrain
has many variants. 8ne of the most important is the heroic +uatrain* written in
iambic pentameter with an A5A5 rhyme scheme.
Tercet: A grouping of three lines, often bearing a single rhyme.
Terza rima: A system of interlaced tercets linked by common rhymes. A5A 5'5
'<' etc. <ante pioneered ter4a rima in The Divine $omedy. The form is hard to
maintain in English, although there are some notable e-ceptions, such as 9ercy
5ysshe Shelleys !8de to the %est %ind.#


ther Techniques
Punctuation: (ike syllable stresses and rhyme, punctuation marks influence the
musicality of a line of poetry.
%hen there is a break at the end of a line denoted by a comma, period,
semicolon, or other punctuation mark, that line is end-stopped$
"n enambment* a sentence or clause runs onto the ne-t line without a
break. En$ambment creates a sense of suspense or e-citement and gives
added emphasis to the word at the end of the line, as in 6ohn 2eatss !8de
to a 1ightingale#. !Thy plaintive anthem fades 9ast the near meadows, over
the still stream.#
)epetition: %ords, sounds, phrases, lines, or elements of synta- may repeat within
a poem. Sometimes, repetition can enhance an element of meaning, but at other
times it can dilute or dissipate meaning.
%lliteration: The repetition of sounds in initial stressed syllables &see
)igures of Speech, above+.
%ssonance: The repetition of vowel sounds &see )igures of Speech, above+.
)efrain: A phrase or group of lines that is repeated at significant moments
within a poem, usually at the end of a stan3a.


Poetic Forms
'ertain traditional forms of poetry have a distinctive stan3a length combined with a
distinctive meter or rhyme pattern. /ere are some popular forms.
-ai&u: A compact form of 6apanese poetry written in three lines of five, seven, and
five syllables, respectively.
Limeric&: A fanciful five,line poem with an AA55A rhyme scheme in which the first,
second, and fifth lines have three feet and the third and fourth have two feet.
tta!a rima: "n English, an eight,line stan3a with iambic pentameter and the rhyme
scheme A5A5A5''. This form is difficult to use in English, where it is hard to find
two rhyming triplets that do not sound childish. "ts effect is ma$estic yet simple.
%illiam 5utler Deatss poem !Among School 'hildren# uses ottava rima.
"estina: Si- si-,line stan3as followed by a three,line stan3a. The same si- words
are repeated at the end of lines throughout the poem in a predetermined pattern.
The last word in the last line of one stan3a becomes the last word of the first line in
the ne-t. All si- endwords appear in the final three,line stan3a. Sir 9hilip Sidneys
Arcadia contains e-amples of the sestina.
"onnet: A single,stan3a lyric poem containing fourteen lines written in iambic
pentameter. "n some formulations, the first eight lines 4octave5 pose a question or
dilemma that is resolved in the final si- lines 4sestet5$ There are three predominant
sonnet forms.
.talian or Petrarchan sonnet: <eveloped by the "talian poet 9etrarch, this
sonnet is divided into an octave with the rhyme scheme A55AA55A or
A55A'<<' and a sestet with the rhyme scheme '<E'<E or '<''<'.
"ha&espearean sonnet: Also called the (nglish sonnet or (li9abethan
sonnet* this poetic form, which Shakespeare made famous, contains three
quatrains and a final couplet. The rhyme scheme is A5A5 '<'< E)E) **.
"penserian sonnet: A variant that the poet Edmund Spenser developed
from the Shakespearean sonnet. The Spenserian sonnet has the rhyme
scheme A5A5 5'5''<'< EE.
Villanelle: A nineteen,line poem made up of five tercets and a final quatrain in
which all nineteen lines carry one of only two rhymes. There are two refrains,
alternating between the ends of each tercet and then forming the last two lines of
the quatrain. <ylan Thomass !<o 1ot *o *entle "nto That *ood 1ight# is a famous
e-ample.
Previous: Elements of 9oetry
Next: (iterary 4ovements and 9eriods


#ommon Literar' Forms and :enres
%llegor': A narrative in which literal meaning corresponds clearly and directly to
symbolic meaning. )or e-ample, the literal story in 6ohn 5unyans The +il"rims
+ro"ress;'hristians $ourney from the 'ity of <estruction to the 'elestial 'ity;is
an allegory for the spiritual $ourney from sin to holiness.
%necdote: The brief narration of a single event or incident.
%phorism: A concise e-pression of insight or wisdom. !The vanity of others offends
our taste only when it offends our vanity# &)riedrich 1iet3sche, Beyond 3ood and
/vil+.
%utobiograph': The nonfictional story of a persons life, told by that person. St.
Augustines $onfessions is an early, canonical work in this genre &see also
memoir*belo+.
1allad: Traditionally, a folk song telling a story or legend in simple language, often
with a refrain. A number of poets outside the folk tradition have adopted the ballad
form, as Samuel Taylor 'oleridge did in !The :ime of the Ancient 4ariner.#
1iograph': The nonfictional story of a persons life. 6ames 5oswells Life of
,ohnson is one of the most celebrated works of biography. %hen the author of a
biography is also its sub$ect, the work is an autobiograph' &see above+.
1lac& comed': <isturbing or absurd material presented in a humorous manner,
usually with the intention to confront uncomfortable truths. 6oseph /ellers $atch%&&
is a notable e-ample.
1urles+ue: A humorous imitation of a serious work of literature. The humor often
arises from the incongruity between the imitation and the work being imitated. )or
e-ample, Ale-ander 9opes The Ra.e of the Loc- uses the high diction of epic
poetry to talk about a domestic matter.
#onfessional poetr': An autobiographical poetic genre in which the poet
discusses intensely personal sub$ect matter with unusual frankness. The genre was
popular from the late @BHGs to the late @BIGs, due in part to :obert (owells Life
!tudies &@BHB+.
2idactic literature: (iterature intended to instruct or educate. )or e-ample, 0irgils
3eor"ics contains farming advice in verse form.
2irge: A short poetic e-pression of grief. A dirge differs from an eleg' &see belo+
in that it often is embedded within a larger work, is less highly structured, and is
meant to be sung. Ariels song !)ull fathom five thy father lies# in Shakespeares
The Tem.est is an e-ample of a dirge.
2rama: A composition that is meant to be performed. The term often is used
interchangeably with pla' &see belo+, but drama is a broader term that includes
some forms that may not strictly be defined as plays, such as radio broadcasts,
comedy sketches, and opera.
2ramatic monologue: A poem that contains words that a fictional or historical
character speaks to a particular audience. Alfred, (ord Tennysons !7lysses# is a
famous e-ample.
2'stopic literature: A genre of fiction that presents an imagined future society that
purports to be perfect and utopian but that the author presents to the reader as
horrifyingly inhuman. 7sually the author intends to warn contemporary readers that
their own society resembles, or is in danger of resembling, this flawed future world.
*eorge 8rwells @BJK and Aldous /u-leys Brave 1e World are well,known works
of dystopic literature.
(clogue: A short pastoral poem &see belo+ in the form of a solilo+u' &see belo+
or dialogue between two shepherds. 0irgils /clo"ues is the most famous e-ample
of this genre.
(leg': A formal poem that laments the death of a friend or public figure, or,
occasionally, a meditation on death itself. "n *reek and (atin poetry, the term
applies to a specific type of meter &alternating he-ameters and pentameters+
regardless of content, but only some elegies in English obey that meter. 9ercy
5ysshe Shelleys poem !Adonais,# which mourns the death of 6ohn 2eats, is an
e-ample of an elegy.
(pic: A lengthy narrative that describes the deeds of a heroic figure, often of
national or cultural importance, in elevated language. Strictly, the term applies only
to verse narratives like Beoulf or 0irgils Aeneid, but it is used to describe prose,
drama, or film works of similar scope, such as (eo Tolstoys War and +eace or
0ictor /ugos Les Mis5rables.
(pigram: A succinct, witty statement, often in verse. )or e-ample, %illiam
%ordsworths observation !The child is the father of the man.#
(ssa': A form of nonfictional discussion or argument that 4ichel de 4ontaigne
pioneered in the @HGGs. Essays are fle-ible in form. although they usually are short
prose works, there are also e-amples of book,length essays &by 6ohn (ocke+ and
verse essays &by Ale-ander 9ope+.
Fable: A short prose or verse narrative, such as those by Aesop, that illustrates a
moral, which often is stated e-plicitly at the end. )requently, the characters in a
fable are animals that embody different human character traits.
Fiction: An invented narrative, as opposed to one that reports true events.
Legend: A story about a heroic figure derived from oral tradition and based partly
on fact and partly on fiction. The terms legend and m'th &see belo+ are often used
interchangeably, but legends are typically rooted in real historical events, whereas
myths are primarily supernatural. The stories of 2ing Arthur and :obin /ood are
e-amples of legends.
L'ric: A short poetic composition that describes the thoughts of a single speaker.
4ost modern poetry is lyrical &as opposed to dramatic or narrative+, employing such
common forms as the ode and sonnet.
/emoir: An autobiographical work. :ather than focus e-clusively on the authors
life, it pays significant attention to the authors involvement in historical events and
the characteri3ation of individuals other than the author. A famous e-ample is
%inston 'hurchills Memoirs of the !econd World War.
/etafiction: )iction that concerns the nature of fiction itself, either by reinterpreting
a previous fictional work or by drawing attention to its own fictional status. E-amples
of the former include 6ohn *ardners 3rendel, which retells the Anglo,Sa-on epic
Beoulf from a new perspective, and 4ichael 'unninghams The #ours, which
portrays three women connected to 0irginia %oolfs Mrs. Dalloay, including %oolf
herself. An e-ample of the latter is 4ilan 2underas The 2nbearable Li"htness of
Bein", in which the narrator tells the story and simultaneously comments on his own
telling of the story.
/'th: A story about the origins of a cultures beliefs and practices, or of
supernatural phenomena, usually derived from oral tradition and set in an imagined
supernatural past. 8vids Metamor.hoses is a famous early e-ample. Some writers,
such as %illiam 5lake and %illiam 5utler Deats, have invented their own myths.
4yths are similar, but not equivalent, to legends &see above+.
Noir: A fiction genre, populari3ed in the @BKGs, with a cynical, disillusioned, loner
protagonist. 1oir often involves crime or the criminal underworld. The term stems
from !film noir,# which describes films of similar style and content. 'lassic e-amples
of noir fiction include :aymond 'handlers The Bi" !lee. and <ashiell /ammetts
The Maltese 0alcon.
Nonfiction: A narrative work that reports true events.
Novel: A fictional prose narrative of significant length. Since the novel form became
popular in the @LGGs, however, the term has come to describe other works;
nonfiction novels, novels in verse, short novels, and others;that do not necessarily
fit this strict definition.
%utobiographical novel: A novel that tells a nonfictional, autobiographical
story but uses novelistic techniques, such as fictionali3ed dialogue or
anecdotes, to add color, immediacy, or thematic unity. 4aya Angelous (
Kno Why the $a"ed Bird !in"s is an autobiographical novel.
1ildungsroman: A *erman term, meaning !formation novel,# for a novel
about a child or adolescents development into maturity, with special focus
on the protagonists quest for identity. 6ames 6oyces A +ortrait of the Artist
as a 6oun" Man is a notable e-ample.
(pistolar' novel: A novel written in the form of letters e-changed by
characters in the story, such as Samuel :ichardsons $larissa or Alice
%alkers The $olor +ur.le. This form was especially popular in the @LGGs.
-istorical novel: A novel set in an earlier historical period that features a
plot shaped by the historical circumstances of that period. 4ichael
8ndaat$es The /n"lish +atient, written in the early @BBGs, portrays a tragic
romance set against the backdrop of %orld %ar "".
Novel of ideas: A novel, such as 6ean,9aul Sartres 1ausea, that the author
uses as a platform for discussing ideas. 'haracter and plot are of secondary
importance.
Novel of manners: A novel that focuses on the social customs of a certain
class of people, often with a sharp eye for irony. 6ane Austens novels are
prime e-amples of this genre.
Picares+ue novel: 8riginally, a realistic novel detailing a scoundrels
e-ploits. The term grew to refer more generally to any novel with a loosely
structured, episodic plot that revolves around the adventures of a central
character. 'ervantess Don )ui*ote is a classic picaresque novel.
"ocial protest novel: A novel in which the authors aim is to tell a story that
illuminates and draws attention to contemporary social problems with the
goal of inciting change for the better. /arriet 5eecher Stowes 2ncle Toms
$abin, which e-posed the horrors of African, American slavery, and 6ohn
Steinbecks The 3ra.es of Wrath, which populari3ed the plight of penniless
migrant workers during the *reat <epression, are e-amples.
Verse novel: A full,length fictional work that is novelistic in nature but written
in verse rather than prose. E-amples include Aleksandr 9ushkins /u"ene
'ne"in and 0ikram Seths The 3olden 3ate.
Novella: A work of fiction of middle length, often divided into a few short chapters,
such as /enry 6amess Daisy Miller.
Ode: A serious lyric poem, often of significant length, that usually conforms to an
elaborate metrical structure. An e-ample is %illiam %ordsworths !8de. "ntimations
of "mmortality.#
Parable: A short narrative that illustrates a moral by means of allegor' &see
above+.
Parod': A humorous and often satirical imitation of the style or particular work of
another author. /enry )ieldings !hamela is a parody of Samuel :ichardsons
+amela.
Pastiche: A work that imitates the style of a previous author, work, or literary genre.
Alternatively, the term may refer to a work that contains a hodgepodge of elements
or fragments from different sources or influences. 9astiche differs from parod' in
that its imitation is not meant as a form of mockery. )or e-ample, 6ohn )owless
The 0rench Lieutenants Woman was written in the @BIGs but imitates the style of
the 0ictorian novel.
Pastoral: A celebration of the simple, rustic life of shepherds and shepherdesses,
usually written by a sophisticated, urban writer. 'hristopher 4arlowes poem !The
9assionate Shepherd to /is (ove# epitomi3es pastoral themes.
Pla': A story meant to be performed in a theater before an audience. 4ost plays
are written in dialogue form and are divided into several acts$ 4any include stage
directions and instructions for sets and costumes.
#omed': A lighthearted play characteri3ed by humor and a happy ending.
(pic theater: 5ertolt 5rechts 4ar-ist approach to theater, which re$ects
emotional and psychological engagement in favor of critical detachment. /is
plays The Three.enny '.era and Mother $oura"e are two famous works in
this genre.
Farce: A form of high,energy comedy that plays on confusions and
deceptions between characters and features a convoluted and fast,paced
plot. )arce often incorporates buffoonery, slapstick, and stock characters to
provoke uproarious laughter. 4oliMre was a master of farce with such plays
as The (ma"inary (nvalid.
/iracle pla': A play from the 4iddle Ages featuring saints or miraculous
appearances by the 0irgin 4ary.
/oralit' pla': A play written in the fifteenth or si-teenth centuries that
presents an allegor' &see above+ of the 'hristian struggle for salvation.
/'ster' pla': A short play based on a biblical story. 4ystery plays, popular
in the 4iddle Ages, often were presented in c'cles* in which do3ens of plays
were performed at different locations throughout a city and collectively
presented the most significant moments in the 5ible.
Noh drama: A rituali3ed form of 6apanese drama that evolved in the @NGGs
involving masks and slow, styli3ed movement.
Problem pla': A play that confronts a contemporary social problem with the
intent of changing public opinion on the matter. /enrik "bsen populari3ed this
form in plays such as #edda 3abler.
Traged': A serious play that ends unhappily for the protagonist. Sophocles
Anti"one is one of the best,known *reek tragedies.
Tragicomed': A play such as Shakespeares A Winters Tale that mi-es
elements of tragedy and comedy.
One-act pla': A play consisting of a single act, without intermission and
running usually less than an hour. Edward Albees 7oo !tory is a well,known
e-ample.
Primitivist literature: %orks that e-press a preference for the natural over the
artificial in human culture, and a belief that the life of primitive cultures is preferable
to modern lifestyles. 9rimitivism is often associated with a nostalgia for the lost
innocence of a natural, childlike past. 6ean,6acques :ousseau was one of the
foremost advocates of primitivism in works such as ,ulie, ou la 1ouvelle #5lo8se.
Propaganda: A work of didactic literature that aims to influence the reader on a
specific social or political issue. Thomas 9aines $ommon !ense is an e-ample of
propaganda instrumental in the American :evolution.
Prose: Any composition not written in verse. The basic unit of prose is the
sentence, which distinguishes it from free verse &see poetr'* above+, in which the
basic unit is a line of verse. 9rose writing can be rhythmic, but on the whole, rhythm
in prose is less pronounced than in verse. 9rose works encompass everything from
/enry 6amess The Ambassadors, with its elaborate sentences, to Amy Tans
interconnected stories in The ,oy Luc- $lub.
Prose poem: A poetic work that features the strong rhythms of free verse &see
)h'thm and /eter*above+ but is presented on the page in the form of prose,
without line breaks. Arthur :imbauds (lluminations is an e-ample of a prose poem.
)omance: A nonrealistic story, in verse or prose, that features ideali3ed characters,
improbable adventures, and e-otic settings. Although love often plays a significant
role, the association of !romance# with !love# is a modern phenomenon. :omances,
such as Edmund Spensers The 0aerie )ueene, were particularly popular in the
4iddle Ages and :enaissance.
#hivalric romance: A romance that describes the adventures of medieval
knights and celebrates their strict code of honor, loyalty, and respectful
devotion to women. Sir *awain and the *reen 2night is an e-ample of a
chivalric romance.
"atire: A work that e-poses to ridicule the shortcomings of individuals, institutions,
or society, often to make a political point. 6onathan Swifts 3ullivers Travels is one
of the most well known satires in English.
"cience fiction: )iction that is set in an alternative reality;often a technologically
advanced future;and that contains fantastical elements. The genre traces its roots
to the works of 6ules 0erne and /. *. %ells in the late @JGGs. 1otable AGth,century
science fiction writers include :ay 5radbury and "saac Asimov.
"hort stor': A work of prose fiction that is much shorter than a novel &rarely more
than forty pages+ and focused more tightly on a single event. 2atherine 4ansfields
!The *arden 9arty# is a masterful short story.
"hort-short stor': A particularly compressed and truncated short story. Short,short
stories are rarely longer than @,GGG words.
"olilo+u': A speech, often in verse, by a lone character. Soliloquies are most
common in drama, perhaps the most famous e-ample being the !To be or not to be#
speech in Shakespeares #amlet.

Literar' /ovements and Periods
(iterature constantly evolves as new movements emerge to speak to the concerns
of different groups of people and historical periods.
%bsurd* literature of the 4c$ ;<=>?;<@>5: A movement, primarily in the theater,
that responded to the seeming illogicality and purposelessness of human life in
works marked by a lack of clear narrative, understandable psychological motives, or
emotional catharsis. Samuel 5ecketts Waitin" for 3odot is one of the most
celebrated works in the theater of the absurd.
%estheticism 4c$ ;A=B?;<;>5: A late,@Bth,century movement that believed in art as
an end in itself. Aesthetes such as 8scar %ilde and %alter 9ater re$ected the view
that art had to posses a higher moral or political value and believed instead in !art
for arts sake.#
%ngr' Coung /en 4;<B>s?;<A>s5: A group of male 5ritish writers who created
visceral plays and fiction at odds with the political establishment and a self,satisfied
middle class. 6ohn 8sbornes play Loo- Bac- in An"er &@BHL+ is one of the seminal
works of this movement.
1eat :eneration 4;<B>s?;<D>s5: A group of American writers in the @BHGs and
@BIGs who sought release and illumination though a bohemian counterculture of
se-, drugs, and Oen 5uddhism. 5eat writers such as 6ack 2erouac &'n The Road+
and Allen *insberg &#ol+ gained fame by giving readings in coffeehouses, often
accompanied by $a33 music.
1loomsbur' :roup 4c$ ;<>D?;<=>s5: An informal group of friends and lovers,
including 'live 5ell, E. 4. )orster, :oger )ry, (ytton Strachey, 0irginia %oolf, and
6ohn 4aynard 2eynes, who lived in the 5loomsbury section of (ondon in the early
AGth century and who had a considerable liberali3ing influence on 5ritish culture.
#ommedia dellEarte 4;B>>s?;@>>s5: "mprovisational comedy first developed in
:enaissance "taly that involved stock characters and centered around a set
scenario. The elements of farce and buffoonery in commedia dellarte, as well as its
standard characters and plot intrigues, have had a tremendous influence on
%estern comedy, and can still be seen in contemporary drama and television
sitcoms.
2adaism 4;<;D?;<FF5: An avant,garde movement that began in response to the
devastation of %orld %ar ". 5ased in 9aris and led by the poet Tristan T3ara, the
<adaists produced nihilistic and antilogical prose, poetry, and art, and re$ected the
traditions, rules, and ideals of prewar Europe.
(nlightenment 4c$ ;DD>?;@<>5: An intellectual movement in )rance and other
parts of Europe that emphasi3ed the importance of reason, progress, and liberty.
The Enlightenment, sometimes called the %ge of )eason* is primarily associated
with nonfiction writing, such as essays and philosophical treatises. 4a$or
Enlightenment writers include Thomas /obbes, 6ohn (ocke, 6ean,6acques
:ousseau, :enP <escartes.
(li9abethan era 4c$ ;BBA?;D>=5: A flourishing period in English literature,
particularly drama, that coincided with the reign of ?ueen Eli3abeth " and included
writers such as )rancis 5acon, 5en 6onson, 'hristopher 4arlowe, %illiam
Shakespeare, Sir 9hilip Sidney, and Edmund Spenser.
:othic fiction 4c$ ;@DG?;AF>5: A genre of late,@Jth,century literature that featured
brooding, mysterious settings and plots and set the stage for what we now call
!horror stories.# /orace %alpoles $astle of 'tranto, set inside a medieval castle,
was the first ma$or *othic novel. (ater, the term !*othic# grew to include any work
that attempted to create an atmosphere of terror or the unknown, such as Edgar
Allan 9oes short stories.
-arlem )enaissance 4c$ ;<;A?;<=>5: A flowering of African,American literature,
art, and music during the @BAGs in 1ew Dork 'ity. %. E. 5. <u5oiss The !ouls of
Blac- 0ol- anticipated the movement, which included Alain (ockes anthology The
1e 1e"ro, Oora 1eale /urstons novel Their /yes Were Watchin" 3od, and the
poetry of (angston /ughes and 'ountee 'ullen.
Lost :eneration 4c$ ;<;A?;<=>s5: A term used to describe the generation of
writers, many of them soldiers that came to maturity during %orld %ar ". 1otable
members of this group include ). Scott )it3gerald, 6ohn <os 9assos, and Ernest
/emingway, whose novel The !un Also Rises embodies the (ost *enerations
sense of disillusionment.
/agic realism 4c$ ;<=B?present5: A style of writing, populari3ed by 6orge (uis
5orges, *abriel *arcQa 4Rrque3, *Snter *rass, and others, that combines realism
with moments of dream,like fantasy within a single prose narrative.
/etaph'sical poets 4c$ ;D==?;DA>5: A group of @Lth,century poets who combined
direct language with ingenious images, parado-es, and conceits. 6ohn <onne and
Andrew 4arvell are the best known poets of this school.
/iddle (nglish 4c$ ;>DD?;B>>5: The transitional period between Anglo,Sa-on and
modern English. The cultural upheaval that followed the 1orman 'onquest of
England, in @GII, saw a flowering of secular literature, including ballads, chivalric
romances, allegorical poems, and a variety of religious plays. 'haucers The
$anterbury Tales is the most celebrated work of this period.
/odernism 4;A<>s?;<G>s5: A literary and artistic movement that provided a radical
breaks with traditional modes of %estern art, thought, religion, social conventions,
and morality. 4a$or themes of this period include the attack on notions of hierarchy>
e-perimentation in new forms of narrative, such as stream of consciousnessH
doubt about the e-istence of knowable, ob$ective reality> attention to alternative
viewpoints and modes of thinking> and self,referentiality as a means of drawing
attention to the relationships between artist and audience, and form and content.
-igh modernism 4;<F>s5: *enerally considered the golden age of
modernist literature, this period saw the publication of 6ames 6oyces
2lysses, T. S. Eliots The Waste Land, 0irginia %oolfs Mrs. Dalloay, and
4arcel 9rousts (n !earch of Lost Time.
Naturalism 4c$ ;ADB?;<>>5: A literary movement that used detailed realism to
suggest that social conditions, heredity, and environment had inescapable force in
shaping human character. (eading writers in the movement include Tmile Oola,
Theodore <reiser, and Stephen 'rane.
Neoclassicism 4c$ ;DD>?;@<A5: A literary movement, inspired by the rediscovery of
classical works of ancient *reece and :ome that emphasi3ed balance, restraint,
and order. 1eoclassicism roughly coincided with the Enlightenment, which
espoused reason over passion. 1otable neoclassical writers include Edmund
5urke, 6ohn <ryden, Samuel 6ohnson, Ale-ander 9ope, and 6onathan Swift.
Nouveau )oman 47New Novel85 4c$ ;<BB?;<@>5: A )rench movement, led by
Alain :obbe,*rillet, that dispensed with traditional elements of the novel, such as
plot and character, in favor of neutrally recording the e-perience of sensations and
things.
Postcolonial literature 4c$ ;<B>s?present5: (iterature by and about people from
former European colonies, primarily in Africa, Asia, South America, and the
'aribbean. This literature aims both to e-pand the traditional canon of %estern
literature and to challenge Eurocentric assumptions about literature, especially
through e-amination of questions of otherness, identity, and race. 9rominent
postcolonial works include 'hinua Achebes Thin"s 0all A.art, 0. S. 1aipauls A
#ouse for Mr. Bisas, and Salman :ushdies Midni"hts $hildren. Edward Saids
'rientalism &@BLJ+ provided an important theoretical basis for understanding
postcolonial literature.
Postmodernism 4c$ ;<GB?present5: A notoriously ambiguous term, especially as it
refers to literature, postmodernism can be seen as a response to the elitism of high
modernism as well as to the horrors of %orld %ar "". 9ostmodern literature is
characteri3ed by a dis$ointed, fragmented pastiche of high and low culture that
reflects the absence of tradition and structure in a world driven by technology and
consumerism. 6ulian 5arnes, <on <e(illo, Toni 4orrison, 0ladimir 1abokov,
Thomas 9ynchon, Salman :ushdie, and 2urt 0onnegut are among many who are
considered postmodern authors.
Pre-)aphaelites 4c$ ;AGA?;A@>5: The literary arm of an artistic movement that
drew inspiration from "talian artists working before :aphael &@KJNU@HAG+. The 9re,
:aphaelites combined sensuousness and religiosity through archaic poetic forms
and medieval settings. %illiam 4orris, 'hristina :ossetti, <ante *abriel :ossetti,
and 'harles Swinburne were leading poets in the movement.
)ealism 4c$ ;A=>?;<>>5: A loose term that can refer to any work that aims at
honest portrayal over sensationalism, e-aggeration, or melodrama. Technically,
realism refers to a late,@Bth,century literary movement;primarily )rench, English,
and American;that aimed at accurate detailed portrayal of ordinary, contemporary
life. 4any of the @Bth centurys greatest novelists, such as /onorP de 5al3ac,
'harles <ickens, *eorge Eliot, *ustave )laubert, and (eo Tolstoy, are classified as
realists. Naturalism & see above + can be seen as an intensification of realism.
)omanticism 4c$ ;@<A?;A=F5: A literary and artistic movement that reacted against
the restraint and universalism of the Enlightenment. The :omantics celebrated
spontaneity, imagination, sub$ectivity, and the purity of nature. 1otable English
:omantic writers include 6ane Austen, %illiam 5lake, (ord 5yron, Samuel Taylor
'oleridge, 6ohn 2eats, 9ercy 5ysshe Shelley, and %illiam %ordsworth. 9rominent
figures in the American :omantic movement include 1athaniel /awthorne, /erman
4elville, Edgar Allan 9oe, %illiam 'ullen 5ryant, and 6ohn *reenleaf %hittier.
Sturm und Drang 4;@@>s5: *erman for !storm and stress,# this brief *erman
literary movement advocated passionate individuality in the face of 1eoclassical
rationalism and restraint. *oethes The !orros of 6oun" Werther is the most
enduring work of this movement, which greatly influenced the )omantic
movement &see above+.
"urrealism 4;<F>s?;<=>s5: An avant,garde movement, based primarily in )rance,
that sought to break down the boundaries between rational and irrational, conscious
and unconscious, through a variety of literary and artistic e-periments. The
surrealist poets, such as AndrP 5reton and 9aul Eluard, were not as successful as
their artist counterparts, who included Salvador <alQ, 6oan 4irV, and :enP 4agritte.
"'mbolists 4;A@>s?;A<>s5: A group of )rench poets who reacted against realism
with a poetry of suggestion based on private symbols, and e-perimented with new
poetic forms such as free verse and the prose poem$ The symbolists;StPphane
4allarmP, Arthur :imbaud, and 9aul 0erlaine are the most well known;were
influenced by 'harles 5audelaire. "n turn, they had a seminal influence on the
modernist poetry of the early AGth century.
Transcendentalism 4c$ ;A=B?;AD>5: An American philosophical and spiritual
movement, based in 1ew England, that focused on the primacy of the individual
conscience and re$ected materialism in favor of closer communion with nature.
:alph %aldo Emersons !Self,:eliance# and /enry <avid Thoreaus Walden are
famous transcendentalist works.
Victorian era 4c$ ;A=F?;<>;5: The period of English history between the passage
of the first :eform 5ill &@JNA+ and the death of ?ueen 0ictoria &reigned @JNLU@BG@+.
Though remembered for strict social, political, and se-ual conservatism and
frequent clashes between religion and science, the period also saw prolific literary
activity and significant social reform and criticism. 1otable 0ictorian novelists
include the 5rontF sisters, 'harles <ickens, *eorge Eliot, %illiam 4akepeace
Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, and Thomas /ardy, while prominent poets include
4atthew Arnold> :obert 5rowning> Eli3abeth 5arrett 5rowning> *erard 4anley
/opkins> Alfred, (ord Tennyson> and 'hristina :ossetti. 1otable 0ictorian nonfiction
writers include %alter 9ater, 6ohn :uskin, and 'harles <arwin, who penned the
famous 'n the 'ri"in of !.ecies &@JHB+.
Literar' Theor' and #riticism
Literar' theor' and literar' criticism are interpretive tools that help us thin&
more deepl' and insightfull' about the literature that we read$ Over time*
different schools of literar' criticism have developed* each with its own
approaches to the act of reading$
"chools of .nterpretation
#ambridge "chool 4;<F>s?;<=>s5: A group of scholars at 'ambridge 7niversity
who re$ected historical and biographical analysis of te-ts in favor of close readings
of the te-ts themselves.
#hicago "chool 4;<B>s5: A group, formed at the 7niversity of 'hicago in the
@BHGs, that drew on Aristotles distinctions between the various elements within a
narrative to analy3e the relation between form and structure. $ritics and $riticisms9
Ancient and Modern &@BHA+ is the ma$or work of the 'hicago School.
2econstruction 4;<D@?present5: A philosophical approach to reading, first
advanced by 6acques <errida that attacks the assumption that a te-t has a single,
stable meaning. <errida suggests that all interpretation of a te-t simply constitutes
further te-ts, which means there is no !outside the te-t# at all. Therefore, it is
impossible for a te-t to have stable meaning. The practice of deconstruction
involves identifying the contradictions within a te-ts claim to have a single, stable
meaning, and showing that a te-t can be taken to mean a variety of things that differ
significantly from what it purports to mean.
Feminist criticism 4;<D>s?present5: An umbrella term for a number of different
critical approaches that seek to distinguish the human e-perience from the male
e-perience. )eminist critics draw attention to the ways in which patriarchal social
structures have marginali3ed women and male authors have e-ploited women in
their portrayal of them. Although feminist criticism dates as far back as 4ary
%ollstonecrafts A 0indication of the :ights of %oman &@LBA+ and had some
significant advocates in the early AGth century, such as 0irginia %oolf and Simone
de 5eauvoir, it did not gain widespread recognition as a theoretical and political
movement until the @BIGs and @BLGs.
Ps'choanal'tic criticism: Any form of criticism that draws on ps'choanal'sis*
the practice of analy3ing the role of unconscious psychological drives and impulses
in shaping human behavior or artistic production. The three main schools of
psychoanalysis are named for the three leading figures in developing
psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund )reud, 'arl 6ung, and 6acques (acan.
Freudian criticism 4c$ ;<>>?present5: The view of art as the imagined
fulfillment of wishes that reality denies. According to )reud, artists sublimate
their desires and translate their imagined wishes into art. %e, as an
audience, respond to the sublimated wishes that we share with the artist.
%orking from this view, an artists biography becomes a useful tool in
interpreting his or her work. !)reudian criticism# is also used as a term to
describe the analysis of )reudian images within a work of art.
Iungian criticism 4;<F>s?present5: A school of criticism that draws on 'arl
6ungs theory of the collective unconscious* a reservoir of common
thoughts and e-periences that all cultures share. 6ung holds that literature is
an e-pression of the main themes of the collective unconscious, and critics
often invoke his work in discussions of literary archetypes.
Lacanian criticism 4c$ ;<@@?present5: 'riticism based on 6acques (acans
view that the unconscious, and our perception of ourselves, is shaped in the
!symbolic# order of language rather than in the !imaginary# order of
prelinguistic thought. (acan is famous in literary circles for his influential
reading of Edgar Allan 9oes !The 9urloined (etter.#
/arxist criticism: An umbrella term for a number of critical approaches to literature
that draw inspiration from the social and economic theories of 2arl 4ar-. 4ar-
maintained that material production* or economics, ultimately determines the
course of history, and in turn influences social structures.These social structures,
4ar- argued, are held in place by the dominant ideology, which serves to reinforce
the interests of the ruling class. 4ar-ist criticism approaches literature as a struggle
with social realities and ideologies.
Fran&furt "chool 4c$ ;<F=?;<@>5: A group of *erman 4ar-ist thinkers
associated with the "nstitute for Social :esearch in )rankfurt. These thinkers
applied the principles of 4ar-ism to a wide range of social phenomena,
including literature. 4a$or members of the )rankfurt School include Theodor
Adorno, 4a- /orkheimer, %alter 5en$amin, /erbert 4arcuse, and 6Srgen
/abermas.
New #riticism 4;<=>s?;<D>s5: 'oined in 6ohn 'rowe :ansoms The 1e
$riticism &@BK@+, this approach discourages the use of history and biography in
interpreting a literary work. "nstead, it encourages readers to discover the meaning
of a work through a detailed analysis of the te-t itself. This approach was popular in
the middle of the AGth century, especially in the 7nited States, but has since fallen
out of favor.
New -istoricism 4;<A>s?present5: An approach that breaks down distinctions
between !literature# and !historical conte-t# by e-amining the contemporary
production and reception of literary te-ts, including the dominant social, political,
and moral movements of the time. Stephen *reenblatt is a leader in this field, which
$oins the careful te-tual analysis of New #riticism with a dynamic model of
historical research.
New -umanism 4c$ ;<;>?;<==5: An American movement, led by "rving 5abbitt and
9aul Elmer 4ore, that embraced conservative literary and moral values and
advocated a return to humanistic education.
Post-structuralism 4;<D>s?;<@>s5: A movement that comprised, among other
things, <econstruction, (acanian criticism, and the later works of :oland 5arthes
and 4ichel )oucault. "t critici3ed structuralism for its claims to scientific ob$ectivity,
including its assumption that the system of signs in which language operates was
stable.
6ueer theor' 4;<A>s?present5: A !constructivist# &as opposed to !essentialist#+
approach to gender and se-uality that asserts that gender roles and sexual
identit' are social constructions rather than an essential, inescapable part of our
nature. ?ueer theory consequently studies literary te-ts with an eye to the ways in
which different authors in different eras construct se-ual and gender identity. ?ueer
theory draws on certain branches of feminist criticism and traces its roots to the first
volume of 4ichel )oucaults #istory of !e*uality &@BLI+.
)ussian Formalism 4;<;B?;<F<5: A school that attempted a scientific analysis of
the formal literary devices used in a te-t. The Stalinist authorities critici3ed and
silenced the )ormalists, but %estern critics rediscovered their work in the @BIGs.
7ltimately, the :ussian )ormalists had significant influence on structuralism and
4ar-ist criticism.
"tructuralism 4;<B>s?;<D>s5: An intellectual movement that made significant
contributions not only to literary criticism but also to philosophy, anthropology,
sociology, and history. Structuralist literary critics, such as :oland 5arthes, read
te-ts as an interrelated system of signs that refer to one another rather than to an
e-ternal !meaning# that is fi-ed either by author or reader. Structuralist literary
theory draws on the work of the :ussian )ormalists, as well as the linguistic
theories of )erdinand de Saussure and '. S. 9eirce.
Literar' Terms and Theories
Literar' theor' is notorious for its complex and somewhat inaccessible
argon$ The following list defines some of the more commonl' encountered
terms in the field$
%nxiet' of influence: A theory that the critic /arold 5loom put forth in The An*iety
of (nfluence9 A Theory of +oetry &@BLN+. 5loom uses )reuds idea of the Oedipus
complex &see belo+ to suggest that poets, plagued by an-iety that they have
nothing new to say, struggle against the influence of earlier generations of poets.
5loom suggests that poets find their distinctive voices in an act of misprision* or
misreading, of earlier influences, thus refiguring the poetic tradition. Although 5loom
presents his thesis as a theory of poetry, it can be applied to other arts as well.
#anon: A group of literary works commonly regarded as central or authoritative to
the literary tradition. )or e-ample, many critics concur that the %estern canon;the
central literary works of %estern civili3ation;includes the writings of /omer,
Shakespeare, Tolstoy, and the like. A canon is an evolving entity, as works are
added or subtracted as their perceived value shifts over time. )or e-ample, the
fiction of %. Somerset 4augham was central to the canon during the middle of the
AGth century but is read less frequently today. "n recent decades, the idea of an
authoritative canon has come under attack, especially from feminist and
postcolonial critics, who see the canon as a tyranny of dead white males that
marginali3es less mainstream voices.
2eath of the author: A post,structuralist theory, first advanced by :oland 5arthes,
that suggests that the reader, not the author, creates the meaning of a te-t.
7ltimately, the very idea of an author is a fiction invented by the reader.
2iachronicJs'nchronic: Terms that )erdinand de Saussure used to describe two
different approaches to language. The diachronic approach looks at language as a
historical process and e-amines the ways in which it has changed over time. The
s'nchronic approach looks at language at a particular moment in time, without
reference to history. Saussures structuralist approach is synchronic, for it studies
language as a system of interrelated signs that have no reference to anything &such
as history+ outside of the system.
2ialogicJmonologic: Terms that the :ussian critic 4ikhail 5akhtin used to
distinguish works that are controlled by a single, authorial voice 4monologic5 from
works in which no single voice predominates 4dialogic or pol'phonic5$ 5akhtin
takes (eo Tolstoy and )yodor <ostoevsky as e-amples of monologic and dialogic
writing, respectively.
2iegesisJ/imesis: Terms that Aristotle first used to distinguish !telling# 4diegesis5
from !showing# 4mimesis5$ "n a play, for instance, most of the action is mimetic, but
moments in which a character recounts what has happened offstage are diegetic.
2iscourse: A post,structuralist term for the wider social and intellectual conte-t in
which communication takes place. The implication is that the meaning of works is
as dependent on their surrounding conte-t as it is on the content of the works
themselves.
(xegesis: An e-planation of a te-t that clarifies difficult passages and analy3es its
contemporary relevance or application.
(xplication: A close reading of a te-t that identifies and e-plains the figurative
language and forms within the work.
-ermeneutics: The study of te-tual interpretation and of the way in which a te-t
communicates meaning.
.ntertextualit': The various relationships a te-t may have with other te-ts, through
allusions, borrowing of formal or thematic elements, or simply by reference to
traditional literary forms. The term is important to structuralist and poststructuralist
critics, who argue that te-ts relate primarily to one another and not to an e-ternal
reality.
Linguistics: The scientific study of language, encompassing, among other things,
the study of s'ntax* semantics* and the evolution of language.
Logocentrism: The desire for an ultimate guarantee of meaning, whether *od,
Truth, :eason, or something else. 6acques <errida critici3es the bulk of %estern
philosophy as being based on a logocentric !metaphysics of presence,# which
insists on the presence of some such ultimate guarantee. The main goal of
deconstruction is to undermine this belief.
/etalanguage: A technical language that e-plains and interprets the properties of
ordinary language. )or e-ample, the vocabulary of literary criticism is a
metalanguage that e-plains the ordinary language of literature. 9ost,structuralist
critics argue that there is no such thing as a metalanguage> rather, they assert, all
language is on an even plane and therefore there is no essential difference
between literature and criticism.
/etanarrative: A larger framework within which we understand historical
processes. )or instance, a 4ar-ist metanarrative sees history primarily as a history
of changing material circumstances and class struggle. 9ost,structuralist critics
draw our attention to the ways in which assumed met narratives can be used as
tools of political domination.
/imesis:!eediegesisJmimesis*above.
/onologic:!eedialogicJmonologic*above.
Narratolog': The study of narrative, encompassing the different kinds of narrative
voices, forms of narrative, and possibilities of narrative analysis.
Oedipus complex: Sigmund )reuds theory that a male child feels unconscious
$ealousy toward his father and lust for his mother. The name comes from
Sophocles play 'edi.us Re*, in which the main character unknowingly kills his
father and marries his mother. )reud applies this theory in an influential reading of
/amlet, in which he sees /amlet as struggling with his admiration of 'laudius, who
fulfilled /amlets own desire of murdering /amlets father and marrying his mother.
"emantics: The branch of linguistics that studies the meanings of words.
"emiotics or semiolog': Terms for the study of sign s'stems and the ways in
which communication functions through conventions in sign systems. Semiotics is
central to structuralist linguistics$
"ignJsignifierJsignified: Terms fundamental to )erdinand de Saussures
structuralism linguistics. A sign is a basic unit of meaning;a word, picture, or hand
gesture, for instance, that conveys some meaning. A signifier is the perceptible
aspect of a sign &e.g., the word !car#+ while the signified is the conceptual aspect of
a sign &e.g., the concept of a car+. A referent is a physical ob$ect to which a sign
system refers &e.g., the physical car itself+.
"'nchronic:!eediachronicJs'nchronicabove.