AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1

GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Into
Epistemeisthetheory/studyofknowledge
ManyquotesfrompeoplelikeDarwin+otherscientistsinpraiseofAristotle
VerylittleisagreedaboutAristotleotherthanthatheisaverymajorinfluenceonourculture
Hisinfluenceisgenerallyintherealmofknowledge
ThereisnoconsensusviewonAristotle
Tertiaryworksgenerallycontainonlygeneraldescriptionsofhistheoryandmanydownright
contradicteachother.Somesayhesthefatherofscience,otherssayheretardedsciencefor
1000years.
Supposeyougotosecondarysourcesorprimarysourcestheyoftenseeminscrutableandits
oftendifficulttounderstandtheideas
ThisisbecauseAristotlesworksareesoteric,orinotherwords,theypresupposeanentire
contextthatyouprobablywouldntknowunlessyouwereinhisinnercircle
Whatsleftofhisworksareprobablyactuallylecturenoteshisbooksdidntmakeit
Thereisnobibliographicinformationontheworkssowedontknowtheorderinwhich
theyrewritten.
Thusthepurposeofthelectureseriesistoopenthedoortoanunderstandingofhisworks.To
indicatewhathesaidandwherehesaidit.
TomakeunfloatingtheideathatAristotlehadsomethingveryimportanttosayabout
knowledge
Andthatitwillgiveyousomecontextforpeoplewhowanttoexplorefurther
Willbeselective
Willincludelessofhis(Salmieris)ownassessmentofAristotlesideas
Thereareoftenplausibledifferentinterpretationsofhisideas
Forthemostpart,willbegivingAristotleasheunderstandshimbutwillindicate
alternativeswheretherearesignificantdisagreementsoninterpretationsandwillindicate
howstandardandhowcontroversialtheideahespresentingisasfarasinterpretationgoes
Aristotlehasthreeseparatewordsforknowledge(withthreedifferentmeanings)
Gnosis(Gknowledge)
Eidesis(Oknowledge)
Episteme(Eknowledge)
GKnowisthewidestwordAristotleusesforknowledge
Appliestoeverythingfromthemostintransientperceptionallthewaytoprofoundknowledge
ofaphilosopher.Prettymuchjustmeanstobeaware
OKnowledgereferstoanyhumanknowledgethatcanbeputintowords
Ex:In1492ColumbussailedtheoceanblueisOKnowledge
ButalsoGKnowledge
Eknowledge(episteme)referstoscience
Therewerecertainbodiesofknowledgethatwerecalledepistemi:Geomoetry,arithmetic,
physicalsciences,etc
SotoEKnowmeanstounderstandscientifically
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Whatcontemporaryphilosophersplaceinthecenterofepistemologyisthequestion,HowcanIbe
certain?HowcanIvalidatemybelief?HowcanIproveittomyself?
Aristotleisinterestedinthisquestionbutitsnothiscentralquestion.Hiscentralquestionis,
howdowegettoepisteme
Onemoreterm:Technewhichmeansanart.
Thetermartdoesntjustrefertothefineartbutalsointhewidersenseofvocationsandareas
ofstudythatdealwithproducingthings.
Medicinewouldbeanartortechnewhereasbiologywouldbeascience
Epistemeisaboutunderstandingwhereastechneisabouthowtoproducesomething
SoAristotlebeginsbyexploringthechainofknowledgeupfromwiderGknowledgeupthrough
episteme
Aristotlestartswithperception
Allanimalsperceive
Partofwhatitistobeananimalistoperceive
Someanimalshavetheabilitytoretaintheirperceptions(memory)
Someanimalswithmemoryhavetheabilitytoexperience
TechneandEpistemearehigherformsofknowledgethataredifferentfrom
experience
WhatisdifferentaboutTechneandEpisteme?
AllmenarecapableofexperiencebutonlysomepeoplegoontoTechneandEpisteme.What
setsthemapart?
Technecomesaboutwhenasingleuniversalviewofmanythingsisformedfrommany
notionsofexperience
Fromthememoryofmanythingsyougetacertainkindofability:thecapacityto
experience
Ex:Supposeyouveseenmanydifferentmen.Seeingallofthesemengivesyoua
certaincapacity:thecapacitytoexperience
Someonewhohasthearthasasingle,universalperspectiveonthingsthattheperson
withjustexperienceseesonebyone.
Ex:someonewhodealswithsickpeopleallthetime.Heremembersthatacertain
thingbenefitsaperson.SayhegiveschickennoodlesouptoCalliasanditcureshis
cough.NexthenoticesSocratesissickinthesameway.Hiscouchisthesame.
Somethingisalikeaboutthewaystheyresick.Sincehenoticedthechickensoup
helpsCallias,hegivesthesouptoSocrates.Hisexperiencesgiverisetocertain
notions(likehey,youshouldtrysomechickensoup).Thatistheresultof
experience.Bycontrast,someonewhohastheartofmedicineitsnotjustthat
SocratesandCalliasremindhimofthesamekindofproblembutheknowsthatthe
twopeoplearebothaffectedbythesamesickness.Andthushisknowledgeis
organizedsuchthathehasauniversalviewaboutwhythechickennoodlesoupwill
help
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Theexperiencedpeopleknowthethat(thatchickensouphelps)andtheartistknowsthe
why(whythesouphelps).
Ex:thebuilderofaguitarknowsthethatthatitspropertoputthefretsacertainspace
apartetc.buttheartistknowsexactlywhythefretsneedtobespacedastheyare
Thesamedistinctionasbetweenexperienceandtechnecanarisebetweenartandsciencetechne
andepisteme
PriortotheGreeks,otherpeoplehadalsolookedupintheskyandnotedthespecificchangesin
theheavenlybodies.Buttheyonlyknowthethatandnotthewhy.Theydonthavetheobjects
groupedintosimilartypesetc.
Ex:peoplehadnoticedthatthethreesidesofarighttriangleaddupsuchthata^2+b^2=c^2.
Theyknewthethatbutnotthewhy.Oncetheyprovedthewhy,theyknowthattheexistenceof
theformulaisnotmerelyanaccidentbutthattheresareasonandthatitwillalwaysholdby
thenatureofwhatitis.
Artistsandscientistshaveuniversalknowledge.Theirknowledgeisofdifferentuniversalforms
ortypesofobjects.Thepersonwithexperiencedoesntknowthetypesbutratherthe
particulars.Buthisknowledgeofparticularsisenoughtomakeeducatedguessesaboutwhat
willandwontwork
Artistsandscientistshavecausalknowledge
Whatistherelationshipbetweencausalknowledgeanduniversalknowledge?
Ex:ifyoumultipliedtwohugewholenumbers,youwouldntneedtodothe
multiplicationtoknowwhethertheproductwouldbeevenorodd.Supposethat
someonerealizedtheycouldmultiplyonlythelastcolumntofigureoutwhetherthe
resultantnumberwasevenorodd.Theycouldprovethatanymultiplicationbyan
evennumberwouldresultinanevenproductbygoingthrougheachcombinationof
19times28.Thusyouwouldhaveaproof.Butthisiscomparativelylameinsome
waytothefollowing:whatanevennumberis,isanumberthatisamultipleof2a
numberthathasa2asafactor.Butwhathappensinmultiplicationisthatany
numbersthatarefactorsoftheinitialnumberscometogetherandarefactorsofthe
product.Multiplicationcarriesthroughfactorsbecausethatswhatmultiplicationis.
Thereforeifyourinitialnumberhas2asafactor,the2willbecarriedthroughtothe
productbythenatureofwhatmultiplicationis.Andsince2isafactorofthe
resultantproduct,thatswhatitmeansforanumbertobeeven
Understandingitthisway,itsdifficulttoexplainbutyouseemtounderstand
thecausenowthatyoudidntunderstandbefore.Thefirstproofgaveyouthe
proofbutyouwouldntunderstandwhy,asyoudointhesecondexample.
Knowingthethat,asknowninthefirstproof,wouldbeOknowledge.But
youwouldnthaveeknowledge.Itsbygoinguniversalthatwegraspthe
why.
Thisepistemeisfundamentallyahumanability.Thehumanabilitytothinkuniversally.Youdont
treatthingsasisolatedparticularsbutrathercertainkindsofthings.Notjustthisshapebuta
triangle.Notjustatrianglebutaplanerfigurer,etc.
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Ex:Howtodoitwrongtakeforexamplethepersonwhoaftergreatdeliberationcanbe
convincedthatitswrongtonationalizethesteelindustry.Andafterthediscussionheasks,
whataboutthecoalindustry?
Thepersonisthinkingabouteachindustryindividuallyinsteadofthinkingaboutwhy
nationalizationingeneraliswrong.
ThinkaboutRandsTheRootsofWar.Sheexplainswhystatistnationsnecessarily
engageinwar.Notjustcommunistorfascistbutanystatistnationassuch.Because
statistnationssurvivebyforcetheyeventuallyrunoutofinternalvictimsandrequire
externalvictimstosustainthemselves.Thisisanexampleofthinkinginbroaduniversal
termsandthereforegraspingcauses.
Peikoff,inhismemoirsofAynRand,identifiedtwosubpartsofthinkinginprinciples
Thinkinginessentials
EssentialisatermthatAristotleintroduced
FromtheGreekphrase:somethingbeingwhatitis.Or:Whatitisfor
somethingtobewhatitis?
Ex:Whatareyou?Youreaman.Butwhatisitforyoutobewhatyou
are?Becausehavingglassesisntit.IfIwantedtogouniversalandthink
aboutyouasaman,Iwouldntfocusontheglassesbutratheronthe
thingsthatmakeyouaman.Beingrationalandbeingananimal
Likewisewhatisitaboutanationalizationthatallowsyoutojudgeit
morally?Well,whatnationalizationisessentiallyistheuseofphysical
forceagainstproductivepeople
Essentialsarecontrastedwiththeaccidental
Thinkinginfundamentals
ForAristotleaprincipleisuniversal,butwhatsreallyatstakeisthatthe
principleisfundamental[!]
Fundamentalmeaning,thatuponwhicheverythinginagivencontext
depends.
Thiscontrastswiththepresentdaypopularunderstandingofprinciples
whichisthatitisuniversal.Aristotlethinkssotoobutalsoreferstothe
factthatprinciplesarefundamental.
WhatisatstakewithEpistemeistheideathatepistemeisauniversalunderstandingofcausesas
opposedtoaunderstandingofindividualconcretes.
Question:SeemslikeAristotleisarguingthatdeductivereasoningissuperiortoinductivereasoning.
Isthattrue?
Noticethattherehaventbeenanyexamplesofinductivereasoningthatheiscriticizing.Heis
sayingthatwhenyouhaveanepistemeyouareinapositiontounderstandthingsdeductively
frombroadprinciples.Thereremainsthequestionofhowyougotthere,butinductionisforthe
sakeofdeduction
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Objectivistsareoftenworriedaboutrationalism(focusingtooheavilyondeduction)but
rationalismisaproblemonlyafteryougetintosomefairlysophisticatedtypesofknowing.But
thisisnthisprimaryconcern
Objectivistsshouldnotforgetthatthepointofinductionistoarriveatbroadprinciplessuch
thatyoucandeduce.Tohaveadeductiveperspectiveontheworldwhichiswhatthehighgrade
knowledgeamountsto
Question:Couldyouexpandonthedifferencebetweenartandsciencemore(techneepisteme)?It
soundslikeatheorypracticedichotomy.
Thedistinctionisthat:theybothinvolveunderstandingtheirobjectsintermsofthecausesof
theirobjects.Inthecaseoftechnetheprinciplesarethingsthatareabletobeotherwiseand
arewithinourcontrol.Bycontrastscienceisaboutunderstandingthingsaseffectsofcauses
whicharenotinourpower.Sowhatyouredoingwhenyouuseyourscientificknowledgeisnot
deliberatingbutcontemplating
Thereisavaliddistinctionlurkingaroundhere,possiblythemetaphysicalvsthemanmade
ItsnotthatAristotlethinkstheepistemehasnoeffectonthetechne,butheseesthemas
farapart.Hethinksepistemeisbetterthantechnebecauseitsnotasuseful.Thefactthat
techneispracticaliswhyitssubordinatetoepisteme.ThisistheRobertStadlerprinciple.
Thisisanissueofethicsandthevalueofknowledgeratherthantheepistemology
Sometechne/epistemearemorefundamentalthanothers
EX:guitarbuildingisatechnebutitisaderivativeofthetechneofguitarplaying.Thatis,the
wayyoubuildtheguitardependsonprinciplesofhowyouplayyourguitar.
Thereforetechneisarrangedhierarchically
Ifyoufollowthetechnehierarchy/chainallthewaybackyouseethataboveallthesciencesand
artthereisaanunderlyingquestionaboutwhatprinciplesgovernhumanlifeasawhole
Inuniversaltermswhatdoesagoodlifeconsistof?
Epistemearealsohierarchicalsomearemorefundamentalthanothers
Someissuesinmatharemorefundamentalthanphysicallaws
Ex:Geometryismorefundamentalthanoptics
Thereforesomeepistemearehigherformsofknowledgethanothersbecausesomeare
moreuniversal.
Thehighestepistemewouldthereforebemetaphysics
Aristotleismostinterestedintheepistemeofnature:physics.Hehasmanywritingson
physics
Hiswritingonmetaphysics(whichmeansafterphysics)presupposesthatyouve
readhisphysics
PosteriorAnalyticsisAristotlestreatiseonepisteme
WethinksomeonehasepistemeofsomethingwheneverheGknowsthefollowingthreethings:
Thecauseduetowhichtheobjectexists
Thatthisisitscause
Thatitdoesnotadmititbeingotherwise
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

Ex:IfImgoingtoepistemeknowthattheproductofthetwonumbersiseven,youmustknow
thecauseofwhytheproductiseven(the2asafactorproof).Andnotjustthatoneofthe
numbershas2asafactorbutalsotoconnectthecausetotheeffectwhyitisthathavingtwo
asafactorcausestheproducttobeeven.Andfinallyyouhavetoknowthatitcannotbe
otherwise.
Howcanyoueknow?Throughdemonstrationsusinganeknowdeductiona
demonstration
Adeductionisanargumentinwhichcertainthingsbeinglaiddown,somethingother
thanthesenecessarilycomesaboutthroughthem.
Means,youcanlayoutsomenumberofpremisesandgetaconclusionthat
necessarilyfollowsfromthepremises.[Isthisfundamental?]
Deductionforcestheconclusiononyou.Theconclusionisnecessitatedbythe
premises.[Peikoffthinksinductiondoestoo,butthroughanobjectiveconceptual
frameworktoidentifytheinductionIthink?]
Whatisademonstration?
Ex:Supposetherearethreeguys.Oneontherooflookingatthemoon,oneinthehouselooking
outthewindow,andanotherinthehouselookinginward.Supposeaneclipseoccurs
Guyontheroofcanseetheeclipseperceptuallybylooking
Guylookingoutthewindowcanseethatthetreeinfrontofthehousewouldnormallybe
castingashadow.Thereisnosuchshadow,thereforetheremustbeaneclipse.Hehas
deducedtheconclusion.
Guylookingathisnotebookshasthefollowingthought:Iknowthatthemoonandearthare
thusandsotonight.Whenthemoonandeartharethusandsothereisaneclipse.Thusthis
guyhasdeducedthesamethingbutfromcauses.Hispremisesarethecauseofthemoons
darknessandthereforehisdeductionisademonstrationwhereasothersarenot.A
demonstrationdeducesaneffectfromitscause.
Ex:1onlyfarthingstwinkle,theplanetsarentfar,thereforetheplanetsdonttwinkle
Ex:2Alltwinklingthingsarefar,theplanetsdonttwinkle,thereforetheplanetsarent
far.
Whichoneisademonstration?1isademonstrationbecauseitstheplanetslackof
beingfarthatpreventsitfromtwinkling.Itsnotthatbecausetheydonttwinkle
theysomehowcameincloser.
Technicalwaytosaythis:Whenyouhaveadeduction,Aristotlesays,itcanbeboileddownto
twopremisesandaconclusion.Theconclusionsarealwaysgoingtohaveacertainformat
Asubject(thatwhichisbeingtalkedabout)theminorterm
Andapredicate(thatwhichisbeingsaidaboutthesubject)themajorterm
Anytimeyouhaveadeduction,onepremiseisgoingtohavetheminorterm,anotheris
goingtohaveamajorterm,andtherewillbeanothertermthatsnotincludedinthe
conclusionbutisinthepremises(themiddleterm)
Why?Takeforexampleyouretryingtodeducethatthemoonhasgonedark.What
youretryingtodoisconnectthepredicate,darkness,tothemoon.Whatyouneedis
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart1
GregSalmieri1Hr29min

somewayofconnectingupdarknesstothemoon.Youneedsomethinginbetweenthe
moonanddarkness.Ifyouregoingtoconnectthetwopremisesyouneedsomethingin
themiddletobetheglue.Theglueoftheplanettwinklingexamplesisthefactthat
thingsfarawaytwinkle.Youveconnectedtheplanetstothetwinkling
Aconclusionisaconnectionbetweenthepredicateandthesubjectsoyouretryingto
traceitbacktopremisesthattogethergiveyouamiddletermbetweenyourpredicate
andyoursubject.Youretryingtotraceitbacktopremisesthatareimmediate.Youre
tryingtoreducethequestionof,dotheplanetstwinkle,toknowledgeofalltwinkling
thingsarefarwhichyousupposedlyknowwithoutanymiddle.Thesethingsyouknow
withoutanymiddleareimmediatepropositions.
Somethingisbetterknowntous(ismoreimmediate)whenitisclosertoperception.
Somethingisbetterknownbynaturewhenyouunderstandthecause.Thatis,whatisprior
tousepistemologically,andwhatispriorbynaturearedifferent.
Whatyoucanperceive(themoongoingdark)isaneffectthatismoreimmediate
epistemologicallybutyouonlyknowwhatispriorbynature(thelawsgoverningthe
moon)later.
Thus,ademonstrationisadeductioninwhichthemiddletermispriorbynaturetothemajor
term.
Question:Ifepistemeisahigherlevelofknowledgethantechne,isthatbecauseepistemeisnt
useful?
Therearetwoissuesatstake:ifepistemeismoreintensive,itsbecauseitsomehowgrasps
deepercauses.Ingeneral,Gknowledgeismoreintensivethemoreuniversalitisandifitgrasps
causes
Whathesaysisreallyadmirableaboutevenartsisnthowusefultheyarebutratherthatthe
causalconnectionhasbeengrasped.Thedeepertheconnectionthemoreimpressiveitis.When
theknowledgedoesnthaveauseitdoesntsullyitinanyway.
WhywasAristotlemoreinterestedintheintenseformsofknowledgeratherthanwhatlaterGreeks
wereinterestedin(howcanIbecertain).
Notentirelycertainbutnewformsofknowledgewerenew.Sciencewasnew.
Therewasadebateaboutwhethersomethingswerereallysciences.
Wasinterestedin,whatisanepisteme,howdoIknowifIhaveone,howdoIgetone?
[Thisseemstobeafundamentallydifferentapproachtolookingattheworldthanmost
haveandfundamentallysimilartorandsapproach.ButinexactlywhatsenseImnotsure.
Sortofhowdowegoaboutexplaininghowthingsareratherthanwhatdowearriveatif
wefollowcertainmethods]