DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGG.

SEMESTER-5
POWER ELECTRONICS
Ans 1
A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid
statedevice that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's
trade name for a type of thyristor. The SC !as developed "y a team of po!er en#ineers led "y
Gordon $all and commerciali%ed "y &ran' (. ")ill" Gut%!iller in *+,-.
Contents
.hide/
* Construction of SC
0 1odes of operation
2 everse )ias
3 Thyristor turn on
methods
, Application of SCs
4 See also
- E5ternal lin's
6 1anufacturers
+ eferences
.edit/Construction of SC
An SC consists of four layers of alternatin# 7 and 8 type semiconductor materials. Silicon is used as
the intrinsic semiconductor9 to !hich the proper dopants are added. The :unctions are either diffused
or alloyed. The planar construction is used for lo! po!er SCs (and all the :unctions are diffused).
The mesa type construction is used for hi#h po!er SCs. ;n this case9 :unction <0 is o"tained "y the
diffusion method and then the outer t!o layers are alloyed to it9 since the 7878 pellet is re=uired to
handle lar#e currents. ;t is properly "raced !ith tun#sten or moly"denum plates to provide #reater
mechanical stren#th. >ne of these plates is hard soldered to a copper stud9 !hich is threaded for
attachment of heat sin'. The dopin# of 7878 !ill depend on the application of SC9 since its
characteristics are similar to those of the thyratron. Today9 the term thyristor applies to the lar#er
family of multilayer devices that e5hi"it "ista"le state-chan#e "ehaviour9 that is9 s!itchin# either >8 or
>&&.
The operation of a SC and other thyristors can "e understood in terms of a pair of ti#htly
coupled "ipolar :unction transistors9 arran#ed to cause the self-latchin# action?
.edit/1odes of operation
;n the normal "off" state9 the device restricts current to the lea'a#e current. (hen the #ate-to-
cathode volta#e e5ceeds a certain threshold9 the device turns "on" and conducts current. The
device !ill remain in the "on" state even after #ate current is removed so lon# as current throu#h
the device remains a"ove the holdin# current. >nce current falls "elo! the holdin# current for an
appropriate period of time9 the device !ill s!itch "off". ;f the #ate is pulsed and the current
throu#h the device is "elo! the holdin# current9 the device !ill remain in the "off" state.
;f the applied volta#e increases rapidly enou#h9 capacitive couplin# may induce enou#h char#e
into the #ate to tri##er the device into the "on" state@ this is referred to as "dvAdt tri##erin#." This is
usually prevented "y limitin# the rate of volta#e rise across the device9 perhaps "y usin#
a snu""er. "dvAdt tri##erin#" may not s!itch the SC into full conduction rapidly and the partially-
tri##ered SC may dissipate more po!er than is usual9 possi"ly harmin# the device.
SCs can also "e tri##ered "y increasin# the for!ard volta#e "eyond their rated "rea'do!n
volta#e (also called as "rea' over volta#e)9 "ut a#ain9 this does not rapidly s!itch the entire
device into conduction and so may "e harmful so this mode of operation is also usually avoided.
Also9 the actual "rea'do!n volta#e may "e su"stantially hi#her than the rated "rea'do!n
volta#e9 so the e5act tri##er point !ill vary from device to device. This device is #enerally used in
s!itchin# applications.
.edit/everse )ias
SC are availa"le !ith or !ithout reverse "loc'in# capa"ility. everse "loc'in# capa"ility adds to
the for!ard volta#e drop "ecause of the need to have a lon#9 lo! doped 7* re#ion. Bsually9 the
reverse "loc'in# volta#e ratin# and for!ard "loc'in# volta#e ratin# are the same. The typical
application for reverse "loc'in# SC is in current source inverters.
SC incapa"le of "loc'in# reverse volta#e are 'no!n as asymmetrical SCR9
a""reviated ASCR. They typically have a reverse "rea'do!n ratin# in the *C's of volts. ASC are
used !here either a reverse conductin# diode is applied in parallel (for e5ample9 in volta#e
source inverters) or !here reverse volta#e !ould never occur (for e5ample9 in s!itchin# po!er
supplies or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SC can "e fa"ricated !ith a reverse conductin# diode in the same pac'a#e.
These are 'no!n as CT9 for reverse conductin# thyristor.
.edit/Thyristor turn on methods
*. for!ard volta#e tri##erin#
0. #ate tri##erin#
2. dvAdt tri##erin#
3. temperature tri##erin#
,. li#ht tri##erin#
&or!ard volta#e tri##erin# occurs !hen the anode-cathode for!ard volta#e is increased !ith the
#ate circuit opened. This is 'no!n as avalanche "rea'do!n9 durin# !hich :unction :0 !ill
"rea'do!n. At sufficient volta#es9 the thyristor chan#es to its on state !ith lo! volta#e drop and
lar#e for!ard current. ;n this case9 <* and <2 are already for!ard "iased.
.edit/Application of SCs
SCs are mainly used in devices !here the control of hi#h po!er9 possi"ly coupled !ith hi#h
volta#e9 is demanded. Their operation ma'es them suita"le for use in medium to hi#h-volta#e AC
po!er control applications9 such as lamp dimmin#9 re#ulators and motor control.
SCs and similar devices are used for rectification of hi#h po!er AC in hi#h-volta#e direct
current po!er transmission. They are also used in the control of !eldin# machines9 mainly 1TA(
and GTA( processes.
Ans 2
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one :unction.
The B<T has three terminals? an emitter (E) and t!o "ases ()* and )0). The "ase is formed "y
li#htly doped n-type "ar of silicon. T!o ohmic contacts )* and )0 are attached at its ends. The
emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance "et!een )* and )09 !hen the emitter is
open-circuit is called inter"ase resistance.
There are three types of unijunction transistors?
The ori#inal uni:unction transistor9 or B<T9 is a simple device that is essentially a "ar of 8
typesemiconductor material into !hich 7 type material has "een diffused some!here alon# its
len#th9 definin# the device parameter . The 080434 is the most commonly used version of the
B<T.
The complementary uni:unction transistor9 or CB<T9 that is a "ar of 7
type semiconductormaterial into !hich 8 type material has "een diffused some!here alon# its
len#th9 definin# the device parameter . The 084**3 is one version of the CB<T.
The programmable unijunction transistor9 or 7BT9 is a close cousin to the thyristor. Ei'e
the thyristor it consists of four 7-8 layers and has an anode and a cathode connected to the first
and the last layer9 and a #ate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly
interchan#ea"le !ith conventional B<Ts "ut perform a similar function. ;n a proper circuit
confi#uration !ith t!o "pro#rammin#" resistors for settin# the parameter 9 they "ehave li'e a
conventional B<T. The 084C0- is an e5ample of such a device.
The B<T is "iased !ith a positive volta#e "et!een the t!o "ases. This causes a potential drop alon#
the len#th of the device. (hen the emitter volta#e is driven appro5imately one diode volta#e a"ove
the volta#e at the point !here the 7 diffusion (emitter) is9 current !ill "e#in to flo! from the emitter into
the "ase re#ion. )ecause the "ase re#ion is very li#htly doped9 the additional current (actually
char#es in the "ase re#ion) causes conductivity modulation !hich reduces the resistance of the
portion of the "ase "et!een the emitter :unction and the )0 terminal. This reduction in resistance
means that the emitter :unction is more for!ard "iased9 and so even more current is in:ected. >verall9
the effect is ane#ative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is !hat ma'es the B<T useful9
especially in simple oscillator circuits.
Bni:unction transistor circuits !ere popular in ho""yist electronics circuits in the *+4Cs and *+-Cs
"ecause they allo!ed simple oscillators to "e "uilt usin# :ust one active device. &or e5ample9 they
!ere used for rela5ation oscillators in varia"le-rate stro"e li#hts.
.*/
Eater9 as inte#rated circuits "ecame
more popular9 oscillators such as the ,,, timer ;C "ecame more commonly used.
;n addition to its use as the active device in rela5ation oscillators9 one of the most important
applications of B<Ts or 7BTs is to tri##erthyristors (SC9 T;AC9 etc.). ;n fact9 a DC volta#e can "e
used to control a B<T or 7BT circuit such that the "on-period" increases !ith an increase in the DC
control volta#e. This application is important for lar#e AC current control.
B<Ts can also "e used to measure ma#netic flu5. The hall effect modulates the volta#e at the 78
:unction. This affects the fre=uency of B<T rela5ation oscillators.
.0/
This only !or's !ith B<Ts. 7BTs
do not e5hi"it this phenomenon.
Ans 3
Three phase inverters
2-phase inverter !ith !ye connected load
Three-phase inverters are used for varia"le-fre=uency drive applications and for hi#h po!er
applications such as $FDC po!er transmission. A "asic three-phase inverter consists of three sin#le-
phase inverter s!itches each connected to one of the three load terminals. &or the most "asic control
scheme9 the operation of the three s!itches is coordinated so that one s!itch operates at each 4C
de#ree point of the fundamental output !aveform. This creates a line-to-line output !aveform that has
si5 steps. The si5-step !aveform has a %ero-volta#e step "et!een the positive and ne#ative sections
of the s=uare-!ave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as descri"ed
a"ove. (hen carrier-"ased 7(1 techni=ues are applied to si5-step !aveforms9 the "asic overall
shape9 or envelope9 of the !aveform is retained so that the 2rd harmonic and its multiples are
cancelled.
2-phase inverter s!itchin# circuit sho!in# 4-step s!itchin# se=uence and !aveform of volta#e "et!een
terminals A and C (0
2
-0 states)
To construct inverters !ith hi#her po!er ratin#s9 t!o si5-step three-phase inverters can "e connected
in parallel for a hi#her current ratin# or in series for a hi#her volta#e ratin#. ;n either case9 the output
!aveforms are phase shifted to o"tain a *0-step !aveform. ;f additional inverters are com"ined9 an
*6-step inverter is o"tained !ith three inverters etc. Althou#h inverters are usually com"ined for the
purpose of achievin# increased volta#e or current ratin#s9 the =uality of the !aveform is improved as
!ell.
[edit!istory
[edit "arly inverters
&rom the late nineteenth century throu#h the middle of the t!entieth century9 DC-to-AC po!er
conversion !as accomplished usin# rotary converters or motor-#enerator sets (1-G sets). ;n the early
t!entieth century9 vacuum tu"es and #as filled tu"es "e#an to "e used as s!itches in inverter circuits.
The most !idely used type of tu"e !as the thyratron.
The ori#ins of electromechanical inverters e5plain the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC
converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a #enerator (dynamo) so
that the #enerator's commutator reversed its connections at e5actly the ri#ht moments to produce DC.
A later development is the synchronous converter9 in !hich the motor and #enerator !indin#s are
com"ined into one armature9 !ith slip rin#s at one end and a commutator at the other and only one
field frame. The result !ith either is AC-in9 DC-out. (ith an 1-G set9 the DC can "e considered to "e
separately #enerated from the AC@ !ith a synchronous converter9 in a certain sense it can "e
considered to "e "mechanically rectified AC". Given the ri#ht au5iliary and control e=uipment9 an 1-G
set or rotary converter can "e "run "ac'!ards"9 convertin# DC to AC. $ence an inverter is an inverted
converter.
.-/.6/
Ans 5
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as #C9 chip9 ormicrochip) is
an electronic circuit manufactured "y the patterned diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a
thin su"strate of semiconductor material. Additional materials are deposited and patterned to form
interconnections "et!een semiconductor devices.
;nte#rated circuits are used in virtually all electronic e=uipment today and have revolutioni%ed the
!orld of electronics. Computers9 mo"ile phones9 and other di#ital appliances are no! ine5trica"le
parts of the structure of modern societies9 made possi"le "y the lo! cost of production of inte#rated
circuits.
;Cs !ere made possi"le "y e5perimental discoveries sho!in# that semiconductor devices could
perform the functions of vacuum tu"es and "y mid-0Cth-century technolo#y advancements
insemiconductor device fa"rication. The inte#ration of lar#e num"ers of tiny transistors into a small
chip !as an enormous improvement over the manual assem"ly of circuits usin# discrete electronic
components. The inte#rated circuit's mass production capa"ility9 relia"ility9 and "uildin#-"loc'
approach to circuit desi#n ensured the rapid adoption of standardi%ed ;Cs in place of desi#ns usin#
discrete transistors.
There are t!o main advanta#es of ;Cs over discrete circuits? cost and performance. Cost is lo!
"ecause the chips9 !ith all their components9 are printed as a unit "y photolitho#raphy rather than
"ein# constructed one transistor at a time. &urthermore9 much less material is used to construct a
pac'a#ed ;C die than to construct a discrete circuit. 7erformance is hi#h "ecause the components
s!itch =uic'ly and consume little po!er (compared to their discrete counterparts) as a result of the
small si%e and close pro5imity of the components. As of 0CC49 typical chip areas ran#e from a fe!
s=uare millimeters to around 2,C mm
0
9 !ith up to * million transistors per mm
0
.
Classification
A C1>S 3CCC ;C in a D;7
;nte#rated circuits can "e classified into analo#9 di#ital and mi5ed si#nal ("oth analo# and di#ital on
the same chip).
Di#ital inte#rated circuits can contain anythin# from one to millions of lo#ic #ates9 flip-
flops9multiple5ers9 and other circuits in a fe! s=uare millimeters. The small si%e of these circuits
allo!s hi#h speed9 lo! po!er dissipation9 and reduced manufacturin# cost compared !ith "oard-level
inte#ration. These di#ital ;Cs9 typically microprocessors9 DS7s9 and micro controllers9 !or' usin#
"inary mathematics to process "one" and "%ero" si#nals.
Analo# ;Cs9 such as sensors9 po!er mana#ement circuits9 and operational amplifiers9 !or' "y
processin# continuous si#nals. They perform functions li'e amplification9 active filterin#9demodulation9
and mi5in#. Analo# ;Cs ease the "urden on circuit desi#ners "y havin# e5pertly desi#ned analo#
circuits availa"le instead of desi#nin# a difficult analo# circuit from scratch.
;Cs can also com"ine analo# and di#ital circuits on a sin#le chip to create functions such as AAD
converters and DAA converters. Such circuits offer smaller si%e and lo!er cost9 "ut must carefully
account for si#nal interference.