Seton Hall Constitutional L.J.

2001, 685
ARE COPS CONSTITTIONAL!
Roger Roots"
A#STRACT
Poli$e %o&' is o(ten lioni)e* +, -u&ists an* s$.ola&s %.o $lai/ to e/0lo, 1te2tualist1 an* 1o&i3inalist1
/et.o*s o( $onstitutional inte&0&etation. 4et 0&o(essional 0oli$e %e&e un'no%n to t.e nite* States in
1586, an* (i&st a00ea&e* in A/e&i$a al/ost a .al(7$entu&, after t.e Constitution8s &ati(i$ation. T.e
9&a/e&s $onte/0late* la% en(o&$e/ent as t.e *ut, o( /ostl, 0&i:ate $iti)ens, alon3 %it. a (e%
$onsta+les an* s.e&i((s %.o $oul* +e $alle* u0on %.en ne$essa&,. T.is a&ti$le /a&s.als e2tensi:e
.isto&i$al an* le3al e:i*en$e to s.o% t.at /o*e&n 0oli$in3 is in /an, %a,s in$onsistent %it. t.e
o&i3inal intent o( A/e&i$a8s (oun*in3 *o$u/ents. T.e aut.o& a&3ues t.at t.e 3&o%t. o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3
.as su+stantiall, e/0o%e&e* t.e state in a %a, t.e 9&a/e&s %oul* &e3a&* as a+.o&&ent to t.ei& (o&e/ost
0&in$i0les.
PART I
INTRO;CTION................................................................686
THE CONSTITTIONAL TE<T..............................................688
PRI=ATE PROSECTORS....................................................686
LA> EN9ORCE?ENT AS A NI=ERSAL................................662
POLICE AS SOCIAL >[email protected]
THE >AR ON CRI?E..........................................................666
THE ;E=ELOP?ENT O9 ;ISTINCTIONS................................668
RESISTINA ARREST............................................................501
THE SA9ET4 O9 THE POLICE PRO9ESSION............................511
PRO9ESSIONALIS?!..........................................................51B
;NA E=I;ENCE ILLSTRATES 9ALLI#ILIT4 O9 POLICE........516
COPS NOT COST7E99ECTI=E ;ETERRENT.............................521
PART II
POLICE AS A STAN;INA AR?4...........................................522
THE SECON; A?EN;?ENT........525
THE THIR; A?EN;?ENT...................................................525
THE RIAHT TO #E LE9T ALONE...........................................528
THE 9ORTH A?EN;?ENT................................................526
>ARRANTS A 9LOOR, NOT A CEILINA.................................5BB
PRI=ATE PERSONS AN; THE 9ORTH A?EN;?ENT..............5BC
ORIAINALISTS CALL 9OR CI=IL ;A?AAES...........................5B6
;E=ELOP?ENT O9 I??NITIES..........................................5CB
THE LOSS O9 PRO#A#LE CASE, AN; THE ONSET O9 PRO#A#LE
SSPICION................................................5CC
POLICE AN; THE 1ATO?O#ILE E<CEPTION1......................5C5
ONE E<CEPTIOND THE E<CLSIONAR4 RLE!......................5C5
THE 9I9TH A?EN;?ENT....................................................551
;E PROCESS...................................................................552
ENTRAP?ENT...................................................................55C
CONCLSION...................................555
PART I
INTRO;CTION
ni(o&/e* 0oli$e o((i$e&s a&e t.e /ost :isi+le ele/ent o( A/e&i$a8s $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/. T.ei&
nu/+e&s .a:e 3&o%n e20onentiall, o:e& t.e 0ast $entu&, an* no% stan* at .un*&e*s o( t.ousan*s
nation%i*e.
1
Poli$e e20enses a$$ount (o& t.e la&3est se3/ent o( /ost /uni$i0al +u*3ets an* 3ene&all,
*%a&( e20enses (o& (i&e, t&as., an* se%e& se&:i$es.
2
Neit.e& $asual o+se&:e&s no& lea&ne* aut.o&ities
&e3a&* t.e si3.t o( .un*&e*s o( a&/e*, uni(o&/e* state a3ents on A/e&i$a8s &oa*s an* st&eet $o&ne&s as
an,t.in3 0e$ulia& E let alone in:ali* o& un$onstitutional.
4et t.e *issi*ent En3lis. $olonists %.o (&a/e* t.e nite* States Constitution %oul* .a:e seen t.is
/o*e&n 80oli$e state8 as alien to t.ei& (o&e/ost 0&in$i0les. n*e& t.e $&i/inal -usti$e /o*el 'no%n to
t.e 9&a/e&s, 0&o(essional 0oli$e o((i$e&s %e&e un'no%n.
B
T.e 3ene&al 0u+li$ .a* +&oa* la%
en(o&$e/ent 0o%e&s an* onl, t.e e2e$uti:e (un$tions o( t.e la% Fe.3., t.e e2e$ution o( %&its, %a&&ants
an* o&*e&sG %e&e 0e&(o&/e* +, $onsta+les o& s.e&i((s F%.o /i3.t $all u0on /e/+e&s o( t.e $o//unit,
(o& assistan$eG.
C
Initiation an* in:esti3ation o( $&i/inal $ases %as t.e nea&l, e2$lusi:e 0&o:in$e o(
0&i:ate 0e&sons.
At t.e ti/e o( t.e Constitution8s &ati(i$ation, t.e o((i$e o( s.e&i(( %as an a00ointe* 0osition, an*
$onsta+les %e&e eit.e& ele$te* o& *&a(te* (&o/ t.e $o//unit, to se&:e %it.out 0a,.
5
?ost o( t.ei&
*uties in:ol:e* $i:il e2e$utions &at.e& t.an $&i/inal la% en(o&$e/ent. T.e $ou&ts o( t.at 0e&io* %e&e
:enues (o& 0&i:ate liti3ation E %.et.e& $i:il o& $&i/inal E an* t.e state %as &a&el, a 0a&t,.
P&o(essional 0oli$e as %e 'no% t.e/ to*a, o&i3inate* in A/e&i$an $ities *u&in3 t.e se$on* Hua&te& o(
t.e nineteent. $entu&,, %.en /uni$i0al 3o:e&n/ents *&a(te* $iti)ens to /aintain o&*e&.
6
T.e &ole o(
t.ese 1ni3.tl, %at$.1 o((i$e&s 3&a*uall, 3&e% to en$o/0ass t.e $at$.in3 o( $&i/inals, %.i$. .a*
(o&/e&l, +een t.e &es0onsi+ilit, o( in*i:i*ual $iti)ens.
5
>.ile t.is .isto&i$al *is$onne$t is %i*el, 'no%n +, $&i/inal -usti$e .isto&ians, &a&el, .as it +een
-u2ta0ose* a3ainst t.e Constitution an* t.e Constitution8s i/0ose* s$.e/e o( $&i/inal -usti$e.
8

1O&i3inalist1 s$.ola&s o( t.e Constitution .a:e ten*e* to +e su00o&ti:e, &at.e& t.an $&iti$al o( /o*e&n
0oli$in3.
6
T.is a&ti$le %ill s.o%, .o%e:e&, t.at /o*e&n 0oli$in3 :iolates t.e 9&a/e&s8 /ost (i&/l, .el*
$on$e0tions o( $&i/inal -usti$e.
T.e /o*e&n 0oli$e7*&i:en /o*el o( la% en(o&$e/ent .el0s sustain a 0la,in3 (iel* t.at is (un*a/entall,
une:en (o& *i((e&ent 0la,e&s u0on it. ?o*e&n 0oli$e a$t as an a&/, o( assistants (o& state 0&ose$uto&s
an* 3at.e& e:i*en$e solel, %it. an e,e to%a&* t.e state8s inte&ests. Poli$e seal o(( $&i/e s$enes (&o/ t.e
0u&:ie% o( *e(ense in:esti3ato&s, a$t as %itnesses o( $on:enien$e (o& t.e state in $ou&ts o( la%, an*
insti3ate a su+stantial a/ount o( $&i/inal a$ti:it, un*e& t.e 3uise o( $&i/e (i3.tin3. A**itionall,, 0oli$e
en(o&$e so$ial $lass no&/s an* a$t as tools o( e/0o%e&/ent (o& (a:o&e* inte&est 3&ou0s to t.e
*isa*:anta3e o( ot.e&s.
10
Poli$e a&e also a 0oliti$al (o&$e t.at $onstantl, lo++ies (o& in$&ease* state
0o%e& an* *e$&ease* $onstitutional li+e&t, (o& A/e&i$an $iti)ens.
THE CONSTITTIONAL TE<T
T.e Constitution $ontains no e20li$it 0&o:isions (o& $&i/inal la% en(o&$e/ent.
11
No& *i* t.e
$onstitutions o( an, o( t.e se:e&al states $ontain su$. 0&o:isions at t.e ti/e o( t.e 9oun*in3.
12
Ea&l,
$onstitutions enun$iate* t.e intention t.at la% en(o&$e/ent %as a uni:e&sal *ut, t.at ea$. 0e&son o%e*
to t.e $o//unit,, &at.e& t.an a 0o%e& o( t.e 3o:e&n/ent.
1B
9oun*in37e&a $onstitutions a**&esse* la%
en(o&$e/ent (&o/ t.e stan*0oint o( in*i:i*ual li+e&ties an* 0la$e* e20li$it +a&&ie&s u0on t.e state.
1C
PRI=ATE PROSECTORS
9o& *e$a*es +e(o&e an* a(te& t.e Re:olution, t.e a*-u*i$ation o( $&i/inals in A/e&i$a %as 3o:e&ne*
0&i/a&il, +, t.e &ule o( 0&i:ate 0&ose$utionD F1G :i$ti/s o( se&ious $&i/es a00&oa$.e* a $o//unit,
3&an* -u&,, F2G t.e 3&an* -u&, in:esti3ate* t.e /atte& an* issue* an in*i$t/ent onl, i( it $on$lu*e* t.at
a $&i/e s.oul* +e $.a&3e*, an* FBG t.e :i$ti/ .i/sel( o& .is &e0&esentati:e F3ene&all, an atto&ne, +ut
so/eti/es a state atto&ne, 3ene&alG 0&ose$ute* t.e *e(en*ant +e(o&e a 0etit -u&, o( t%el:e /en.
15

C&i/inal a$tions %e&e onl, a ste0 a%a, (&o/ $i:il a$tions E t.e onl, /ate&ial *i((e&en$e +ein3 t.at
$&i/inal $lai/s ostensi+l, in:ol:e* an inte&est o( t.e 0u+li$ at la&3e as %ell as t.e :i$ti/.
16
P&i:ate
0&ose$uto&s a$te* un*e& aut.o&it, o( t.e 0eo0le an* in t.e na/e o( t.e state E +ut (o& t.ei& o%n
:in*i$ation.
15
T.e :e&, te&/ 10&ose$uto&1 /eant $&i/inal 0lainti(( an* i/0lie* a 0&i:ate 0e&son.
18
A
government 0&ose$uto& %as &e(e&&e* to as an atto&ne, 3ene&al an* %as a &a&e 0.eno/enon in $&i/inal
$ases at t.e ti/e o( t.e nation8s (oun*in3.
16
>.en a 0&i:ate in*i:i*ual 0&ose$ute* an a$tion in t.e na/e
o( t.e state, t.e atto&ne, 3ene&al %as &eHui&e* to allo% t.e 0&ose$uto& to use .is na/e E e:en i( t.e
atto&ne, 3ene&al .i/sel( *i* not a00&o:e o( t.e a$tion.
20
P&i:ate 0&ose$ution /eant t.at $&i/inal $ases %e&e (o& t.e /ost 0a&t li/ite* +, t.e nee* o( $&i/e
:i$ti/s (o& :in*i$ation.
21
C&i/e :i$ti/s .el* t.e 'e,s to a 0otential *e(en*ant8s (ate an* o(ten
ne3otiate* t.e settle/ent o( $&i/inal $ases.
22
A(te& a $ase %as initiate* in t.e na/e o( t.e 0eo0le,
.o%e:e&, 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s %e&e 0&o.i+ite* (&o/ %it.*&a%in3 t.e a$tion 0u&suant to 0&i:ate
a3&ee/ent %it. t.e *e(en*ant.
2B
Cou&t inte&:ention %as o$$asionall, &eHui&e* to $o/0el in-u&e* $&i/e
:i$ti/s to a00ea& a3ainst o((en*e&s in $ou&t an* 1not to /a'e +a&3ains to allo% I*e(en*antsJ to es$a0e
$on:i$tion, i( t.e, ... &e0ai& t.e in-u&,.1
2C
A&an* -u&o&s o(ten a$te* as t.e *ete$ti:es o( t.e 0e&io*. T.e, $on*u$te* t.ei& in:esti3ations in t.e
/anne& o( nei3.+o&.oo* sleut.s, *is0e&sin3 t.&ou3.out t.e $o//unit, to Huestion 0eo0le a+out t.ei&
'no%le*3e o( $&i/es.
25
T.e, $oul* a$t on t.e testi/on, o( one o( t.ei& o%n /e/+e&s, o& e:en on
in(o&/ation 'no%n to 3&an* -u&o&s +e(o&e t.e 3&an* -u&, $on:ene*.
26
T.e, /i3.t ne:e& .a:e $onta$t
%it. a 3o:e&n/ent 0&ose$uto& o& an, ot.e& o((i$e& o( t.e e2e$uti:e +&an$..
25
Colonial 3&an* -u&ies also o$$asionall, se&:e* an i/0o&tant la% en(o&$e/ent nee* +, a$$ount o( t.ei&
s.ee& nu/+e&s. In t.e ea&l, 1500s, 3&an* -u&o&s %e&e so/eti/es $alle* u0on to /a'e a&&ests in $ases
%.e&e sus0e$ts %e&e a&/e* an* in la&3e nu/+e&s.
28
A lone s.e&i(( o& *e0ut, .a* &eason to (ea& e:en
a00&oa$.in3 a la&3e 3&ou0 1%it.out *an3e& o( .is li(e o& .a:in3 .is +ones +&o'en.1
26
>.en a s.e&i((
%as una+le to e2e$ute a %a&&ant o& 0e&(o&/ an e2e$ution, .e $oul* $all u0on a posse o( $iti)ens to assist
.i/.
B0
T.e a:aila+ilit, o( t.e posse comitatus /eant t.at a s.e&i((s &esou&$es %e&e essentiall,
unli/ite*.
B1
LA> EN9ORCE?ENT AS A NI=ERSAL ;T4
La% en(o&$e/ent in t.e 9oun*e&s8 ti/e %as a duty o( e:e&, $iti)en.
B2
Citi)ens %e&e e20e$te* to +e
a&/e* an* eHui00e* to $.ase sus0e$ts on (oot, on .o&se, o& %it. %a3on %.ene:e& su//one*. An*
%.en $alle* u0on to en(o&$e t.e la%s o( t.e state, $iti)ens %e&e to &es0on* 1not (aintl, an* %it. la33in3
ste0s, +ut .onestl, an* +&a:el, an* %it. %.ate:e& i/0le/ents an* (a$ilities I%e&eJ $on:enient an* at
.an*.1
BB
An, 0e&son $oul* a$t in t.e $a0a$it, o( a $onsta+le %it.out +ein3 one,
BC
an* %.en su//one*
+, a la% en(o&$e/ent o((i$e&, a 0&i:ate 0e&son +e$a/e a te/0o&a&, /e/+e& o( t.e 0oli$e *e0a&t/ent.
B5

T.e la% also 0&esu/e* t.at an, 0e&son a$tin3 in .is 0u+li$ $a0a$it, as an o((i$e& %as &i3.t(ull,
a00ointe*.
B6
La%s in :i&tuall, e:e&, state still &eHui&e $iti)ens to ai* in $a0tu&in3 es$a0e* 0&isone&s, a&&estin3
$&i/inal sus0e$ts, an* e2e$utin3 le3al 0&o$ess. T.e *ut, o( $iti)ens to en(o&$e t.e la% %as an* is a
$onstitutional one. ?an, ea&l, state $onstitutions 0u&0o&te* to +in* $iti)ens into a uni:e&sal o+li3ation
to 0e&(o&/ la% en(o&$e/ent (un$tions, ,et e:in$e* no /ention o( an, state 0o%e& to $a&&, out t.ose
sa/e (un$tions.
B5
#ut t.e la% en(o&$e/ent *uties o( t.e $iti)en&, a&e no% a lon37(o&3otten &e/nant o(
t.e 9&a/e&s8 e&a. #, t.e 1660s, onl, t%el:e 0e&$ent o( t.e 0u+li$ $lai/e* to .a:e e:e& 0e&sonall, a$te*
to $o/+at $&i/e.
B8
T.e 9oun*e&s $oul* not .a:e en:isione* 80oli$e8 o((i$e&s as %e 'no% t.e/ to*a,. T.e te&/ 10oli$e1 .a*
a sli3.tl, *i((e&ent /eanin3 at t.e ti/e o( t.e 9oun*in3.
B6
It %as 3ene&all, use* as a :e&+ an* /eant to
%at$. o:e& o& /onito& t.e 0u+li$ .ealt. an* sa(et,.
C0
In Louisiana, 10oli$e -u&ies1 %e&e lo$al 3o:e&nin3
+o*ies si/ila& to $ount, +oa&*s in ot.e& states.
C1
Onl, in t.e /i*7nineteent. $entu&, *i* t.e te&/
80oli$e8 +e3in to ta'e on t.e 0e&sona o( a uni(o&/e* state la% en(o&$e&.
C2
T.e te&/ (i&st $&e0t into
Su0&e/e Cou&t -u&is0&u*en$e e:en late&.
CB
P&io& to t.e 1850s, &u33e* in*i:i*ualis/ an* sel(7&elian$e %e&e t.e tou$.stones o( A/e&i$an la%,
$ultu&e, an* in*ust&,. Alt.ou3. a 0u&itan $ultu&al an* le3al et.i$ 0e&:a*e* t.ei& so$iet,, A/e&i$ans .a*
3&eat tole&ation (o& :i$ti/less /is$on*u$t.
CC
T&a((i$ *is0utes %e&e &esol:e* t.&ou3. 0e&sonal
ne3otiation an* $o//on la% to&t 0&in$i0les, &at.e& t.an *&i:e& li$enses an* a&/e* 0oli$e 0at&ol.
C5
A3ents o( t.e state *i* not e2ist (o& t.e 0&ote$tion o( t.e in*i:i*ual $iti)en. T.e ni3.t %at$. o( ea&l,
A/e&i$an $ities $on$e&ne* itsel( 0&i/a&il, %it. t.e *an3e& o( (i&e, an* %at$./en %e&e o(ten a(&ai* to
ente& so/e o( t.e /ost noto&ious nei3.+o&.oo*s o( $ities li'e #oston.
C6
At t.e ti/e o( To$Hue:ille8s o+se&:ations Fin t.e 18B0sG, 1t.e /eans a:aila+le to t.e aut.o&ities (o& t.e
*is$o:e&, o( $&i/es an* a&&est o( $&i/inals I%e&eJ (e%,1
C5
,et To$Hue:ille *ou+te* 1%.et.e& in an,
ot.e& $ount&, $&i/e so sel*o/ es$a0es 0unis./ent.1
C8
Citi)ens .an*le* /ost $&i/es in(o&/all,,
(o&/in3 $o//ittees to $at$. $&i/inals an* .an* t.e/ o:e& to t.e $ou&ts.
C6
P&i:ate /o+s in ea&l,
A/e&i$a *ealt %it. la&3e& t.&eats to 0u+li$ sa(et, an* %el(a&e, su$. as .ouses o( ill (a/e.
50
Not.in3
st&u$' a Eu&o0ean t&a:ele& in A/e&i$a, %&ote To$Hue:ille, /o&e t.an t.e a+sen$e o( 3o:e&n/ent in t.e
st&eets.
51
Formal $&i/inal -usti$e institutions *ealt onl, %it. t.e /ost se:e&e $&i/es. ?is*e/eano& o((enses .a*
to +e *ealt %it. +, t.e 0&i:ate $iti)en on t.e 0&i:ate $iti)en8s o%n te&/s. 1T.e (a&t.e& +a$' t.e I$&i/e
&ateJ (i3u&es 3o,1 a$$o&*in3 to .isto&ian Ro3e& Lane, 1t.e .i3.e& is t.e &elati:e 0&o0o&tion o( se&ious
$&i/es.1
52
In ot.e& %o&*s, +e(o&e t.e a*:ent o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3, (e%e& $&i/es E an* onl, t.e
/ost se&ious $&i/es E %e&e +&ou3.t to t.e attention o( t.e $ou&ts.
A(te& t.e 1850s, $ities in t.e no&t.easte&n nite* States 3&a*uall, a$Hui&e* /o&e uni(o&/e* 0at&ol
o((i$e&s. T.e $&i/inal -usti$e /o*el o( t.e 9&a/e&s8 e&a 3&e% less &e$o3ni)a+le. T.e 3&o%t. o( 0oli$e
units &e(le$te* a 1$.an3e in attitu*e1 /o&e t.an %o&senin3 $&i/e &ates.
5B
A/e&i$ans +e$a/e less
tole&ant o( :iolen$e in t.ei& st&eets an* *e/an*e* .i3.e& stan*a&*s o( $on*u$t.
5C
O((enses %.i$. .a*
(o&/e&l, ea&ne* t%o7,ea& senten$es %e&e no% 0unis.e* +, t.&ee to (ou& ,ea&s o& /o&e in a state
0enitentia&,.
55
POLICE AS SOCIAL >OR@ERS
9e% o( t.e *uties o( 9oun*in37e&a s.e&i((s in:ol:e* $&i/inal la% en(o&$e/ent. Instea*, civil e2e$utions,
atta$./ents an* $on(ine/ents *o/inate* t.ei& %o&'.
56
>.en 0&o(essional 0oli$e units (i&st a&&i:e* on
t.e A/e&i$an s$ene, t.e, (un$tione* 0&i/a&il, as 0&ote$to&s o( 0u+li$ sa(et,, .ealt. an* %el(a&e. T.is
&ole (ollo%e* t.e 1+o++ie1 /o*el *e:elo0e* in En3lan* in t.e 18B0s +, t.e (at.e& o( 0&o(essional
0oli$in3, Si& Ro+e&t Peel.
55
Ea&l, 0oli$e a3en$ies 0&o:i*e* a :ast a&&a, o( /uni$i0al se&:i$es, in$lu*in3 'ee0in3 t&a((i$
t.o&ou3.(a&es $lea&. #oston 0oli$e /a*e B0,681 a&&ests *u&in3 one (is$al ,ea& in t.e 1880s, +ut in t.e
sa/e ,ea& &e0o&te* 1,C52 a$$i*ents, se$u&e* 2,C61 +uil*in3s (oun* o0en, &e0o&te* t.ousan*s o(
*an3e&ous an* *e(e$ti:e st&eets, si*e%al's, $.i/ne,s, *&ains, se%e&s an* .,*&ants, ten*e* to 166
$o&0ses, assiste* 1C8 into2i$ate* 0e&sons, lo$ate* 1,552 lost $.il*&en, &e0o&te* 228 /issin3 F+ut onl,
151 (oun*G 0e&sons, &es$ue* se:en 0e&sons (&o/ *&o%nin3, assiste* nea&l, 2,000 si$', in-u&e*, an*
insane 0e&sons, (oun* B11 st&a, .o&se tea/s, an* &e/o:e* /o&e than fifty thousand st&eet
o+st&u$tions.
58
Poli$e %e&e a 1'in* o( $at$.all o& &esi*ual %el(a&e a3en$,,1
56
a la%(ul e2tension o( a$tual state 80oli$e
0o%e&s.8
60
In t.e Ol* >est, 0oli$e %e&e a sanitation an* &e0ai& %o&'(o&$e /o&e t.an a $o&0s o( $&i/e7
(i3.tin3 3un7slin3e&s. S.e&i(( >,att Ea&0 o( O@ Co&&al (a/e, (o& e2a/0le, &e0ai&e* +oa&*%al's as 0a&t
o( .is *uties.
61
THE >AR ON CRI?E
To%a&* t.e en* o( t.e nineteent. $entu&,, 0oli$e (o&$es too' on a +&a:e ne% &oleD $&i/e7(i3.tin3. T.e
3oal o( /aintainin3 0u+li$ o&*e& +e$a/e se$on*a&, to $.asin3 la%+&ea'e&s. T.e 0oli$e $ulti:ate* a
0e&$e0tion t.at t.e, %e&e 0u+li$ .e&oes %.o 1(ou3.t $&i/e1 in t.e 3ene&al, &at.e& t.an in*i:i*ual sense.
T.e 1620s sa% t.e &ise o( t.e 0&o(ession8s se$on* (at.e& E o& 0e&.a0s its %i$'e* ste0(at.e& E J. E*3a&
Hoo:e&.
62
Hoo:e&8s 9e*e&al #u&eau o( In:esti3ation F9#IG $a/e to e0ito/i)e t.e 0oli$e 0&o(ession in
its sleut. an* intelli3en$e73at.e&in3 &ole. 9#I a3ents in(ilt&ate* /o+ste& o&3ani)ations, inte&$e0te*
$o//uni$ations +et%een sus0e$te* $&i/inals, an* 3at.e&e* intelli3en$e (o& +ot. la% en(o&$e/ent an*
0oliti$al 0u&0oses.
T.is ne% :ie% o( 0oli$e as sol*ie&s lo$'e* in $o/+at a3ainst $&i/e $au3.t on Hui$'l,.
6B
T.e 9#I le*
lo$al 0oli$e to *e:elo0 inte3&ate* &e0osito&ies o( (in3e&0&int, $&i/inal, an* (&au*ulent $.e$' &e$o&*s.
T.e 9#I also too' o:e& t.e 3at.e&in3 o( $&i/e statisti$s Ft.e&eto(o&e 3at.e&e* +, a 0&i:ate
asso$iationG,
6C
an* %ent to %a& a3ainst 1Pu+li$ Ene/, Nu/+e& One1 an* ot.e&s on t.ei& 1Ten ?ost
>ante*1 list.
65
Po0ula& $ultu&e +e3an to see 0oli$e as a 1t.in +lue line,1 t.at 1se&:es an* 0&ote$ts1
$i:ili)e* so$iet, (&o/ $.aos an* la%lessness.
66
THE A#SENCE O9 CONSTITTIONAL CRI?E79IAHTINA PO>ER
#ut t.e $onstitutions o( t.e 9oun*in3 E&a 3a:e no .int o( an, t.in +lue line. Not.in3 in t.ei& te2ts
enun$iate* an, 3o:e&n/ental 0o%e& to 1(i3.t $&i/e1 at all. 1C&i/e7(i3.tin31 %as inten*e* as t.e
*o/ain o( in*i:i*uals tou$.e* +, $&i/e. T.e o&i3inal *esi3n un*e& t.e A/e&i$an le3al o&*e& %as to
&esto&e a se/+lan$e o( private -usti$e. T.e $ou&ts %e&e a /e&e (o&u/, o& a:enue, (o& 0&i:ate 0e&sons to
attain -usti$e (&o/ a /al(easo&.
65
T.e slo% alte&ation o( t.e $&i/inal $ou&ts into a :enue onl, (o& t.e
government's $lai/s a3ainst 0&i:ate 0e&sons tu&ne* t.e :e&, s0i&it o( t.e 9oun*e&s8 /o*el on its .ea*.
To su33est t.at /o*e&n 0oli$in3 is e2t&a$onstitutional is not to i/0l, t.at e:e&, as0e$t o( 0oli$e %o&' is
$onstitutionall, i/0&o0e&.
68
Rat.e&, it is to sa, t.at t.e totalit, an* e((e$t o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3 ne3ates
t.e /eanin3 an* 0u&0ose o( $e&tain $onstitutional 0&ote$tions t.e 9&a/e&s inten*e* to 0&ote$t an* $a&&,
(o&%a&* to (utu&e 3ene&ations. ?o*e&n7st,le 0oli$in3 lea:es /an, (un*a/ental $onstitutional inte&ests
utte&l, unen(o&$e*.
A/e&i$ans to*a,, (o& e2a/0le, a&e (a& /o&e :ulne&a+le to in:asi:e sea&$.es an* sei)u&es +, t.e state
t.an %e&e t.e A/e&i$ans o( 1561.
66
T.e 9&a/e&s li:e* in an e&a in %.i$. /u$. less o( t.e %o&l* %as in
10lain :ie%1 o( t.e 3o:e&n/ent an* a 1sto0 an* (&is'1 %oul* .a:e +een &a&e in*ee*.
50
T.e totalit, o(
/o*e&n 0oli$in3 also 0la$es 0e*est&ian an* :e.i$le t&a:el at t.e /e&$, o( t.e state, a *e:elo0/ent t.e
9&a/e&s %oul* .a:e al/ost $e&tainl, ne:e& san$tione*. T.ese in(&in3e/ents &esult not (&o/ a sin3le
as0e$t o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3, +ut (&o/ t.e %.ole o( /o*e&n 0oli$in38s $ont&ol o:e& la&3e *o/ains o(
0&i:ate li(e t.at %e&e on$e 10oli$e*1 +, 0&i:ate $iti)ens.
THE ;E=ELOP?ENT O9 ;ISTINCTIONS
T.e t&eat/ent o( la% en(o&$e/ent in t.e $ou&ts s.o%s t.at t.e la% o( $&i/e $ont&ol .as $.an3e*
/onu/entall, o:e& t.e 0ast t%o $entu&ies. n*e& t.e $o//on la%, t.e&e %as no *i((e&en$e %.atsoe:e&
+et%een t.e 0&i:ile3es, i//unities, an* 0o%e&s o( $onsta+les an* t.ose o( 0&i:ate $iti)ens. Consta+les
%e&e lite&all, an* (i3u&ati:el, $lot.e* in t.e sa/e 3a&/ents as e:e&,one else an* (a$e* t.e sa/e
lia+ilities E $i:il an* $&i/inal E as e:e&,one else un*e& i*enti$al $i&$u/stan$es. T%o $entu&ies o(
-u&is0&u*en$e, .o%e:e&, .a:e &e$ast t.e 0o%e& &elations.i0s o( t.ese t%o &oles *&a/ati$all,.
Pe&.a0s t.e (i&st *istin$tion +et%een t.e &i3.ts o( $iti)en an* $onsta+ula&, $a/e in t.e (o&/ o(
in$&ease* 0o%e& to a&&est. Ea&l, in t.e .isto&, o( 0oli$in3, $ou&ts .el* t.at an o((i$e& $oul* a&&est i( .e
.a* 1&easona+le +elie( +ot. in t.e $o//ission o( a (elon, an* in t.e 3uilt o( t.e a&&estee.
51
T.is
&e0&esente* a /a&3inal ,et i/0o&tant *istin$tion (&o/ t.e &i3.ts o( a 10&i:ate 0e&son,1 %.o $oul* a&&est
onl, i( a (elon, .a* actually +een $o//itte*.
52
It &e/ains so/e%.at o( a /,ste&,, .o%e:e&, %.e&e t.is
*istin$tion %as (i&st *&a%n.
5B
S$&utin, o( t.e *istin$tion su33ests it a&ose in En3lan* in 1825 E /o&e
t.an a 3ene&ation a(te& &ati(i$ation o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts in t.e nite* States.
5C
?o&eo:e&, t.e *istin$tion %as ille3iti/ate (&o/ its +i&t., +ein3 a +asta&*i)ation o( an ea&lie& &ule
allo%in3 $onsta+les to a&&est u0on t&ans/ission o( &easona+l, &elia+le in(o&/ation (&o/ a t.i&*
0e&son.
55
T.e ea&lie& &ule /a*e 0e&(e$t sense %.en /an, a&&ests %e&e e2e$ute* +, 0&i:ate 0e&sons.
1Aut.o&it,1 %as a na&&o% *e(ense a:aila+le onl, to t.ose %.o /et t.e .i3.est stan*a&* o( a$$u&a$,.
56

#ut %.en A/e&i$ans +e3an to *ele3ate t.ei& la% en(o&$e/ent *uties to 0&o(essionals, t.e la% &ela2e* to
allo% 0oli$e to e2e$ute %a&&antless (elon, a&&ests u0on in(o&/ation &e$ei:e* (&o/ t.i&* 0a&ties. 9o&
o+:ious &easons, $onsta+les $oul* not +e &eHui&e* to +e 1&i3.t1 all o( t.e ti/e, so t.e &ule o( st&i$t
lia+ilit, (o& (alse a&&est %as lost.
55
T.e t&a*eo(( .as .a* t.e e((e$t o( *e0&i:in3 A/e&i$ans o( $e&taint, in t.e e2e$utions o( %a&&antless
a&&ests. Ju*3es no% $onsi*e& onl, t.e Huestion o( %.et.e& t.e&e %as &easona+le 3&oun* to sus0e$t an
a&&estee, &at.e& t.an %.et.e& t.e a&&estee %as 3uilt, o( an, $&i/e. T.is loss o( $e&taint,, %.en
$o/+ine* %it. 3&eate& *e(e&en$e to t.e state in /ost la% en(o&$e/ent /atte&s, .as essentiall, &e:e&se*
t.e o&i3inal intent an* 0u&0ose o( A/e&i$an la% en(o&$e/ent t.at t.e state a$t a3ainst ste&n li/itations
an* at its o%n 0e&il. #e$ause a&&est .as +e$o/e t.e nea& e2$lusi:e 0&o:in$e o( 0&o(essional 0oli$e,
A/e&i$ans .a:e (e%e& assu&an$es t.at t.e, a&e (&ee (&o/ un&easona+le a&&ests.
;istin$tions +et%een t.e 0&i:ile3es o( $iti)ens an* 0oli$e o((i$e&s 3&e% /o&e &a0i*l, in t.e t%entiet.
$entu&,. State an* (e*e&al la%/a'e&s ens.&ine* 0oli$e o((i$e&s %it. e20ansi:e i//unities (&o/ (i&ea&/
la%s
58
an* (&o/ la%s &e3ulatin3 t.e use o( eHui0/ent su$. as &a*io s$anne&s, +o*, a&/o&, an* in(&a&e*
s$o0es.
56
Le3islatu&es also e2e/0te* 0oli$e (&o/ toll &oa* $.a&3es,
80
3&ante* 0oli$e $on(i*ential
tele0.one nu/+e&s an* auto &e3ist&ation,
81
an* e:en e2e/0te* 0oli$e (&o/ (i&e%o&'s &e3ulations.
82

Poli$e a&e also 0&ote$te* +, ot.e& statuto&, i//unities an* 0&ote$tions, su$. as /an*ato&, *eat.
senten$es (o& *e(en*ants %.o /u&*e& t.e/,
8B
&ei/+u&se/ent o( /o:in3 e20enses %.en o((i$e&s
&e$ei:e t.&eats to t.ei& li:es,
8C
an* e:en s0e$ial 0&ote$tions (&o/ assailants in(e$te* %it. t.e AI;S
:i&us.
85
O((i$e&s %.o ille3all, ea:es*&o0, %i&eta0, o& int&u*e u0on 0&i:a$, a&e 0&ote$te* +, a statutory
Fas %ell as $ase la%G 13oo* (ait.1 *e(ense,
86
while 0&i:ate $iti)ens %.o *o so (a$e u0 to (i:e ,ea&s in
0&ison. T.e ten*en$, o( le3islatu&es to eHui0 0oli$e %it. e:e&7e20an*in3 &i3.ts, 0&i:ile3es an* 0o%e&s
.as, i( an,t.in3, +een st&en3t.ene* &at.e& t.an li/ite* +, t.e $ou&ts.
88
#ut t.is 3&o%in3 0o%e& *i((e&ential $ont&a:enes t.e 0&in$i0les o( eHual $iti)ens.i0 t.at *o/inate*
A/e&i$a8s (oun*in3. T.e 3&eat 0&in$i0le o( t.e A/e&i$an Re:olution %as, a(te& all, t.e *o$t&ine o(
li/ite* 3o:e&n/ent.
86
A*:o$ates o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts sa% t.e $.ie( *an3e& o( 3o:e&n/ent as t.e
in.e&entl, a&isto$&ati$ an* *is0a&ate 0o%e& o( 3o:e&n/ent aut.o&it,.
60
9oun*in37e&a $onstitutions
enun$iate* t.e 0&in$i0le t.at all /en a&e 1eHuall, (&ee1 an* t.at all 3o:e&n/ent is *e&i:e* (&o/ t.e
0eo0le.
61
RESISTINA ARREST
Not.in3 illust&ates t.e /o*e&n *is0a&it, +et%een t.e &i3.ts an* 0o%e&s o( 0oli$e an* $iti)en as /u$. as
t.e /o*e&n la% o( &esistin3 a&&est. At t.e ti/e o( t.e nation8s (oun*in3, an, $iti)en was privileged to
&esist a&&est i(, (o& e2a/0le, 0&o+a+le $ause (o& a&&est *i* not e2ist o& t.e a&&estin3 0e&son $oul* not
0&o*u$e a :ali* a&&est %a&&ant %.e&e one %as nee*e*.
62
As &e$entl, as one .un*&e* ,ea&s a3o, +ut %it.
a tone t.at see/s as i( (&o/ so/e ot.e&, /o&e *istant a3e, t.e nite* States Su0&e/e Cou&t .el* t.at it
%as 0e&/issi+le Fo& at least *e(ensi+leG to s.oot an o((i$e& %.o *is0la,s a 3un %it. intent to $o//it a
%a&&antless a&&est +ase* on insu((i$ient $ause.
6B
O((i$e&s %.o e2e$ute* an a&&est %it.out 0&o0e& %a&&ant
%e&e t.e/sel:es $onsi*e&e* t&es0asse&s, an* an, t&es0assee .a* a &i3.t to :iolentl, &esist Fo& e:en
assault an* +atte&G an o((i$e& to e:a*e su$. a&&est.
6C
>ell into t.e t%entiet. $entu&,, :iolent &esistan$e %as $onsi*e&e* a la%(ul &e/e*, (o& 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent :iolations.
65
E:en t.i&*70a&t, inte&/e**le&s %e&e 0&i:ile3e* to (o&$i+l, li+e&ate %&on3l,
a&&este* 0e&sons (&o/ unla%(ul $usto*,.
66
T.e *o$t&ine o( non7&esistan$e a3ainst unla%(ul 3o:e&n/ent
a$tion %as .a&s.l, $on*e/ne* at t.e $onstitutional $on:entions o( t.e 1580s, an* +ot. t.e ?a&,lan*
an* Ne% Ha/0s.i&e $onstitutions $ontaine* 0&o:isions *enoun$in3 non&esistan$e as 1a+su&*, sla:is.,
an* *est&u$ti:e o( t.e 3oo* an* .a00iness o( /an'in*.1
65
#, t.e 1680s, .o%e:e&, /an, i( not /ost states .a* F1G eli/inate* t.e $o//on la% &i3.t o(
&esistan$e,
68
F2G criminalized the &esistan$e o( an, o((i$e& a$tin3 in .is o((i$ial $a0a$it,,
66
FBG
eli/inate* t.e &eHui&e/ent t.at an a&&estin3 o((i$e& 0&esent .is %a&&ant at t.e s$ene,
100
an* FCG
*&asti$all, *e$&ease* t.e nu/+e& an* t,0es o( a&&ests (o& %.i$. a %a&&ant is &eHui&e*.
101
Alt.ou3. so/e
state $ou&ts .a:e +al'e* at t.is /a&$. to%a&* e((i$ien$, in (a:o& o( t.e state,
102
none &eHui&e t.e le:el
o( 0&ote$tion 'no%n to t.e 9&a/e&s.
10B
#ut t.e &i3.t to &esist unla%(ul a&&est $an +e $onsi*e&e* a constitutional one. It ste/s (&o/ t.e &i3.t o(
e:e&, 0e&son to .is +o*il, inte3&it, an* li+e&t, o( /o:e/ent, a/on3 t.e /ost (un*a/ental o( all
&i3.ts.
10C
Su+stanti:e *ue 0&o$ess 0&in$i0les &eHui&e t.at t.e 3o:e&n/ent inte&(e&e %it. su$. a &i3.t
onl, to (u&t.e& a $o/0ellin3 state inte&est
105
E an* t.e 0o%e& to a&&est t.e $iti)en&, unla%(ull, $an
.a&*l, +e $.a&a$te&i)e* as a $o/0ellin3 state inte&est.
106
T.us, t.e a*:ent o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3 .as
en*an3e&e* i/0o&tant &i3.ts o( t.e A/e&i$an 0eo0le.
T.e $.an3in3 +alan$e o( 0o%e& +et%een 0oli$e an* 0&i:ate $iti)ens is illust&ate* +, t.e 0o%e& o(
/o*e&n 0oli$e to use :iolen$e a3ainst t.e 0o0ulation.
105
As 0&o(essional 0oli$in3 +e$a/e /o&e 0&e:alent in t.e t%entiet. $entu&,, 0oli$e use o( *ea*l, (o&$e
%ent la&3el, %it.out $lea&l, *elineate* 3ui*elines Foutsi*e o( 3ene&al to&t la%G.
108
ntil t.e 1650s,
0oli$e o((i$e&s s.ot an* 'ille* (leein3 sus0e$ts F+ot. a&/e* an* una&/e*G at t.ei& o%n *is$&etion o&
a$$o&*in3 to :e&, 3ene&al *e0a&t/ent o&al 0oli$ies.
106
O((i$e&s in so/e -u&is*i$tions /a*e it t.ei&
&e3ula& 0&a$ti$e to s.oot at s0ee*in3 /oto&ists %.o &e(use* o&*e&s to .alt.
110
?o&e t.an one o((i$e& t&ie*
(o& /u&*e& in su$. $ases E alon3 %it. (ello% 0oli$e %.o u&3e* *is/issals E a&3ue* t.at su$. 'illin3s
%e&e in t.e *is$.a&3e o( o((i$ial *uties.
111
;e0a&t/ents t.at a*o0te* %&itten 3ui*elines in:a&ia+l, *i*
so in &es0onse to out$&ies (ollo%in3 Huestiona+le s.ootin3s.
112
P&io& to 1685, 0oli$e %e&e 3i:en nea&
total *is$&etion to (i&e on t.e 0u+li$ %.e&e:e& o((i$e&s sus0e$te* t.at a (leein3 0e&son .a* $o//itte* a
(elon,.
11B
?o&e t.an 200 0eo0le %e&e s.ot an* 'ille* +, 0oli$e in P.ila*el0.ia alone +et%een 1650 an*
168B.
11C
In 1685, t.e nite* States Su0&e/e Cou&t 0u&0o&te* to sto0 t.is $a&na3e +, in:ali*atin3 t.e use o(
*ea*l, (o&$e to a00&e.en* una&/e*, non:iolent sus0e$ts.
115
Tennessee v. Garner
116
in:ol:e* t.e 0oli$e
'illin3 o( an una&/e* -u:enile +u&3la&, sus0e$t %.o, i( a00&e.en*e* ali:e, %oul* li'el, .a:e +een
senten$e* to 0&o+ation.
115
T.e Cou&t li/ite* 0oli$e use o( *ea*l, (o&$e to $ases o( sel( *e(ense o&
*e(ense o( ot.e&s.
118
As a 0&a$ti$al /atte&, .o%e:e&, t.e Garner &ule is /u$. less st&in3ent. #e$ause (e*e&al $i:il &i3.ts
a$tions ine:ita+l, tu&n not on a st&i$t $onstitutional &ule Fsu$. as t.e Garner &uleG, +ut on t.e 0e&$e0tion
o( a *e(en*ant o((i$e&, o((i$e&s en-o, a liti3ation a*:anta3e o:e& all ot.e& 0a&ties.
116
In no &e0o&te* $ase
.as a -u*3e o& -u&, .el* an o((i$e& lia+le %.o use* *ea*l, (o&$e %.e&e a /e&e 1&easona+le1 +elie( t.at
.u/an li(e %as in i//inent *an3e& e2iste*.
120
So/e lo%e& $ou&ts .a:e inte&0&ete* Garner to 0e&/it
*ea*l, (o&$e e:en %.e&e sus0e$ts 0ose no i//e*iate an* *i&e$t t.&eat o( *eat. o& se&ious in-u&, to
ot.e&s.
121
T.e .S. Nint. Ci&$uit Cou&t o( A00eals &e$entl, *enie* t.e $&i/inal lia+ilit, o( an a3ent
%.o s.ot an* 'ille* an inno$ent 0e&son to 0&e:ent anot.e& 0e&son (&o/ &et&eatin3 to 1ta'e u0 a
*e(ensi:e 0osition,1 *&a%in3 $&iti$is/ (&o/ Ju*3e @o)ins'i t.at t.e $ou&t .a* a*o0te* t.e 1005
stan*a&*1 (o& 0oli$e s.ootin3s.
122
ntol* *o)ens, i( not .un*&e*s, o( A/e&i$ans .a:e +een s.ot in t.e +a$' %.ile (leein3 0oli$e, e:en
a(te& t.e Garner *e$ision. Poli$e .a:e s.ot an* 'ille* sus0e$ts %.o *i* not.in3 /o&e t.an /a'e a
/o:e,
12B
&ea$. (o& t.ei& i*enti(i$ation too Hui$'l,,
12C
&ea$. into a -a$'et o& 0o$'et,
125
1/a'e a /otion1
o( 3oin3 (o& a 3un,
126
tu&n eit.e& to%a&* o& a%a, (&o/ o((i$e&s,
125
80ull a%a,8 (&o/ an o((i$e& as an
o((i$e& o0ene* a $a& *oo&,
128
&u+ t.ei& e,es an* stu/+le (o&%a&* a(te& a /a$e atta$',
126
o& alle3e*l,
lun3e %it. a 'ni(e,
1B0
a .at$.et,
1B1
o& a +all0oint 0en.
1B2
Co0s .a:e also +een 'no%n to o0en (i&e on
an* 'ill 0e&sons %.o +&an*is.e* o& &e(use* to *&o0 :i&tuall, an, .an*7.el* o+-e$t E a Ja$' ;aniel8s
%.is'e, +ottle,
1BB
a /etal &o*,
1BC
a %oo*en sti$',
1B5
a 'it$.en 'ni(e Fe:en %.ile eatin3 *inne&G,
1B6
a
s$&e%*&i:e&,
1B5
a &a'e
1B8
E o& e:en &e(use* an o&*e& to &aise t.ei& .an*s.
1B6
Co0s %.o s.oot an in*i:i*ual .ol*in3 a s.in, o+-e$t t.at $an +e sai* to &ese/+le a 3un E su$. as a
$as. +o2,
1C0
a s.in, sil:e& 0en,
1C1
a T= &e/ote $ont&ol,
1C2
o& e:en a $an o0ene&
1CB
E a&e es0e$iall,
li'el, to a:oi* lia+ilit,. In line %it. t.is *e(ense, 0oli$e o((i$e&s nation%i*e .a:e +een $au3.t 0lantin3
%ea0ons on t.ei& :i$ti/s in o&*e& to /a'e s.ootin3s loo' li'e sel( *e(ense.
1CC
In one o( t.e /o&e
e3&e3ious e2a/0les e:e& 0&o:en in $ou&t, Houston 0oli$e %e&e (oun* *u&in3 t.e 1680s to .a:e utili)e*
an uno((i$ial policy o( 0lantin3 3uns on :i$ti/s o( 0oli$e :iolen$e.
1C5
Se:ent,7(i:e to ei3.t, 0e&$ent o(
all Houston o((i$e&s a00a&entl, $a&&ie* 1t.&o%7*o%n1 %ea0ons (o& su$. 0u&0oses.
1C6
Onl, t.e *o33e*
0e&sisten$e o( a33&ie:e* &elati:es an* t.e (i&st.an* testi/on, o( int&e0i* %itnesses un&a:ele* t.e 0oli$e
$o:e&7u0 o( t.e 0oli$,.
1C5
Resistin3 a&&est, *e(en*in3 onesel(, o& (leein3 /a, also 0la$e an A/e&i$an in *an3e& o( +ein3 'ille* +,
0oli$e.
1C8
Alt.ou3. t.e la% $lea&l, $lassi(ies su$. 'illin3s as unla%(ul, 0oli$e a&e &a&el, /a*e to
a$$ount (o& su$. $on*u$t in $ou&t.
1C6
Onl, %.e&e t.e $lai/e* i//inent t.&eat see/s too $ont&i:e* E
su$. as %.e&e an o((i$e& o0ene* (i&e to *e(en* .i/sel( (&o/ a 0ai& o( (in3e&nail $li00e&s
150
E o& %.e&e
a+un*ant e:i*en$e o( a 0oli$e $o:e&7u0 e2ists, %ill $ou&ts u0.ol* *a/a3e a%a&*s a3ainst 0oli$e o((i$e&s
%.o s.oot $i:ilians.
151
As P&o(esso& Pete& L. ;a:is 0oints out, t.e&e is no 3oo* &eason %., 0oli$e s.oul* not +e lia+le
criminally (o& t.ei& :iolations o( t.e $&i/inal $o*e, -ust as ot.e& A/e&i$ans %oul* e20e$t to +e Fan*,
in*ee*, as t.e $onsta+les o( t.e 9oun*in3 E&a o(ten %e&eG.
152
4et in /o*e&n $&i/inal $ou&ts, 0oli$e ten*
to +e /o&e +ullet0&oo( t.an t.e @e:la& :ests t.e, %ea& on t.e -o+. Re/e/+e& t.at t.e *ist&i$t atto&ne,s
&es0onsi+le (o& 0&ose$utin3 0oli$e (o& t.ei& $&i/es a&e t.e sa/e *ist&i$t atto&ne,s %.o /ust *e(en*
t.ose o((i$e&s in $i:il $ases in:ol:in3 t.e sa/e (a$ts.
15B
n*e& t.e 9&a/e&s8 $o//on la%, t.is $on(li$t
o( inte&est *i* not a&ise at all +e$ause a $iti)en 3&an* -u&, E in*e0en*ent (&o/ t.e state atto&ne,
3ene&al E +&ou3.t $.a&3es a3ainst a $&i/inal o((i$e&, an* t.e o((i$e&8s :i$ti/ 0&ose$ute* t.e /atte&
+e(o&e a 0etit -u&,.
15C
#ut t.e /o*e&n /o*el o( la% en(o&$e/ent 0&o:i*es no &eal &e/e*,, an* no &ea*,
outlet (o& t.e la% to %o&' e((e$ti:el, a3ainst 0oli$e $&i/inals. In*ee*, /o*e&n 0oli$in3 a$ts as an
o+st&u$tion o( -usti$e %it. &e3a&* to 0oli$e $&i/inalit,.
T.e +loo*staine* &e$o&* o( s.ootin3s, +eatin3s, to&tu&es an* /a,.e/ +, A/e&i$an 0oli$e a3ainst t.e
0o0ula$e is too :olu/inous to +e &e$ounte* in a sin3le a&ti$le.
155
At least 2,000 A/e&i$ans .a:e +een
'ille* at t.e .an*s o( la% en(o&$e/ent sin$e 1660.
156
So/e one7(ou&t. o( t.ese 'illin3s E a+out (i(t,
0e& ,ea& E a&e alle3e* +, so/e aut.o&ities to +e in t.e natu&e o( /u&*e&s.
155
4et onl, a .an*(ul .a:e
le* to in*i$t/ent, $on:i$tion an* in$a&$e&ation.
158
T.is is t&ue e:en t.ou3. /ost 0oli$e 'illin3s in:ol:e
:i$ti/s %.o %e&e una&/e* o& $o//itte* no $&i/e.
156
@illin3s +, 0oli$e see/ as li'el, as 'illin3s +, *eat.7&o% /u&*e&e&s to *e/onst&ate e2t&e/e +&utalit,
o& *e0&a:it,. Poli$e o(ten (i&e a *o)en o& /o&e +ullets at a :i$ti/ %.e&e one o& t%o %oul* sto0 t.e
in*i:i*ual.
160
Su$. in*i$ia o( :i$iousness an* (e&o$it, %oul* Huali(, as a33&a:atin3 (a$to&s -usti(,in3
t.e *eat. 0enalt, (o& a $i:ilian /u&*e&e& un*e& t.e $&i/inal la%s o( /ost states.
161
9&o/ t.e ea&liest a&&i:al o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3 u0on A/e&i$a8s s.o&es, 0oli$e se:e&el, ta2e* +ot. t.e
la&3ess an* t.e li+e&ties o( t.e $iti)en&,.
162
In ea&l, /uni$i0al 0oli$e *e0a&t/ents, $o0s to&tu&e*,
.a&asse* an* a&&este* t.ousan*s o( A/e&i$ans (o& :a3&an$,, loite&in3, an* si/ila& 1$&i/es,1 o& *etaine*
t.e/ on /e&e 1sus0i$ion.1
16B
>.e&e e:i*en$e %as insu((i$ient to $lose a $ase, 0oli$e to&tu&e* sus0e$ts
into $on(essin3 to $&i/es t.e, *i* not $o//it.
16C
In t.e na/e o( la% en(o&$e/ent, 0oli$e +e$a/e
0&o(essional la%+&ea'e&s, 1$onstantl, +&ea'in3 in u0on $o//on la% an* ... statute la%.1
165
In 160B a
(o&/e& Ne% 4o&' Cit, 0oli$e $o//issione& &e/a&'e* t.at .e .a* seen 1a *&ea&, 0&o$ession o( $iti)ens
%it. +&o'en .ea*s an* +&uise* +o*ies a3ainst (e% o( %.o/ %as :iolen$e nee*e* to a((e$t an a&&est....
T.e 0oli$e a&e 0&a$ti$all, a+o:e t.e la%.1
166
THE SA9ET4 O9 THE POLICE PRO9ESSION
;e(en*e&s o( 0oli$e :iolen$e o(ten $ite t.e *an3e&ous natu&e o( 0oli$e %o&', $lai/in3 t.e 0oli$e
o$$u0ation is (ille* %it. &is's to li(e an* .ealt.. Poli$e t&ainin3 itsel( E es0e$iall, elite S>AT7t,0e o&
0a&a/ilita&, t&ainin3 t.at /an, o((i$e&s $&a:e E &ein(o&$es t.e 1*an3e&ousness1 o( 0oli$e %o&' in t.e
o((i$e&s8 o%n /in*s.
165
T.e&e is so/e t&ut. to t.is 0e&$e0tion, in t.at a&oun* one .un*&e* o((i$e&s a&e
(eloniousl, 'ille* in t.e line o( *ut, ea$. ,ea& in t.e nite* States.
168
#ut 0oli$e %o&'8s +illin3 as a *an3e&ous 0&o(ession 0lu//ets in $&e*i+ilit, %.en :ie%e* (&o/ a
+&oa*e& 0e&s0e$ti:e. Ho/i$i*e, a(te& all, is t.e se$on* lea*in3 $ause o( *eat. on t.e -o+ (o& all
A/e&i$an %o&'e&s.
166
T.e ta2i$a+ in*ust&, su((e&s .o/i$i*e &ates al/ost six times .i3.e& t.an t.e
0oli$e an* *ete$ti:e in*ust&,.
150
A 0oli$e o((i$e&8s *eat. on t.e -o+ is al/ost as li'el, to +e (&o/ an
a$$i*ent as (&o/ .o/i$i*e.
151
>.en o:e&all &ates o( in-u&, an* *eat. on t.e -o+ a&e e2a/ine*, 0oli$in3
+a&el, &an's at all. T.e .i3.est &ates o( (atal %o&'0la$e in-u&ies o$$u& in t.e /inin3 an* $onst&u$tion
in*ust&ies, %it. t&ans0o&tation, /anu(a$tu&in3 an* a3&i$ultu&e (ollo%in3 $lose +e.in*.
152
9ull, 68
0e&$ent o( all (atal %o&'0la$e in-u&ies o$$u& in t.e $i:ilian la+o& (o&$e.
15B
?o&eo:e&, 0oli$e %o&' is 3ene&ousl, &e%a&*e* in te&/s o( (inan$ial, 0ension an* ot.e& +ene(its, not to
/ention 0&esti3e. Poli$e sala&ies /a, e2$ee* K100,000 annuall, 0lus 3ene&ous .ealt. insu&an$e an*
0ension 0lans E 0la$in3 0oli$e in t.e :e&, .i3.est 0e&$entiles o( A/e&i$an %o&'e&s in te&/s o(
$o/0ensation.
15C
T.e (oun*in3 3ene&ation %oul* .a:e +een utte&l, astonis.e* +, su$. a t&ans(e& o(
%ealt. to 0&o(essional la% en(o&$e&s.
155
T.is &ealit, o( 0oli$e sa(et,, se$u&it, an* $o/(o&t is one o( t.e
+est7'e0t se$&ets in A/e&i$an la+o&.
In all, it is Huestiona+le %.et.e& /o*e&n 0oli$in3 a$tuall, *e$&eases t.e le:el o( +loo*s.e* on
A/e&i$an st&eets. Poli$e o(ten +&in3 /a,.e/, $on(usion an* :iolen$e %.e&e:e& t.e, a&e $alle*.
156

A00&o2i/atel, one7t.i&* o( t.e 0eo0le 'ille* in .i3.7s0ee* 0oli$e $a& $.ases F%.i$. a&e o(ten
unne$essa&il, es$alate* +, 0oli$eG a&e inno$ent +,stan*e&s.
155
Co0s o$$asionall, 0&e:ent &at.e& t.an
e2e$ute &es$ues.
158
1Poli$e 0&a$ti$es1 &an'e* as t.e nu/+e& one cause o( :iolent u&+an &iots o( t.e
1660s.
156
In*ee*, 0oli$e a$ti:el, 0a&ti$i0ate* in o& e:en initiate* so/e o( t.e nation8s %o&st &iots.
180

;u&in3 t.e in(a/ous C.i$a3o Poli$e Riot *u&in3 t.e ;e/o$&ati$ National Con:ention in 1668, 0oli$e
0.,si$all, atta$'e* 6B ne%s/en an* in*is$&i/inatel, +eat an* $lu++e* nu/e&ous inno$ent
+,stan*e&s.
181
PRO9ESSIONALIS?!
I( t.e /o*e&n /o*el o( $o07*&i:en $&i/inal -usti$e .as an, *e(ense at all, it is its 10&o(essionalis/.1
P&i:ate la% en(o&$e/ent o( t.e t,0e inten*e* +, t.e 9&a/e&s %as su00ose*l, /o&e in$line* to%a&* la2
an* a&+it&a&, en(o&$e/ent t.an 0&o(essional o((i$e&s %.o a&e s%o&n to u0.ol* t.e la%.
182
0on
s$&utin,, .o%e:e&, t.e $lai/ t.at 0&o(essional 0oli$e a&e /o&e &elia+le, less a&+it&a&,, an* /o&e $a0a+le
o( o+-e$ti:e la% en(o&$e/ent t.an 0&i:ate la% en(o&$e&s is *&asti$all, un*e&/ine*.
T.e $onstitutional /o*el o( la% en(o&$e/ent Fin:esti3ation +, a $iti)en 3&an* -u&,, a&&est +, 0&i:ate
in*i:i*uals, $onsta+les o& $iti)ens %at$., an* 0&i:ate 0&ose$utionG +e$a/e seen as ine((i$ient an*
ine((e$ti:e as A/e&i$a ente&e* its in*ust&ial a3e.
18B
4et t.e 3&an* -u&, in its natu&al an* un.o++le* state
is more, &at.e& t.an less, a+le to 0u&sue in:esti3ations %.en $o/0a&e* to 0&o(essional 0oli$e. A&an*
-u&o&s a&e not $onst&aine* +, t.e 9ou&t., 9i(t. o& Si2t. a/en*/ents E o& at least t.e 1e2$lusiona&,
&ule1 (as.ione* +, t.e $ou&ts to en(o&$e t.ose a/en*/ents.
18C
In t.e a+sen$e o( 0oli$e t&oo0s to en(o&$e t.e la%, t.e ea&l, $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/ %as .a&*l, as
.o++le* an* i/0otent as $on:entional %is*o/ su33ests. P&i:ate %at$. 3&ou0s an* +&oa*7+ase*
a*:o$a$, 3&ou0s e2iste* to en(o&$e la%s an* t&a$' $&i/inals a/on3 -u&is*i$tions. T.ousan*s o( lo$al
anti.o&set.ie( asso$iations an* $ountless 8*ete$tin3 so$ieties8 s0&an3 u0 to ans%e& t.e $all o( $&i/e
:i$ti/s in t.e nineteent. $entu&,.
185
In ?aine, t.e 1Peno+s$ot Te/0e&an$e Lea3ue1 .i&e* *ete$ti:es to
in:esti3ate an* initiate $&i/inal $ases a3ainst ille3al liHuo& t&a((i$'e&s.
186
In t.e 1850s a 0&i:ate 3&ou0
$alle* t.e So$iet, (o& t.e Su00&ession o( =i$e +e$a/e so )ealous in 3a&ne&in3 0&ose$utions o( t.e
i//o&al t.at it %as a$$use* in 1858 o( $oe&$in3 a *e(en*ant into /ailin3 +i&t. $ont&ol in(o&/ation in
:iolation o( (e*e&al statutes,
185
one o( t.e ea&liest 'no%n instan$es o( $on*u$t t.at late& +e$a/e *e(ine*
as ent&a0/ent.
188
Alt.ou3. so/e o( t.ese 0&i:ate $&i/e7(i3.tin3 3&ou0s %e&e in:este* %it. li/ite*
state la% en(o&$e/ent 0o%e&s,
186
t.e, %e&e not 0oli$e o((i$e&s in t.e /o*e&n sense an* &e$ei:e* no
&e/une&ation.
Su$. :oluntee& non0&o(essionals $ontinue to ai* la% en(o&$e/ent as au2ilia&, o((i$e&s in /an,
A/e&i$an $o//unities.
160
A**itionall,, 0&i:ate o&3ani)ations a((iliate* %it. &e3ional $.a/+e&s o(
$o//e&$e, nei3.+o&.oo* %at$. an* ot.e& $iti)ens8 3&ou0s $ontinue to 0la, a su+stantial E t.ou3.
un*e&a00&e$iate* E &ole in (i3.tin3 $&i/e.
161
A/e&i$a also .as a lon3 .isto&, o( out&i3.t :i3ilante
-usti$e, alt.ou3. su$. :i3ilantis/ .as +een e2a33e&ate* +ot. in its so&*i*ness
162
an* in its s$o0e.
16B
?o&eo:e&, 3o:e&n/ent7o0e&ate* 0oli$in3 is .a&*l, a /ono0ol, e:en to*a,, neit.e& in /aintainin3 o&*e&
no& o:e& /atte&s o( e20e&tise an* intelli3en$e73at.e&in3.
16C
T.e&e a&e t.&ee ti/es /o&e 0&i:ate se$u&it,
3ua&*s t.an 0u+li$ 0oli$e o((i$e&s an* e:en a$ti:ities su$. as 3ua&*in3 3o:e&n/ent +uil*in3s Fin$lu*in3
0oli$e stationsG an* (o&ensi$ anal,sis a&e no% *one +, 0&i:ate se$u&it, 0e&sonnel.
165
T.e $.ie( sellin3 0oint (o& 0&o(essional 0oli$in3 see/s to +e t.e i*ea t.at s%o&n 3o:e&n/ent a3ents a&e
/o&e $o/0etent $&i/e sol:e&s t.an 3&an* -u&ies, 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s, an* un0ai* :oluntee&s. #ut t.is
$lai/ *isinte3&ates %.en t.e &ealities o( 0oli$e 0e&sonnel a&e $onsi*e&e*. In 1668, (o& e2a/0le, (o&t,
0e&$ent o( 3&a*uatin3 &e$&uits o( t.e >as.in3ton, ;.C. 0oli$e a$a*e/, (aile* t.e $o/0&e.ensi:e e2a/
&eHui&e* (o& e/0lo,/ent on t.e (o&$e an* %e&e *es$&i+e* as 10&a$ti$all, illite&ate1 an* 1+o&*e&line7
&eta&*e*.1
166
As a 0&a$ti$al /atte&, 0oli$e a&e /o&e *e0en*ent u0on t.e 0u+li$ t.an t.e 0u+li$ is
*e0en*ent u0on 0oli$e.
165
Co0s &el, on t.e 0u+li$ (o& a :e&, .i3. 0e&$enta3e o( t.ei& in:esti3ation $lea&an$es. As t.e &ate o(
$&i/es $o//itte* +, st&an3e&s in$&eases, t.e &ate o( $lea&an$e +, t.e 0oli$e in:a&ia+l, *e$lines.
168

Rou3.l, t%o7t.i&*s o( /a-o& &o++e&, an* +u&3la&, a&&ests o$$u& solel, +e$ause a %itness $an i*enti(,
t.e o((en*e&, t.e o((en*e& is $au3.t at o& nea& t.e $&i/e s$ene, o& t.e o((en*e& lea:es e:i*en$e at t.e
s$ene.
166
In $ont&ast, %.e&e a sus0e$t $annot +e i*enti(ie* in su$. %a,s, o**s a&e .i3. t.at t.e $&i/e
%ill 3o unsol:e*.
200
Stu*ies s.o% t.at as 3o:e&n/ent 0oli$in3 .as ta'en o:e& $&i/inal in:esti3ations, t.e &ates o( $lea&an$e
(o& /u&*e& in:esti3ations .a:e a$tuall, 3one *o%n. 9o& /o&e t.an t.&ee *e$a*es E %.ile 0oli$e units
.a:e e20an*e* 3&eatl, in si)e, 0o%e& an* -u&is*i$tion E t.e 3a0 +et%een t.e nu/+e& o( .o/i$i*es in
t.e nite* States an* t.e nu/+e& o( $ases sol:e* .as %i*ene* +, al/ost t%ent, 0e&$ent.
201
To*a,,
al/ost t.&ee in ten .o/i$i*es 3o unsol:e*.
202
;NA E=I;ENCE ILLSTRATES 9ALLI#ILIT4 O9 POLICE
?o&eo:e&, a su&0&isin3l, .i3. nu/+e& o( 0oli$e $on$lusions a&e si/0l, %&on3. Sin$e 166B, at least B81
murder $on:i$tions .a:e +een &e:e&se* +e$ause o( 0oli$e o& 0&ose$uto&ial /is$on*u$t.
20B
In t.e 257
,ea& 0e&io* (ollo%in3 t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t8s &ulin3 in Gregg v. Georgia
20C
&ea((i&/in3 t.e use o( $a0ital
0unis./ent, one inno$ent 0e&son .as +een (&ee* (&o/ *eat. &o% (o& e:e&, se:en %.o .a:e +een
e2e$ute*.
205
In Illinois, T.i&teen /en .a:e +een (&ee* (&o/ *eat. &o% sin$e 1655 a(te& 0&o:in3 t.ei&
inno$en$e E /o&e t.an t.e t%el:e %.o %e&e a$tuall, 0ut to *eat. o:e& t.e sa/e 0e&io*. Ao:e&no&
Aeo&3e R,an (inall, o&*e&e* a /o&ato&iu/ on e2e$utions until t.e *eat. 0enalt, s,ste/ $oul* +e
&e:a/0e*,
206
&e(e&&in3 to t.e *eat. 0enalt, s,ste/ as 1(&au3.t %it. e&&o&.1
205
4et *eat. 0enalt, $ases a&e a((o&*e* (a& /o&e *ue 0&o$ess an* s$&utin, o( e:i*en$e t.an non$a0ital
$ases. I( an,t.in3, t.e e&&o& &ate o( 0oli$e in non$a0ital $ases is li'el, su+stantiall, .i3.e&. Ao:e&no&
R,an8s %o&*s %oul* see/ to a00l, *ou+l, to t.e enti&e s,ste/ o( 0oli$e7*&i:en in:esti3ation.
T.e a*:ent o( ;NA anal,sis in t.e $ou&t&oo/s o( t.e 1660s 3&eatl, a$$ele&ate* t.e &ate at %.i$. 0oli$e
e&&o&s .a:e +een 0&o:en in $ou&t, e:en %.ile a:enues (o& *e(en*ants8 a00eals .a:e +een s,ste/ati$all,
$ut o(( +, Con3&ess an* state le3islatu&es.
208
;NA testin3 +e(o&e t&ial .as e2one&ate* at least 5000
prime suspects %.o %oul* li'el, .a:e ot.e&%ise +een t&ie* on ot.e& 0oli$e e:i*en$e.
206
O(ten,
e2$ul0ato&, ;NA &e:elations .a:e $o/e in $ases %.e&e ot.e& 0oli$e73ene&ate* e:i*en$e %as
i&&e$on$ila+le, su33estin3 (alsi(i$ation o( e:i*en$e o& ot.e& 0oli$e /is$on*u$t.
210
T.e s.ee& nu/+e& o(
%&on3l, a$$use* 0e&sons (&ee* +, ;NA e:i*en$e /a'es it +e,on* *is0ute t.at 0oli$e in:esti3ations a&e
(a& less t&ust%o&t., t.an t.e 0u+li$ %oul* li'e to +elie:e.
211
E:en /o&e un-usti(ie* is t.e notion t.at a -usti$e s,ste/ 0o%e&e* +, 0&o(essional 0oli$e 0ossesses
.i3.e& le:els o( inte3&it,, t&ust%o&t.iness an* $&e*i+ilit, t.an t.e $&i/inal -usti$e /o*el inten*e* +, t.e
9&a/e&s. >it.in t.e $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/, $o0s a&e &e3a&*e* as little /o&e t.an 0&o(essional
%itnesses o( $on:enien$e, i( not 0&o(essional 0e&-u&e&s, (o& t.e 0&ose$ution.
212
Al/ost no aut.o&it,
$&e*its 0oli$e %it. .i3. le:els o( .onest,. In*ee*, t.e *ail, %o&' o( $o0s &eHui&es st&ate3i$ l,in3 as 0a&t
o( t.e -o+ *es$&i0tion.
21B
Co0s lie a+out t.e st&en3t. o( t.ei& e:i*en$e in o&*e& to o+tain $on(essions,
21C
a+out 3i:in3 Miranda %a&nin3s to a&&estees %.en on t.e %itness stan*,
215
an* e:en a+out su+stanti:e
e:i*en$e %.en $&i/inal $ases nee* /o&e su00o&t. Co0s t.&ou3.out t.e nite* States .a:e +een $au3.t
(a+&i$atin3, 0lantin3 an* /ani0ulatin3 e:i*en$e to o+tain $on:i$tions %.e&e $ases %oul* ot.e&%ise +e
:e&, %ea'.
216
So/e aut.o&ities &e3a&* 0oli$e 0e&-u&, as so &a/0ant t.at it $an +e $onsi*e&e* a
1su+$ultu&al no&/ &at.e& t.an an in*i:i*ual a+e&&ation1 o( 0oli$e o((i$e&s.
215
La&3e7s$ale in:esti3ations
o( 0oli$e units in :i&tuall, e:e&, /a-o& A/e&i$an $it, .a:e *o$u/ente* /assi:e e:i*en$e ta/0e&in3,
a+use o( t.e a&&estin3 0o%e&, an* *is$&i/inato&, en(o&$e/ent o( la%s a$$o&*in3 to &a$e, et.ni$it,,
3en*e&, an* so$ioe$ono/i$ status. Re$ent alle3ations in Los An3eles $.a&3e t.at *o)ens o( o((i$e&s
a+use* t.ei& aut.o&it, +, o0enin3 (i&e on una&/e* sus0e$ts, 0lantin3 e:i*en$e, *ealin3 ille3al *&u3s, o&
(&a/in3 so/e 200 inno$ent 0eo0le.
218
?o&e t.an a .un*&e* 0&ose$utions .a* to +e *is/isse* in
C.i$a3o in 1665 *ue to si/ila& 0oli$e /is$on*u$t.
216
;u&in3 t.e in(a/ous 19&en$. $onne$tion1 $ase o(
t.e 1650s, Ne% 4o&' Cit, na&$oti$s *ete$ti:es %e&e $au3.t *i:e&tin3 188 0oun*s o( .e&oin an* B1
0oun*s o( $o$aine (o& t.ei& o%n use, /a'in3 t.e Cit,8s S0e$ial In:esti3atin3 nit t.e la&3est .e&oin an*
$o$aine *eale& in t.e $it,.
220
Poli$e $&i/inalit, %as so a$ute in Ne% O&leans *u&in3 t.e 1680s an* 1660s t.at 0eo0le %e&e a(&ai* to
&e0o&t $&i/es (o& (ea& t.at $o&&u0t o((i$e&s %oul* &etaliate o& ti0 o(( o&3ani)e* $&i/e (i3u&es. One Ne%
O&leans o((i$e& %as $on:i$te* o( o&*e&in3 t.e e2e$ution o( a %itness %.o &e0o&te* .i/ to t.e inte&nal
a((ai&s unit (o& alle3e*l, 0istol7%.i00in3 a teena3e&.
221
T.i&t,7si2 >as.in3ton, ;.C. o((i$e&s %e&e
in*i$te* on $.a&3es su$. as *&u3 *ealin3, se2ual assault, /u&*e&, so*o/, an* 'i*na00in3 in 1662.
222

In ;et&oit, &e0eate* $o&&u0tion alle3ations .a:e seen a nu/+e& o( lo%7 an* .i3.7&an'in3 o((i$e&s 3o to
0&ison (o& *&u3 t&a((i$'in3, .i&in3 .it /en, 0&o:i*in3 *&u3 0&ote$tion, an* lootin3 in(o&/ant (un*s.
22B

Poli$e +u&3la&, &in3s .a:e +een un$o:e&e* in se:e&al $ities.
22C
Patte&ns o( 0oli$e a+use ten* to &e0eat t.e/sel:es in /a-o& A/e&i$an $ities *es0ite en*less atte/0ts at
&e(o&/.
225
Ne% 4o&' Cit, 0oli$e, (o& e2a/0le, .a:e +een t.e su+-e$t o( *o)ens o( %i*e7&an3in3
$o&&u0tion 0&o+es o:e& t.e 0ast .un*&e* ,ea&s
226
,et $ontinue to 3ene&ate $o&&u0tion alle3ations.
225

Poli$e e2.i+it uniHue le:els o( o$$u0ational soli*a&it,.
228
Re:ie% +oa&*s an* inte&nal a((ai&s
$o//issions ine:ita+l, (ail to 0enet&ate 0oli$e lo,alt, an* (in* &esistan$e (&o/ e:e&, &an'.
226
Co0s
ine:ita+l, (o&/ an isolate* aut.o&ita&ian su+$ultu&e t.at is +ot. $,ni$al to%a&* t.e &ule o( la% an*
*is&es0e$t(ul o( t.e &i3.ts o( (ello% $iti)ens.
2B0
T.e $o*e o( inte&nal (a:o&itis/ t.at .ol*s 0oli$e
to3et.e& /a, /o&e a0tl, +e *es$&i+e* as s,n*i$alis/ &at.e& t.an 0&o(essionalis/. Histo&i$all,, u&+an
0oli$e 1$olle$te*1 (&o/ lo$al +usinesses.
2B1
To*a,, a /o&e su+tle +&an* o( &a$'etee&in3 0&e:ails,
%.e&e+, 0oli$e assist t.ose +usinesses %.i$. 0&o:i*e su00o&t (o& 0oli$e an* un*e&/ine +usinesses
%.i$. a&e 0e&$ei:e* as anta3onisti$ to 0oli$e inte&ests. T.is sa/e s.a'e*o%n also a00lies to ne%s0a0e&
e*ito&s an* 0oliti$ians.
2B2
E:en at t.e (e*e&al le:el, %.e&e national in:esti3ato&s 0&esu/e to 0oli$e $o&&u0tion an* o:e&see lo$al
*e0a&t/ents, (a:o&itis/ to%a&* t.e 0oli$e &ole is &a/0ant. In 1662, (o& e2a/0le, t.e (e*e&al
3o:e&n/ent (ile* $&i/inal $.a&3es in onl, 25 $ases o( 0oli$e $&i/inalit,.
2BB
A (e*e&al statute
$&i/inali)in3 :iolations o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent .as ne:e& +een en(o&$e* e:en a sin3le ti/e,
alt.ou3. it .as +een a 0a&t o( t.e .S. Co*e sin$e 1621.
2BC
T.&ou3.out t.e 1680s an* 860s, t.e 9#I
C&i/e La+o&ato&, a$ti:el, a+ette* t.e /is$on*u$t o( lo$al 0oli$e *e0a&t/ents +, /is&e0&esentin3
(o&ensi$ e:i*en$e to +olste& 0oli$e $ases a3ainst *e(en*ants.
2B5
COPS NOT COST7E99ECTI=E ;ETERRENT
In te&/s o( 0u&e e$ono/i$ &etu&ns, 0oli$e a&e a su&0&isin3l, 0oo& 0u+li$ in:est/ent. T,0i$al u&+an
0oli$e %o&' is :e&, e20ensi:e +e$ause 0oli$e see a 0&i/a&, 0a&t o( t.ei& &ole as inte&:ention (o& its o%n
sa'e E 0o'in3, 0&o**in3 an* Huestionin3 t.e 0u+li$ in .o0e o( tu&nin3 u0 e:i*en$e o( %&on3*oin3.
To%a&* t.is en*, 0oli$e s0in Hui$' 7tu&ns, *&i:e slo%l, an* /ena$in3l, *o%n alle,%a,s, &e:e&se
*i&e$tion to t&a$' sus0e$te* s$o((la%s, an* $on*u$t si*e%al' 0at7*o%n sea&$.es o( 0otential $&i/inals
a+sent $lea& in*i$ia o( 0otential $&i/inalit,.
2B6
Stu*ies in*i$ate, .o%e:e&, t.at su$. ta$ti$s a&e
essentiall, %o&t.less in t.e %a& on $&i/e. One e20e&i/ent (oun* t.at %.en 0oli$e *o not 8$&uise8 +ut
si/0l, &es0on* to *is0at$.e* $alls, $&i/e &ates a&e $o/0letel, una((e$te*.
2B5
T.us t.e :e&, as0e$t o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3 t.at t.e 0u+li$ :ie% as /ost e((e$ti:e E t.e $&eation o( a
80oli$e 0&esen$e8 E is in (a$t a /onst&ous %aste o( 0u+li$ &esou&$es.
2B8
Si/ila&l,, t.e .isto&, o(
A/e&i$a8s e20en*itu&es in t.e %a& on *&u3s 0&o:i*es little su00o&t (o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at /one, s0ent
on 0oli$in3 ,iel*s 0ositi:e &etu&ns.
2B6
ni:e&sit, o( C.i$a3o 0&o(esso& Jo.n Lott .as (oun* t.at %.ile
.i&in3 0oli$e $an &e*u$e $&i/e &ates, t.e net +ene(it o( .i&in3 an a**itional o((i$e& is a+out a Hua&te& o(
t.e +ene(it (&o/ a&/in3 t.e 0u+li$ %it. an eHui:alent *olla& a/ount o( $on$eale* .an*3uns.
2C0
T.e&e is no *ou+t t.at /o*e&n 0oli$e a&e a $&eation o( la%(ul &e0&esentati:e le3islatu&es an* a&e :e&,
0o0ula& %it. t.e 3ene&al 0u+li$.
2C1
#ut t.e &i3.ts o( A/e&i$ans *e0en* u0on (&ee*o/ from 3o:e&n/ent
as /u$. as (&ee*o/ of 3o:e&n/ent.
2C2
Constitutions /ust 0&o:i*e a $ounte&/a-o&ita&ian e*i(i$e to t.e
t.&eat 0ose* +, t.e %ill o( t.e /asses, an* $ou&ts /ust at ti/es 0&onoun$e e:en t.e /ost 0o0ula&
0&o3&a/s in:ali* %.en t.e, $ont&a:ene t.e (un*a/ental li+e&ties o( a /ino&it, E o& e:en t.e %.ole
0eo0le at ti/es %.en t.e, ina00&o0&iatel, *e:alue t.ei& li+e&ties.
2CB
PART II
POLICE AS A STAN;INA AR?4
It is la&3el, (o&3otten t.at t.e %a& (o& A/e&i$an in*e0en*en$e %as initiate* in la&3e 0a&t +, t.e #&itis.
C&o%n8s 0&a$ti$e o( usin3 t&oo0s to 0oli$e $i:ilians in #oston an* ot.e& $ities.
2CC
P&o(essional sol*ie&s
use* in t.e sa/e %a,s as /o*e&n 0oli$e %e&e a/on3 t.e 0&i/a&, 3&ie:an$es enun$iate* +, Je((e&son in
t.e ;e$la&ation o( In*e0en*en$e. F1IAeo&3e IIIJ .as 'e0t a/on3 us stan*in3 a&/ies1L 1He .as a((e$te*
to &en*e& t.e /ilita&, in*e0en*ent o( an* su0e&io& to t.e $i:il 0o%e&1L 10&ote$tin3 t.e/, +, a /o$'
t&ial....1G.
2C5
T.e *uties o( su$. t&oo0s %e&e in no %a, /ilita&, +ut in:ol:e* t.e 'ee0in3 o( o&*e& an*
t.e su00&ession o( $&i/e Fes0e$iall, $usto/s an* ta2 :iolationsG.
Constitutional a&3u/ents Huite si/ila& to t.e t.esis o( t.is a&ti$le %e&e /a*e +, A/e&i$a8s 9oun*e&s
%.ile (o/entin3 t.e o:e&t.&o% o( t.ei& 3o:e&n/ent. T.o/as Je((e&son 0&o$lai/e* t.at alt.ou3.
Pa&lia/ent %as su0&e/e in its -u&is*i$tion to /a'e la%s, 1.is /a-est, .as no &i3.t to lan* a sin3le
a&/e* /an on ou& s.o&es1 to en(o&$e un0o0ula& la%s.
2C6
Ja/es >a&&en sai* t.at t.e t&oo0s in #oston
%e&e t.e&e on an un$onstitutional /ission +e$ause t.ei& &ole %as not /ilita&, +ut &at.e& to en(o&$e
1o+e*ien$e to A$ts %.i$., u0on (ai& e2a/ination, a00ea&e* to +e un-ust an* un$onstitutional.1
2C5

Colonial 0a/0.letee& Ni$.olas Ra, $.a&3e* t.at A/e&i$ans *i* not .a:e 1an Ene/, %o&t. Noti$e
%it.in B000 ?iles o( t.e/.1
2C8
1ITJ.e t&oo0s o( Aeo&3e t.e III .a:e $&oss8* t.e %i*e atlanti$', not to
en3a3e an ene/,,1 $.a&3e* Jo.n Han$o$', +ut to assist $onstitutional t&aito&s 1in t&a/0lin3 on t.e
&i3.ts an* li+e&ties o( It.e @in38sJ /ost lo,al su+-e$ts ...1
2C6
T.e use o( sol*ie&s to en(o&$e la% .a* a lon3 an* sullie* .isto&, in En3lan* an* +, t.e /i*71500s %e&e
$onsi*e&e* a :iolation o( t.e (un*a/ental &i3.ts o( En3lis./en.
250
T.e C&o%n8s &es0onse to Lon*on8s
Ao&*on Riots o( 1580 E &ou3.l, $onte/0o&a&, to t.e $ultu&al +a$'*&o0 o( A/e&i$a8s Re:olution E
+&ou3.t on an i//ense 0o0ula& +a$'las. at t.e use o( 3ua&*s to /aintain 0u+li$ o&*e&.
251
1I;Jee0,
un$o/0&o/isin3 o00osition to t.e /aintenan$e o( a se/i/ilita&, 0&o(essional (o&$e in $i:ilian li(e1
&e/aine* inte3&al to An3lo7Sa2on le3al $ultu&e (o& anot.e& .al( $entu&,.
252
En3lis./en o( t.e 9oun*in3 e&a, +ot. in En3lan* an* its $olonies, &e3a&*e* 0&o(essional 0oli$e as an
1alien, $ontinental *e:i$e (o& /aintainin3 a t,&anni$al (o&/ o( Ao:e&n/ent.1
25B
P&o(esso& Jo.n P.illi0
Rei* .as 0ointe* out t.at (e% o( t.e &i3.ts o( En3lis./en 1%e&e +ette& 'no%n to t.e 3ene&al 0u+li$ t.an
t.e &i3.t to +e (&ee o( stan*in3 a&/ies.1
25C
1Stan*in3 a&/ies,1 a$$o&*in3 to one Ne% Ha/0s.i&e
$o&&es0on*ent, 1.a:e e:e& 0&o:e* *est&u$ti:e to t.e Li+e&ties o( a Peo0le, an* %.e&e t.e, a&e su((e&e*,
neit.e& Li(e no& P&o0e&t, a&e se$u&e.1
255
I( 0&esse*, /o*e&n 0oli$e *e(en*e&s %oul* .a:e *i((i$ult, *e/onst&atin3 a sin3le /ate&ial *i((e&en$e
+et%een t.e stan*in3 a&/ies t.e 9oun*e&s sa% as so a+.o&&ent an* A/e&i$a8s /o*e&n 0oli$e (o&$es.
In*ee*, e:en t.e *istin$tions +et%een /o*e&n 0oli$e an* a$tual /ilita&, t&oo0s .a:e +lu&&e* in t.e
%a'e o( A/e&i$a8s /o*e&n $&i/e %a&.
256
Ninet, 0e&$ent o( A/e&i$an $ities no% .a:e a$ti:e s0e$ial
%ea0ons an* ta$ti$s FS>ATG tea/s, usin3 su$. $o//an*o7st,le (o&$es to *o 1.i3. &is' %a&&ant %o&'1
an* e:en &outine 0oli$e *uties.
255
Su$. units a&e o(ten inst&u$te* +, a$ti:e an* &eti&e* nite* States
/ilita&, 0e&sonnel.
258
In 9&esno, Cali(o&nia, a S>AT unit eHui00e* %it. +atte&in3 &a/s, $.e/i$al a3ents, (ull, auto/ati$
su+/a$.ine 3uns, an* 8(las.+an38 3&ena*es &oa/s (ull7ti/e on &outine 0at&ol.
256
A$$o&*in3 to
$&i/inolo3ist Pete& @&as'a, su$. /ilita&, 0oli$in3 .as ne:e& +een seen on su$. a s$ale in A/e&i$an
.isto&,, 1%.e&e S>AT tea/s &outinel, +&ea' t.&ou3. a *oo&, su+*ue all t.e o$$u0ants, an* sea&$. t.e
0&e/ises (o& *&u3s, $as. an* %ea0ons.1
260
In .i3.7$&i/e o& 0&o+le/ a&eas, 0oli$e 0a&a/ilita&, units
/a, /ilita&il, en3a3e an enti&e nei3.+o&.oo*, sto00in3 1an,t.in3 t.at /o:es1 o& su&&oun*in3
sus0i$ious .o/es %it. /a$.ine 3uns o0enl, *is0la,e*.
261
?u$. o( t.e i/0o&tan$e o( t.e stan*in37a&/, *e+ates at t.e &ati(i$ation $on:entions .as +een
o:e&loo'e* o& /isinte&0&ete* +, /o*e&n s$.ola&s. O00onents o( t.e &i3.t to +ea& a&/s, (o& e2a/0le,
.a:e o$$asionall, $ite* t.e stan*in37a&/, *e+ates to su00o&t t.e 0&o0osition t.at t.e 9&a/e&s inten*e*
t.e Se$on* A/en*/ent to 0&ote$t t.e 0o%e& o( states to (o&/ /ilitias.
262
Alt.ou3. t.is a&3u/ent .as
+een 3&eatl, *is$&e*ite*,
26B
it .as .el0e* illu/inate t.e intense *ist&ust t.at t.e 9&a/e&s /ani(este*
to%a&* o$$u0ational stan*in3 a&/ies. T.e stan*in3 a&/, t.e 9&a/e&s /ost (ea&e* %as a sol*ie&,
$on*u$tin3 la% en(o&$e/ent o0e&ations in t.e /anne& o( @in3 Aeo&3e8s o$$u0ation t&oo0s E li'e t.e
a&/ies o( 0oli$e o((i$e&s t.at no% 0at&ol t.e A/e&i$an lan*s$a0e.
THE SECON; A?EN;?ENT
T.e a$tual intent o( t.e Se$on* A/en*/ent E t.at it 0&ote$t a &i3.t o( 0eo0le to /aintain t.e /eans o(
:iolentl, $.e$'in3 t.e 0o%e& o( 3o:e&n/ent E .as +een all +ut lost in /o*e&n A/e&i$an so$iet,.
26C

?o*e&n 0oli$in38s in$&easin3 /ono0ol, on (i&e0o%e& ten*s to un*e&/ine t.e 9&a/e&s8 intent t.at t.e
%.ole 0eo0le +e a&/e*, eHui00e*, an* e/0o%e&e* to &esist t.e state. ?an, 0oli$e o&3ani)ations lo++,
in$essantl, (o& 3un $ont&ol, e:en t.ou3. t.e $&i/inolo3i$al lite&atu&e ,iel*s s$ant e/0i&i$al su00o&t (o&
3ene&al 3un $ont&ol as a $&i/e70&e:ention /easu&e.
265
No& is t.e&e /u$. le3iti/a$, to t.e $lai/ t.at 0&o(essional 0oli$e a&e /o&e a$$u&ate o& &es0onsi+le %it.
(i&ea&/s t.an t.e a&/e* $iti)en&, inten*e* +, t.e 9&a/e&s. To t.is *a,, $i:ilians s.oot an* 'ill at least
t%i$e as /an, $&i/inals as 0oli$e *o e:e&, ,ea&,
266
an* t.ei& 8e&&o& &ate8 is se:e&al ti/es lo%e&.
265
In a
3o:e&n/ent stu*, o( .an*3un +attles t.at lea* to o((i$e& in-u&ies, it %as (oun* t.at 0oli$e %.o (i&e*
u0on t.ei& 'ille&s %e&e less t.an .al( as a$$u&ate as t.ei& $i:ilian, non0&o(essional, assailants.
268
?o&eo:e&, 0oli$e see/ .a&*l, less li'el, to /isuse (i&ea&/s t.an t.e 3ene&al 0u+li$.
266
In Ne% 4o&'
Cit,, %.e&e 0&i:ate 0ossession o( .an*3uns .as +een :i&tuall, eli/inate* (o& /ost $i:ilians, 0&o+le/s
%it. o((7*ut, 0oli$e /isusin3 (i&ea&/s .a:e &e0eate*l, su&(a$e*.
250
Los An3eles 0oli$e .a:e +een
(oun* to (i&e t.ei& %ea0ons ina00&o0&iatel, in se:ent,7(i:e 0e&$ent o( $ases.
251
#et%een ea&l, 1686 an*
late 1662, /o&e t.an one out o( e:e&, se:en s.ots (i&e* +, >as.in3ton, ;.C. 0oli$e o((i$e&s %as (i&e*
a$$i*entall,.
252
THE THIR; A?EN;?ENT
Alt.ou3. stan*in3 a&/ies %e&e not s0e$i(i$all, +a&&e* +, t.e (inal :e&sion o( t.e Constitution8s te2t,
so/e aut.o&ities .a:e 0ointe* to t.e T.i&* A/en*/ent
25B
as a li'el, (ount (o& su$. a $on$e0tual
0&o0osition.
25C
A**itionall,, t.e A/en*/ent8s 0&os$&i0tion o( Hua&te&in3 t&oo0s in .o/es /i3.t %ell
.a:e +een inte&0&ete* as a 3ene&al anti7sea&$. an* sei)u&e 0&in$i0le i( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent .a* ne:e&
+een ena$te*.
255
T.e T.i&* A/en*/ent %as ins0i&e* +, senti/ents Huite si/ila& to t.ose t.at le* to
0assa3e o( t.e Se$on* an* 9ou&t. A/en*/ents, &at.e& t.an (ea& o( /ilita&, o0e&ations. >&itin3 in t.e
18B0s, Justi$e Sto&, &e3a&*e* t.e T.i&* A/en*/ent as a se$u&it, t.at 1a /an8s .ouse s.all +e .is o%n
$astle, 0&i:ile3e* a3ainst all civil an* /ilita&, int&usion.1
256
T.e $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e $on$e&ns t.at *o/inate* t.e /in*s o( t.e 9&a/e&s o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts %e&e
$&eate* not onl, +e(o&e t.e Re:olution +ut also a(te& it. In t.e (i:e ,ea&s (ollo%in3 #&itis. su&&en*e&, t.e
in*e0en*ent states :ie* a3ainst ea$. ot.e& (o& $o//e&$ial a*:anta3e, *e+t &elie(, an* lan* $lai/s.
Con(li$t %as es0e$iall, (ie&$e +et%een t.e &i:al settle&s o( Penns,l:ania an* Conne$ti$ut on lan*s in
t.e %est $lai/e* si/ultaneousl, +, +ot. states.
255
#ot. states sent 0a&tisan /a3ist&ates an* t&oo0s into
t.e &e3ion, an* ea$. (a$tion $lai/e* aut.o&it, to &e/o:e $lai/ants o( t.e &i:al state.
258
?a3ist&ates
o$$asionall, o&*e&e* a&&est %it.out %a&&ant, tu&ne* 0eo0le out o( t.ei& .o/es, an* e:en o&*e&e*
su+/ission to t.e Hua&te&in3 o( t&oo0s in .o/es.
256
In 158C, a Penns,l:ania 3&an* -u&, in*i$te* one
su$. /a3ist&ate an* (o&t, ot.e&s (o& a+use o( t.ei& aut.o&it,.
280
?an, a3ents .a* to +e a&&este* +e(o&e
t.e t&ou+les (inall, en*e* in 1588 E t.e :e&, /o/ent %.en t.e Constitution %as un*e&3oin3 its
&ati(i$ation *e+ates.
281
T.ese t&ou+les, an* not /e/o&ies o( li(e un*e& t.e C&o%n, %e&e (&es. in t.e
/in*s o( t.e 9&a/e&s %.o 0&o0ose* an* &ati(ie* t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts.
T.e T.i&* A/en*/ent8s 0&os$&i0tion o( sol*ie&s Hua&te&e* in 0&i:ate .o/es a**&esse* a :e&, &eal
domestic $on$e&n a+out t.e a+use o( state aut.o&it, in 1561. T.is sa/e (ea& o( an o/ni0&esent an* all7
$ont&ollin3 3o:e&n/ent is .a&*l, un(oun*e* in /o*e&n A/e&i$a. In*ee*, t.e :e&, e:ils t.e 9&a/e&s
sou3.t to &e/e*, %it. t.e enti&e #ill o( Ri3.ts E t.e la$' o( se$u&it, (&o/ 3o:e&n/ental 3&o%t.,
$ont&ol an* 0o%e& E .a:e $o/e +a$' to .aunt /o*e/ A/e&i$ans li'e ne:e& +e(o&e.
282
THE RIAHT TO #E LE9T ALONE
T.e 80oli$e state8 'no%n +, /o*e&n A/e&i$ans %oul* +e seen as Huite t,&anni$al to t.e 9&a/e&s %.o
&ati(ie* t.e Constitution. I(, as Justi$e #&an*eis su33este*, t.e &i3.t to +e le(t alone is t.e /ost
i/0o&tant un*e&l,in3 0&in$i0le o( t.e Constitution,
28B
t.e $o07*&i:en /o*el o( $&i/inal -usti$e is
anat.e/i$ to A/e&i$an $onstitutional 0&in$i0les. To*a, a :ast an* o/ni0otent a&/, o( insu&3ents
0at&ols t.e A/e&i$an lan*s$a0e in 0la$e o( 3&an* -u&ies, 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s, an* t.e o$$asional
$onsta+le. T.is i//ense sol*ie&, is (o&e:e& at t.e +e$' an* $all o( %.ate:e& so$ial (o&$es &ule t.e *a,,
o& e:en t.e a(te&noon.
28C
THE 9ORTH A?EN;?ENT
No% to t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent. T.e A/en*/ent &ea*sD 1T.e &i3.t o( t.e 0eo0le to +e se$u&e in t.ei&
0e&sons, .ouses, 0a0e&s, an* e((e$ts, a3ainst un&easona+le sea&$.es an* sei)u&es, s.all not +e :iolate*,
an* no >a&&ants s.all issue, +ut u0on 0&o+a+le $ause, su00o&te* +, Oat. o& a((i&/ation, an*
0a&ti$ula&l, *es$&i+in3 t.e 0la$e to +e sea&$.e*, an* t.e 0e&sons o& t.in3s to +e sei)e*.1
285
T.is
0&ote$tion %as $lea&l, &e3a&*e* as one o( t.e /o&e i/0o&tant 0&o:isions o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts *u&in3
*e+ates in an* out o( Con3&ess 0&io& to &ati(i$ation.
286
To t.is *a,, t.e A/en*/ent is 0&o+a+l, t.e /ost
$ite* $onstitutional 0&o:ision in $.allen3es to 0oli$e a$tion.
T.e $ol*, .a&* &ealit,, .o%e:e&, is t.at t.e inte&est 0&ote$te* +, t.e a/en*/ent E se$u&it, (&o/ $e&tain
t,0es o( sea&$.es an* sei)u&es E .as +een *&asti$all, s$ale* +a$' sin$e 1561. In sa,in3 t.is, I a/
/in*(ul t.at t.e&e a&e t.ose a/on3 t.e .i3.est e$.elons o( t.e +en$. an* a$a*e/, %.o $lai/ t.at
$u&&ent 9ou&t. A/en*/ent la% is more protective t.an t.e 9&a/e&s inten*e*.
285
In*ee*, t.e&e a&e t.ose
$lai/in3 t.e /antles o( te2tualis/ an* o&i3inalis/ %.o %oul* *e$&ease 9ou&t. A/en*/ent &i3.ts e:en
(u&t.e&.
288
T.e e:e&7in(luential A'.il A/a&, (o& e2a/0le, .as a&3ue* t.at t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent8s te2t
*oes not &eall, require %a&&ants +ut /e&el, la,s out t.e e:i*entia&, (oun*ation &eHui&e* to otain
%a&&ants.
286
A/a& -oins ot.e& 1o&i3inalist1 s$.ola&s %.o e/0.asi)e t.at t.e onl, &eHui&e/ent o( t.e
9ou&t. A/en*/ent8s (i&st $lause F1T.e &i3.t o( t.e 0eo0le to +e se$u&e in t.ei& 0e&sons, 0a0e&s, an*
e((e$ts (&o/ un&easona+le sea&$.es an* sei)u&es s.all not +e :iolate*1G is t.at all sea&$.es an* sei)u&es
+e 1&easona+le.1
260
T.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent 0&onoun$e* in /an, Su0&e/e Cou&t o0inions, a$$o&*in3
to A/a&, 0la$es an unne$essa&, +u&*en u0on la% en(o&$e/ent an* s.oul* +e a+an*one* (o& a &ule A/a&
$onsi*e&s /o&e %o&'a+le E na/el, $i:il *a/a3es (o& un&easona+le sea&$.es a(te& t.e (a$t as
*ete&/ine* +, -u&ies.
T.is t,0e o( 1o&i3inalis/1 .as a00eale* to /o&e t.an one .S. Su0&e/e Cou&t -usti$e,
261
at least one
state .i3. $ou&t,
262
an* :a&ious le3al $o//entato&s.
26B
In*ee*, it .as +&ou3.t a 0e&$ei:a+le s.i(t to t.e
Su0&e/e Cou&t8s 9ou&t. A/en*/ent -u&is0&u*en$e.
26C
E:en t.e .S. Justi$e ;e0a&t/ent .as a*o0te*
t.is a&3u/ent as its o%n in +&ie(s (ile* in t.e .S. Su0&e/e Cou&t a&3uin3 (o& eli/ination o( t.e
%a&&ant &eHui&e/ent.
265
T.e 0&o+le/ %it. t.is line o( inte&0&etation is t.at it *oes not sHua&e %it. t.e o&i3inal :ie% o( t.e
9&a/e&s. E:en t.e /ost $u&so&, e2a/ination o( .isto&, &e:eals t.at la% en(o&$e&s o( t.e 9oun*in3 E&a,
%.et.e& 0&i:ate 0e&sons, s.e&i((s o& $onsta+les, %e&e o+li3ate* to 0&o$u&e %a&&ants in /an,
$i&$u/stan$es t.at /o*e&n $ou&ts *o not &eHui&e %a&&ants.
266
T.e 3ene&al &ule t.at %a&&ants %e&e
&eHui&e* (o& all sea&$.es an* sei)u&es e2$e0t t.ose in:ol:in3 $i&$u/stan$es o( t.e ut/ost u&3en$,
see/s so %ell settle* at t.e ti/e o( &ati(i$ation t.at it is *i((i$ult to i/a3ine a s$.ola& a&3uin3
ot.e&%ise.
265
#ut P&o(esso& A/a& *oes. 1Su00o&te&s o( t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent,1 t.e 0&o(esso& %&ites,
1.a:e ,et to (in* an, $ases1 enun$iatin3 t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent +e(o&e t.e Ci:il >a&.
268
Pe&.a0s A/a& .as o:e&loo'e* t.e 181C $ase o( Grumon v. Raymond, in %.i$. t.e Conne$ti$ut
Su0&e/e Cou&t .el* +ot. a $onsta+le, %.o e2e$ute* an i/0&o0e& sea&$. %a&&ant, an* a -usti$e o( t.e
0ea$e %.o issue* t.e %a&&ant, $i:ill, lia+le (o& t&es0ass.
266
T.e $ou&t in Grumon $lea&l, state* t.at t.e
in:ali*it, o( t.e sea&$. %a&&ant le(t t.e sea&$.8s le3alit, 1on no +ette& 3&oun* t.an it %oul* +e i( It.e
sea&$. .a* +een 0u&suant toJ no 0&o$ess.1
B00
O& /a,+e A/a& is un(a/ilia& %it. t.e 1805 $ase o( !toyel
v. "awrence, .ol*in3 a s.e&i(( lia+le (o& e2e$utin3 a $i:il a&&est %a&&ant a(te& t.e %a&&ant8s *ue *ate an*
*e$la&in3 t.at t.e %a&&ant 13a:e t.e o((i$e& no aut.o&it, %.ate:e&, an*, $onseHuentl,, (o&/e* no
*e(en$e1L
B01
o& t.e 156B ?assa$.usetts $ase o( Rex v. Gay, a$Huittin3 an a&&estee (o& assaultin3 an*
+eatin3 a s.e&i(( %.o a&&este* .i/ 0u&suant to a (a$iall, in:ali* %a&&antL
B02
o& #atchelder v. $hitcher,
.ol*in3 an o((i$e& lia+le (o& o&*e&in3 t.e sei)u&e o( .a, +, an unseale* %a&&ant in 18B8L
B0B
o& %onner v.
%ommonwealth, in %.i$. t.e Penns,l:ania Su0&e/e Cou&t $on$lu*e* in 1810 t.at i( t.e &eHui&e/ent o(
%a&&ants +ase* on 0&o+a+le $ause $oul* +e %ai:e* /e&el, to allo% $onsta+les to /o&e easil, a&&est
$&i/inals, 1t.e $onstitution is a *ea* lette&.1
B0C
E:en t.e $ases A/a& $ites (o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at sea&$. %a&&ants %e&e not &eHui&e* un*e& ante+ellu/
9ou&t. A/en*/ent -u&is0&u*en$e *o not sHua&el, su00o&t su$. a 0&o0osition.
B05
?ost o( t.e/ /e&el,
&e0eat t.e 1%a&&ant &eHui&e/ent1 o( t.e $o//on la% an* (in* t.at t.ei& 3i:en (a$ts (it %it.in a $o//on
la% e2$e0tion.
B06
Si/ila&l,, t.e $ases A/a& $ites t.at inte&0&et :a&ious 9ou&t.7A/en*/ent eHui:alents
o( state $onstitutions +, no /eans in*i$ate t.at 9oun*in37e&a la% en(o&$e&s $oul* (&eel, sea&$. an*
sei)e %it.out %a&&ant %.e&e:e& it %as 1&easona+le1 to *o so.
B05
>ARRANTS A 9LOOR, NOT A CEILINA
n*e& 9oun*in37e&a $o//on la%, %a&&ants %e&e o(ten $onsi*e&e* as /u$. a $onstitutional (loo& as a
$eilin3. >a&&ants *i* 0&o:i*e a *e(ense (o& $onsta+les in /ost t&es0ass suits, +ut %e&e not good enough
to i//uni)e o((i$ials (&o/ lia+ilit, (o& some un&easona+le sea&$.es o& sei)u&es.
B08
T.e /ost o(ten7$ite*
En3lis. $ase 'no%n to t.e 9&a/e&s %.o *&a(te* t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent in:ol:e* En3lis. $onsta+ula&,
%.o .a* a$te* 0u&suant to a sea&$. %a&&ant +ut %e&e nonet.eless (oun* $i:ill, lia+le (o& sti(( F0uniti:e,
a$tuall,G *a/a3es.
B06
9o& /o&e t.an 150 ,ea&s, it %as $onsi*e&e* per se un$onstitutional (o& la% en(o&$e&s to sea&$. an* sei)e
$e&tain $ate3o&ies o( o+-e$ts, su$. as 0e&sonal *ia&ies o& 0&i:ate 0a0e&s, even with perfectly valid
warrants.
B10
A**itionall,, 9ou&t. A/en*/ent -u&is0&u*en$e 0&o.i+ite* t.e 3o:e&n/ent (&o/ sei)in3 as
e:i*en$e an, 0e&sonal 0&o0e&t, %.i$. %as not *i&e$tl, in:ol:e* in $&i/e, even with a valid warrant.
B11
T.e &ationale (o& t.is 1/e&e e:i*en$e1 &ule %as t.at t.e inte&ests o( 0&o0e&t, o%ne&s %e&e su0e&io& to
t.ose o( t.e state an* $oul* not +e o:e&&i**en +, /e&e in*i&e$t e:i*entia&, -usti(i$ations.
B12
T.is &ule,
li'e /an, ot.e& o+sta$les to 0oli$e sea&$. an* sei)u&e 0o%e&, %as *is$a&*e* in t.e se$on* .al( o( t.e
t%entiet. $entu&, +, a Su0&e/e Cou&t /u$. less &es0e$t(ul o( 0&o0e&t, &i3.ts t.an its 0&e*e$esso&s.
B1B
PRI=ATE PERSONS AN; THE 9ORTH A?EN;?ENT
n*e& t.e 9oun*e&s8 ?o*el, a 0&i:ate 0e&son li'e Josia. #utle&, %.o lost t%ent, 0oun*s o( 3oo* 0o&'
un*e& sus0i$ious $i&$u/stan$es in 1585, $oul* a00&oa$. a -usti$e o( t.e 0ea$e an* o+tain a %a&&ant to
sea&$. t.e 0&o0e&t, o( t.e sus0e$te* t.ie( (o& t.e lost /eat.
B1C
P&i:ate in*i:i*uals a00lie* (o& /an, o&
/ost o( t.e %a&&ants in t.e 9oun*e&s8 e&a an* e:en $on*u$te* /an, o( t.e a&&ests.
B15
E:en %.e&e s%o&n
$onsta+les e2e$ute* %a&&ants, 0&i:ate 0e&sons o(ten assiste* t.e/.
B16
To a:oi* lia+ilit,, .o%e:e&,
sea&$.e&s nee*e* to se$u&e a %a&&ant +e(o&e a$tin3.
B15
9alse a&&est %as su+-e$t to st&i$t lia+ilit,.
B18
T.e 9oun*e&s $onte/0late* t.e en(o&$e/ent o( t.e $o//on la% to +e a *ut, o( 0&i:ate la%
en(o&$e/ent, an* assu/e* t.at 0&i:ate la% en(o&$e&s %oul* &e0&esent t.ei& inte&ests %it. 0&i:ate /eans.
Ho%e:e&, t.e 9oun*e&s :ie%e* 0&i:ate in*i:i*uals e2e$utin3 la% en(o&$e/ent *uties as 10u+li$
aut.o&it,1 an* t.us inten*e* (o& t.e 9ou&t. an* 9i(t. A/en*/ents to a00l, to su$. in*i:i*uals %.en
a$tin3 in t.ei& la% en(o&$e/ent $a0a$ities.
B16
ConseHuentl,, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t8s 1621 *e$ision in
#urdeau v. Mc&owell
B20
E o(ten $ite* (o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent a00lies onl, to
3o:e&n/ent a3ents E %as al/ost $e&tainl, eit.e& %&on3l, *e$i*e* o& %&on3l, inte&0&ete* +, late&
$ou&ts.
B21
So/e o( t.e ea&liest En3lis. inte&0&etations o( t.e (&ee*o/ (&o/ sea&$. an* sei)u&e .el* t.e 0&ote$tion
a00li$a+le to 0&i:ate $iti)ens as /u$. as o& /o&e so t.an 3o:e&n/ent a3ents.
B22
?assa$.usetts an*
=e&/ont %e&e a00a&entl, t.e (i&st states to &eHui&e t.at sea&$. an* a&&est %a&&ants +e e2e$ute* +, s%o&n
o((i$e&s.
B2B
Ne% Ha/0s.i&e a*o0te* t.e sa/e &ule in 1826, /o&e t.an a 3ene&ation a(te& t.e #ill o(
Ri3.ts %as &ati(ie*.
B2C
It is li'el, t.at so/e states allo%e* 0&i:ate 0e&sons to e2e$ute sea&$. %a&&ants
%ell into t.e nineteent. $entu&,.
#e$ause /an, 9oun*in37e&a a&&ests an* sea&$.es %e&e e2e$ute* +, 0&i:ate 0e&sons, an* ea&l,
$onsta+les needed t.e assistan$e o( 0&i:ate 0e&sons to *o t.ei& -o+s, t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent %as al/ost
$e&tainl, inten*e* (o& a00li$ation to 0&i:ate in*i:i*uals. #urdeau $ite* no 0&e:ious aut.o&it, (o& its
0&o0osition in 1621, an* ea&l, A/e&i$an $ases *e/onst&ate an o&i3inal intent t.at t.e 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent a00l, to e:e&, sea&$.e& a$tin3 un*e& $olo& o( la%.
B25
On t.e o0en seas, /ost en(o&$e/ent
o( 0&i)e an* 0i&a$, la%s %as *one +, 10&i:atee&s1 a$tin3 (o& t.ei& o%n 3ain +ut %.o %e&e .el*
a$$ounta+le in $ou&t (o& t.ei& /is$on*u$t.
B26
Late& $ou&ts .a:e ta'en t.is .ol*in3 to /ean t.at 1a %&on3(ul sea&$. o& sei)u&e $on*u$te* +, a 0&i:ate
0a&t, *oes not :iolate t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent.1 >alte& :. .S. CC5 .S. 6C6, 656 F1656G. !ee also
nite* States :. Ja$o+sen, C66 .S. 106, 11B F168CG Fsa,in3 1T.is Cou&t .as also $onsistentl,
$onst&ue* t.is 0&ote$tion as 0&os$&i+in3 onl, 3o:e&n/ental a$tionL it is %.oll, ina00li$a+le to a 0&i:ate
in*i:i*ual not a$tin3 as an a3ent o( t.e Ao:e&n/ent o& %it. t.e 0a&ti$i0ation o& 'no%le*3e o( an,
3o:e&n/ent o((i$ial.1G.
As e20laine* in Pa&t I, ea&l, $onsta+les .a* 0o%e&s no 3&eate& t.an t.ose o( ot.e& in*i:i*uals, so t.e,
nee*e* %a&&ants +e(o&e en3a3in3 in la% en(o&$e/ent a$ti:ities +e,on* an, $iti)en8s aut.o&it,. Li'e ,ou
o& I, a $onsta+le %oul* +e t.ou3.t outsi*e t.e +oun*s o( 3oo* etiHuette Fan* %ell outsi*e t.e la%G %e&e
.e to $on*u$t an un$onsente* sea&$. o( anot.e&8s 0e&son, 0&o0e&t, o& e((e$ts, an* s.oul* E :e&,
&easona+l, E e20e$t to +e -aile*, 0.,si$all, &e0ulse*, o& sue* (o& su$. $on*u$t.
A 0&i:ate 0e&son8s onl, *e(ense %as t.e a+solute $o&&e$tness o( .is alle3ations. A 0e&son %as lia+le i(,
(o& e2a/0le, .is $o/0laint %as too :a3ue as to t.e a**&ess to +e sea&$.e*,
B25
.e /iss0elle* t.e na/e
o( t.e a$$use* in .is $o/0laint,
B28
o& .e sou3.t t.e e2e$ution o( a %a&&ant na/in3 a 1Jo.n ;oe1 as a
ta&3et.
B26
T.is %as t.e $onstitutional /o*el se$u&e* to A/e&i$a +, t.e 9&a/e&s. T.e i*ea o( 0oli$e .a:in3 s0e$ial
0o%e&s %as onl, a see*lin3, alien to t.e s$.e/e o( o&*e&e* li+e&t, an* li/ite* 3o:e&n/ent $&eate* +,
t.e Constitution. E:entuall,, 0oli$e inte&$e*e* +et%een 0&i:ate in*i:i*uals an* /a3ist&ates alto3et.e&,
an* to*a, it is :i&tuall, un.ea&* o( (o& a 0&i:ate 0e&son to see' a sea&$. %a&&ant (&o/ a /a3ist&ate.
9&ee*o/ (&o/ sea&$. an* sei)u&e .as +een &et&a$tin3 in (a:o& o( 0oli$e e:e& sin$e t.e in' %as *&, on
t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts. T.e 9&a/e&s li:e* un*e& a $o//on la% &ule t.at &eHui&e* %a&&antless a&&ests +e
/a*e onl, (o& (elonies %.e&e no %a&&ant $oul* +e i//e*iatel, o+taine*.
BB0
#, t.e ea&l, to /i*71800s,
t.e &ule .a* $.an3e* to allo% %a&&antless a&&ests (o& all (elonies &e3a&*less o( %.et.e& a %a&&ant $oul*
+e o+taine*.
BB1
Ea&l, A/e&i$an $ou&ts also a00a&entl, allo%e* %a&&antless a&&ests (o& /is*e/eano&
+&ea$.es o( 0ea$e $o//itte* in t.e a&&esto&8s 0&esen$e. To%a&* t.e en* o( t.e nineteent. $entu&,, /ost
state $ou&ts .a* $.an3e* to allo% %a&&antless a&&est (o& all crimes o( an, 'in* $o//itte* in an o((i$e&8s
0&esen$e, as %ell as (o& all (elonies $o//itte* eit.e& %it.in o& %it.out an o((i$e&8s 0&esen$e &e3a&*less
o( %.et.e& a %a&&ant $an +e o+taine*.
BB2
#, t.e /i*71600s, a&&est .a* +e$o/e t.e al/ost7e2$lusi:e 0&o:in$e o( 0ai* 0oli$e, an* t.ei& 0o%e& to
a&&est o0ene* e:en %i*e&. A t&en* to%a&* allo%in3 0oli$e to a&&est %it.out %a&&ant (o& all $&i/es
$o//itte* e:en outside t.ei& 0&esen$e .as &e$entl, *e:elo0e*,
BBB
%it. little (o&eseea+le $ou&t7i/0ose*
i/0e*i/ent.
BBC
Al/ost e:e&, A/e&i$an -u&is*i$tion .as le3islate* (o& t.e e&osion o( $o//on la%
li/itations %it. &e3a&* to *o/esti$ :iolen$e a&&ests an* a&&ests (o& ot.e& .i3. 0&o(ile /is*e/eano&s.
BB5
;es0ite t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t .as i/0ose* al/ost no li/its on %a&&antless a&&est
at all. Onl, (o&$i+l, ente&in3 a &esi*en$e %it.out %a&&ant to a&&est so/eone insi*e .as +een (oun* to
:iolate t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent.
BB6
Outsi*e t.e .o/e, /o*e&n 0oli$e .a:e +een essentiall, li$ense* +,
t.e Cou&t to a&&est al/ost an,one at an, ti/e so lon3 as 0&o+a+le $ause e2ists.
BB5
T.e Su0&e/e Cou&t
e((e$ti:el, +u&ie* t.e o&i3inal 0u&0ose o( %a&&antless a&&est enti&el, in 1685, *e$la&in3 t.at
1I&Jest&ainin3 0oli$e a$tion until a(te& 0&o+a+le $ause is o+taine*... /i3.t... ena+le t.e sus0e$t to (lee in
t.e inte&i/.1
BB8
Lon3 (o&3otten is t.e (a$t t.at $o//on la% allo%an$e (o& %a&&antless a&&est %as 0&e$i0itate* solel, on
an emergency &ationale an* allo%e* onl, to 0&ote$t t.e 0u+li$ (&o/ i//e*iate *an3e&.
BB6
T.e &ationale (o& t.e (elon e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent in 1561, (o& e2a/0le, %as t.at a (elon,
%as an, $&i/e 0unis.a+le +, *eat., 3ene&all, t.ou3.t to +e li/ite* to onl, a .an*(ul o( se&ious
$&i/es.
BC0
9elons %e&e $onsi*e&e* 1outla%s at %a& %it. so$iet,,1
BC1
an* t.ei& a00&e.ension %it.out
%a&&ant Huali(ie* as one o( t.e 1e2$e0tions -usti(ie* +, a+solute ne$essit,.1
BC2
#, t.e late t%entiet.
$entu&,, .o%e:e&, /an, $&i/es t.e 9&a/e&s %oul* .a:e $onsi*e&e* /is*e/eano&s o& no $&i/e at all
.a* +een *e$la&e* (elonies an* t.e &ationale (o& i//e*iate $o//unit, a$tion to a00&e.en* 1(elons1
.a* $.an3e* 3&eatl,.
BCB
T.e $ou&ts, .o%e:e&, .a:e +een slo% to &ea$t to t.is (a&7&ea$.in3 $.an3e.
BCC
In
an, $ase, t.e :ast /a-o&it, o( a&&ests Fse:ent, to ei3.t, 0e&$entG a&e (o& /is*e/eano&s,
BC5
%.i$. %oul*
.a:e +een 0&os$&i+e* %it.out %a&&ant un*e& t.e 9&a/e&s8 la%.
ORIAINALISTS CALL 9OR CI=IL ;A?AAES
T.e %&itin3s o( /ost /o*e&n 1o&i3inalist1 s$.ola&s 0&o/ote $i:il suits a3ainst 0oli$e *e0a&t/ents,
instea* o( e2$lusion o( e:i*en$e, as a &e/e*, (o& 0oli$e /is$on*u$t. P&o(esso& A/a&, (o& e2a/0le,
$.a/0ions a &etu&n to $i:il liti3ation, +ut %it., so/e.o%, a +ette& &etu&n t.an su$. a$tions $u&&entl,
+&in3.
BC6
He in:ents a (antasti$all, i/0lausi+le $ause o( a$tion %.e&e 13o:e&n/ent s.oul* 3ene&all,
not 0&e:ail.1
BC5
He +ases t.is i*ea on a$tual $ases (&o/ t.e nineteent. $entu&, %.e&e 0eo0le 0&e:aile*
a3ainst $onsta+les an* s.e&i((s in &elati:el, &outine $i&$u/stan$es, o(ten %it. .ea:, *a/a3e a%a&*s.
BC8
T.ese $ases a$tuall, o$$u&&e* E +ut in an a3e +e(o&e 0oli$e too' o:e& A/e&i$an la% en(o&$e/ent.
Ci:il *a/a3es &eall, %e&e a +ette& &e/e*, %.en /an, o& /ost sea&$.es %e&e sou3.t E an* so/eti/es
$on*u$te* E +, 0&i:ate 0e&sons %.o stoo* st&i$tl, lia+le in $ou&t i( t.ei& alle3ations 0&o:e* (alse o&
t.ei& $on*u$t 0&o:e* o:e&)ealous.
BC6
A/e&i$an la% 0&o:i*e* &e$o:e&, (o& e:e&, (alse a&&est. I( it %as
not t.e $onsta+le %.o e2e$ute* t.e %a&&ant, t.e 0&i:ate 0e&son, %.o lo*3e* t.e o&i3inal insu((i$ient
$o/0laint, %as lia+le.
B50
n*e& 9oun*in37e&a $o//on la%, lia+ilit, (o& o((i$e&s %as in /an, &es0e$ts higher t.an (o& 0&i:ate
0e&sons. S.e&i((s an* *e0uties $oul* +e .el* lia+le (o& (ailin3 to a&&est *e+to&s (o& $olle$tion o( *e+ts
B51

o& to se&:e ot.e& 0&o$ess,
B52
(o& allo%in3 an i/0&isone* *e+to& to es$a0e,
B5B
(o& (ailin3 to 'ee0
ent&uste* 3oo*s se$u&e
B5C
o& to *eli:e& 3oo*s in $usto*, at a 0&o0e& ti/e,
B55
o& (o& (ailin3 to 'ee0
(ait.(ul a$$ountin3 an* $usto*, o( 0&o0e&t,.
B56
S.e&i((s %e&e also o+li3ate* to &etu&n %&its %it.in a
s0e$i(i$ ti/e 0e&io*, at 0ain o( $i:il *a/a3es.
B55
T.e, %e&e lia+le to *e+to&s %.ose 0&o0e&t, %as sol*
at s.e&i((s sales i( 0&o0e& a*:e&tise/ent 0&o$e*u&es %e&e not (ollo%e*
B58
an* (o& ne3li3entl, allo%in3
ot.e& $&e*ito&s to o+tain 0&io&it, inte&ests on atta$.e* 0&o0e&t,.
B56
La% en(o&$e&s %e&e lia+le (o& (alse i/0&ison/ent, e:en %.e&e t.e, a$te* %it. $ou&t 0e&/ission, i(
0&o$e*u&es %e&e i/0&o0e&.
B60
A *e0ut, %as lia+le (o& *a/a3es to an a&&estee %.o/ .e a&&este* outsi*e
.is -u&is*i$tion.
B61
S.e&i((s %e&e e:en lia+le i( t.ei& *e0uties e2e$ute* $i:il 0&o$ess in a &u*e an*
insolent /anne&.
B62
>.en e2e$utin3 %&its, s.e&i((s %e&e lia+le (o& an, unne$essa&, :iolen$e a3ainst
inno$ent t.i&* 0e&sons %.o o+st&u$te* t.e/.
B6B
T.e 9oun*e&s8 la% 'ne% no 13oo* (ait.1 *e(ense (o& la% en(o&$e&s. S.e&i((s an* -usti$es %.o e2e$ute*
a&&ests 0u&suant to in:ali* %a&&ants %e&e $onsi*e&e* t&es0asse&s Fas %e&e an, -u*3es %.o 3&ante*
in:ali* %a&&antsG. An, 0e&son %as -usti(ie* in &esistin3, o& e:en +atte&in3, su$. o((i$e&s.
B6C
Justi$es o(
t.e 0ea$e $oul* +e .el* lia+le (o& o&*e&in3 i/0&ison/ent %it.out ta'in3 0&o0e& ste0s.
B65
An, 0a&t, %.o sue* out o& issue* 0&o$ess *i* so at .is 0e&il an* %as $i:ill, &es0onsi+le (o& unla%(ul
%&its Fe:en i( t.e e2e$utin3 o((i$e& a$te* in 3oo* (ait.G
B66
No& *i* state aut.o&it, 0&o:i*e t.e u/+&ella o( in*e/ni(i$ation t.at no% 0&ote$ts 0u+li$ o((i$e&s.
S.e&i((s o( t.e nineteent. $entu&, o(ten sou3.t 0&ote$tion (&o/ lia+ilit, +, o+tainin3 +on*s (&o/
0&i:ate su&eties.
B65
T.ei& +on*s %e&e use* to satis(, $i:il -u*3/ents a3ainst t.e/ %.ile in o((i$e.
B68
I(
t.e a/ount o( t.ei& +on*s %as insu((i$ient to satis(, -u*3/ents, s.e&i((s %e&e lia+le 0e&sonall,.
B66
It
%as not un$o//on (o& a s.e&i(( to (in* .i/sel( in -ail as a *e+to& (o& (ailin3 to satis(, -u*3/ents
a3ainst .i/.
B50
E:en 0uniti:e *a/a3es a3ainst o((i$e&s E lon3 *is(a:o&e* +, /o*e&n $ou&ts %it.
&e3a&* to /uni$i0al lia+ilit, E %e&e *ee/e* 0&o0e& an* no&/al un*e& t.e la% o( t.e 9&a/e&s.
B51
nli'e t.e ea&l, $onsta+les, uni(o&/e* 0oli$e o((i$e&s %e&e 3ene&all, int&o*u$e* u0on t.e A/e&i$an
lan*s$a0e +, t.ei& oat.s alone an* %it.out +on*s. T.ei& /uni$i0al e/0lo,e&s F.en$e, t.e ta20a,e&sG
%e&e on t.e .oo' (o& t.ei& $i:il lia+ilities. Alt.ou3. $ou&ts ten*e* to t&eat 0oli$e i*enti$all, to +on*e*
o((i$ials,
B52
t.ei& sus$e0ti+ilit, to $i:il &e*&ess %as /u$. lo%e&. T.is $.an3e in t.e la% o( 0oli$in3 .a*
t.e e((e$t o( *e0&i:in3 A/e&i$ans o( &e/e*ies (o& 9ou&t. A/en*/ent Fan* ot.e&G :iolations.
B5B
T.e
e:il t.at no% 0e&:a*es $&i/inal -usti$e E s%a&/s o( o((i$e&s una$$ounta+le in $ou&t eit.e& $&i/inall,
o& $i:ill, E %as t.e :e&, e:il t.at t.e 9oun*e&s sou3.t to &e/e*, in t.e late ei3.teent. $entu&,.
B5C
;E=ELOP?ENT O9 I??NITIES
#ut i//unities (ollo% *uties, an* *uties 0la$e* u0on 0oli$e +, la%/a'e&s .a:e e20lo*e* sin$e
1561.
B55
I//unities 3&e% slo%l,, +e3innin3 %it. a sli3.t *e(e&en$e to o((i$e& $on*u$t so lon3 as t.e&e
%as no +a* (ait., $o&&u0tion, /ali$e o& 1/is+e.a:io&,1
B56
an* en*in3 %it. +&oa* Huali(ie* i//unit,.
B55
>.en t.e 0&a$ti$e o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3 a&&i:e* (&o/ En3lan* u0on A/e&i$an s.o&es F(o& t.e se$on*
ti/e, a$tuall,, i( %e $onsi*e& /o*e&n 0oli$e to +e a'in to t.e 1stan*in3 a&/ies1 o( t.e 9oun*e&s8
3ene&ationG, $ases +e3an to enun$iate a 3ene&al *e(e&en$e to 0oli$e $on*u$t, 0e&/ittin3 t.at t.e a$tions
o( o((i$e&s in $a&&,in3 out t.ei& *uties 1not to +e .a&s.l, -u*3e*.1
B58
A00ellate $ou&ts +e3an to &e:e&se
-u&, :e&*i$ts a3ainst o((i$e&s u0on ne% &ules o( la% 3&antin3 0&i:ile3es un'no%n to 0&i:ate
in*i:i*uals.
B56
THE LOSS O9 PRO#A#LE CASE, AN; THE ONSET O9 PRO#A#LE SSPICION
P&o+a+le $ause (o& t.e issuan$e o( %a&&ants .as also +e$o/e less st&i$t.
B80
T.e Su0&e/e Cou&t &e3a&*e*
.ea&sa, e:i*en$e as insu((i$ient to $onstitute 0&o+a+le $ause (o& se:enteen ,ea&s in t.e (i&st .al( o( t.e
t%entiet. $entu&,,
B81
+ut .as sin$e 3i:en 0oli$e (&ee &ei3n to $onst&u$t 0&o+a+le $ause in %.ate:e& %a,
t.e, *ee/ 0&o0e&. Instea* o( proaility t.at a $&i/e .as +een $o//itte*, t.e $ou&ts no% &eHui&e onl,
so/e 0ossi+ilit,, a &ela2e* stan*a&* t.at 1&o+s I0&o+a+le $auseJ o( :i&tuall, all o0e&ati:e
si3ni(i$an$e.1
B82
T.is %ate&e*7*o%n 10&o+a+le $ause1 (o& t.e issuan$e o( e2 0a&te %a&&ants %oul* .a:e
s.o$'e* t.e 9oun*e&s.
B8B
At $o//on la%, one $oul* sue an* &e$o:e& *a/a3es (&o/ a 0&i:ate 0e&son %.o s%o&e out a (alse o&
/islea*in3 sea&$. %a&&ant a((i*a:it.
B8C
In $ont&ast, (e% /o*e&n o((i$e&s %ill e:e& .a:e to a$$ount (o&
lies on %a&&ant a00li$ations so lon3 as t.e, $ou$. t.ei& 10&o+a+le $ause1 in un0&o:a+les. 1Anon,/ous
$iti)en in(o&/ants,1
B85
/ate&ial o/issions an* /is&e0&esentations,
B86
i&&ele:ant o& 0&e-u*i$ial
in(o&/ation,
B85
an* e:en out&i3.t (alsities a&e no% $o//on (i2tu&es o( 0oli$e7%&itten sea&$. %a&&ant
a00li$ations.
B88
9o& ,ea&s, #oston 0oli$e si/0l, /a*e u0 i/a3ina&, in(o&/ants to -usti(, sea&$.es an*
sei)u&es.
B86
Poli$e t.e/sel:es &e(e& to t.e 0.eno/enon as 1testil,in31 E an as0e$t o( no&/al 0oli$e
%o&' &e3a&*e* as 1an o0en se$&et1 a/on3 0&in$i0le 0la,e&s o( t.e $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste&n.
B60
POLICE AN; THE 1ATO?O#ILE E<CEPTION1
T.e $ou&ts .a:e +een 0a&ti$ula&l, un'in* to 9ou&t. A/en*/ent 0&ote$tions in t.e $onte2t o( /oto&
:e.i$le t&a:el. Sin$e t.e 1620s, 9ou&t. A/en*/ent -u&is0&u*en$e .as allo%e* (o& a 3a0in3 an* e:e&7
%i*enin3 e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent %it. &e3a&* to t.e nation8s &oa*%a,s.
B61
To*a,, 0oli$e
(o&$e untol* /illions o( /oto&ists o(( t.e &oa*s ea$. ,ea& to +e sea&$.e* o& s$&utini)e* %it.out -u*i$ial
%a&&ant o( an, 'in*.
B62
An, 0oli$e o((i$e& $an 3ene&all, (in* so/e 0&ete2t to -usti(, a sto0 o( an,
auto/o+ile.
B6B
In e((e$t, &oa* t&a:el itsel( is su+-e$t to a nea& total le:el o( 0oli$e $ont&ol,
B6C
a
0.eno/enon t.at %oul* .a:e $on(oun*e* t.e 9&a/e&s, %.o t&eate* sei)u&es o( %a3ons, .o&ses an*
+u33ies as su+-e$t to t.e sa/e $onst&aints as sei)u&es o( ot.e& 0&o0e&t,.
B65

T.e $ou&ts .a:e lai* *o%n su$. a /allea+le latti$e%o&' o( e2$e0tions in (a:o& o( /o*e&n 0oli$e t.at
:i&tuall, an, $o0 %o&t. .is /ettle $an a*-ust .is e20lanations (o& a sea&$. to Huali(, un*e& one
e2$e0tion o& anot.e&. >.en no e2$e0tion a00lies, 0oli$e si/0l, lie a+out t.e (a$ts.
B66
1Ju*3es &e3ula&l,
$.oose to a$$e0t e:en +latantl, un+elie:a+le 0oli$e testi/on,.1
B65
T.e 0&a$ti$e on t.e st&eets .as lon3
+een (o& 0oli$e to (ollo% t.ei& .un$.es, see' ent&an$e at e:e&, *oo&, an* t.en atte/0t to -usti(, sea&$.es
a(te& t.e (a$t.
B68
Justi$e Ro+e&t Ja$'son o+se&:e* in 16C6 t.at /an, unla%(ul sea&$.es o( .o/es an*
auto/o+iles a&e ne:e& &e:eale* to t.e $ou&ts o& t.e 0u+li$ +e$ause t.e sea&$.es tu&n u0 not.in3.
B66

ONE E<CEPTIOND THE E<CLSIONAR4 RLE!
Con:entional %is*o/ su33ests t.e&e is one i/0o&tant e2$e0tion to t.e lon3 *e$line o( 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent 0&ote$tionsD t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule. Sin$e 161C, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t .as &eHui&e* t.e
e2$lusion o( e:i*en$e sei)e* in :iolation o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent (&o/ +ein3 use* a3ainst a
*e(en*ant in (e*e&al $ou&t.
C00
In 1661, t.is &ule %as a00lie* to t.e states in Mapp v. 'hio.
C01
S.o&tl,
t.e&ea(te&, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t e20an*e* t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule to ot.e& 0&ote$tions su$. as t.e 9i(t. an*
Si2t. A/en*/ents in $ases su$. as Miranda v. (rizona.
C02
Te2tualists an* o&i3inalists .a:e lo++e* a stea*, st&ea/ o( :it&iol a3ainst t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule (o&
*e$a*es. No enun$iation o( su$. a &ule, sa, t.ese $&iti$s, $an +e (oun* in t.e %&itin3s o& state/ents o(
t.e 9&a/e&s.
C0B
?o&eo:e&, sa, su$. $&iti$s, t.e &ule 0la$es a .ea:, +u&*en on t.e e((i$ien$, o( 0oli$e
F+ut si/ultaneousl,, so/e.o%, (ails to *ete& t.e/ in an, %a,G, an* un(ai&l, (&ees a s/all +ut not
insi3ni(i$ant 0e&$enta3e o( 13uilt,1 o((en*e&s.
C0C
So7$alle* 1$onse&:ati:e1 le3al s$.ola&s &e/e/+e& t.e
>a&&en Cou&t8s i/0osition o( t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule u0on t.e states in t.e 1660s as a +a&e7'nu$'le* a$t
o( -u*i$ial a$ti:is/
C05
an* a&3ue t.at t.e Cou&t 1Itoo'J it u0on itsel(, without constitutional
authorization, to 0oli$e t.e 0oli$e.1
C06
T.e Miranda an* Mapp *e$isions 0&o:o'e* an onslau3.t o( .ostilit, +, 0oli$e o&3ani)ations an* t.ei&
s,/0at.i)e&s t.at .as not su+si*e* *e$a*es late&. Hi3.7&an'in3 aut.o&ities Fnot t.e least o( %.i$. %e&e
Justi$es Ha&lan an* >.ite, %.o *issente* in Miranda) %&ote t.at su$. *e$isions 0ut so$iet, at &is'
(&o/ $&i/inals.
C05
T.e Miranda &ule, a$$o&*in3 to Justi$e >.ite, %oul* (o&$e 1t.ose %.o &el, on t.e
0u+li$ aut.o&it, (o& 0&ote$tion1 to 1en3a3e in :iolent sel(7.el0 %it. 3uns, 'ni:es an* t.e .el0 o( t.ei&
nei3.+o&s si/ila&l, in$line*.1
C08
E:en /o&e out&a3e* %as t.e $.ie( o( 0oli$e o( Aa&lan*, Te2as, %.o
&es0on*e*, 1>e /i3.t as %ell $lose u0 s.o0.1
C06
4et t.e *i&e 0&e*i$tions t.at (ollo%e* t.e Miranda an* Mapp *e$isions %e&e ulti/atel, 0&o:e* (alse.
C10
Rat.e& t.an &etu&nin3 to %.at Justi$e >.ite *e$&ie* as 1:iolent sel(7.el01 Fas t.e Constitution8s (&a/e&s
t&ul, inten*e*G, A/e&i$a $ontinue* its sli*e into in$&ease* *e0en*en$e u0on 0oli$e (o& t.e /ost
/un*ane as0e$ts o( la% en(o&$e/ent. I( an,t.in3, &elian$e u0on 0oli$e (o& 0e&sonal 0&ote$tion .as
in$&ease* sin$e t.e 1660s.
I 0&o0ose an alto3et.e& *i((e&ent inte&0&etation o( Mapp, Miranda, an* so/e o( t.e >a&&en Cou&t8s
ot.e& $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e *e$isions. >.ile I $on$e*e t.at t.is -u&is0&u*en$e 3&ossl, :iolate* $e&tain
$onstitutional 0&in$i0les F/ost i/0o&tantl,, 0&in$i0les o( (e*e&alis/G, I su+/it t.at su$. &ulin3s %e&e
atte/0ts to +&in3 $onstitutional la% into a$$o&* %it. t.e alien t.&eat 0ose* +, /o*e&n 0oli$in3.
P&o(essional 0oli$in38s a&&i:al u0on t.e A/e&i$an s$ene &eHui&e* t.at t.e Cou&t8s #ill o( Ri3.ts
-u&is0&u*en$e s0linte& a *o)en %a,s to a$$o//o*ate it. T.us, Mapp an* Miranda %e&e an a00li$ation
o( +&a'es to a (o&ei3n ele/ent F/o*e&n 0oli$in3G t.at is itsel( without constitutional authorization.
In /an, %a,s, t.e >a&&en Cou&t %as t.e (i&st .S. Su0&e/e Cou&t to (a$e $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&al
Huestions sHua&el, in li3.t o( t.e a*:ent o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3. T.e Miranda an* Mapp *e$isions,
a$$o&*in3 to note* $&i/inal la% e20e&t ;a:i* Ru*o:s',, 1at least i/0li$itl, a$'no%le*3e* %i*es0&ea*
0oli$e an* 0&ose$uto&ial a+use,1
C11
a 0.eno/enon t.at %oul* .a:e +e*e:ile* t.e 9&a/e&s. Mapp's
.ol*in3 %as +&ou3.t on /o&e +, t.e nee* to /a'e t.e $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/ %o&' (ai&l, t.an +, an,
ot.e& $onsi*e&ation.
C12
T.e sa/e &ealities 3a:e %a, to t.e &ule o( #ivens v. !ix *arcotics (gents, in
1651, in %.i$. t.e Cou&t $on$e*e* t.at an a3ent a$tin3 ille3all, in t.e na/e o( t.e 3o:e&n/ent
0ossesses a (a& 3&eate& $a0a$it, (o& .a&/ t.an an, in*i:i*ual t&es0asse& e2e&$isin3 .is o%n aut.o&it, Fas
0&e:aile* as t.e $o//on (o&/ o( la% en(o&$e/ent in 1561G.
C1B
9u&t.e&/o&e, t.e notion t.at e2$lusion $annot +e -usti(ie* un*e& an o&i3inalist a00&oa$. is not nea&l, as
%ell7(oun*e* as its .a&s.est $&iti$s su33est.
C1C
C&iti$s o( t.e &ule 0oint to t.e 161C $ase o( $ee+s v.
,nited !tates
C15
as t.e &ule8s *e+ut in Su0&e/e Cou&t -u&is0&u*en$e.
C16
Ho%e:e&, t.e &ule a$tuall,
*e+ute* in *i$ta in t.e 1886 $ase o( #oyd v. ,nited !tates.
C15
E:en t.is see/in3l, late *ate o( t.e &ule8s
*e+ut $an +e att&i+ute* to t.e Cou&t8s la$' o( $&i/inal a00ellate -u&is*i$tion until t.e en* o( t.e
nineteent. $entu&,.
C18
T.e &ealit, is t.at #oyd, t.e Cou&t8s (i&st su33estion o( t.e &ule, &e0&esents, (o&
0&a$ti$al 0u&0oses, t.e very first Fourth (mendment case *e$i*e* +, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t. T.e
e2$lusiona&, &ule t.us .as a +ette& 0e*i3&ee t.an it is $&e*ite* %it..
C16
THE 9I9TH A?EN;?ENT
In a 0&e:ious a&ti$le, I *es$&i+e* t.e li/itation o( $o//on la% 3&an* -u&, 0o%e&s +, Rule 6 o( t.e
9e*e&al Rules o( C&i/inal P&o$e*u&e as an un$onstitutional in(&in3e/ent o( t.e 9i(t. A/en*/ent
A&an* Ju&, Clause.
C20
T.e (a$t t.at /ost $&i/inal $.a&3es a&e no% initiate* not +, $&i/e :i$ti/s +ut +,
a&/e* state a3ents %.o se&:e t.e state8s inte&ests &e0&esents a *&asti$ alte&ation o( 9oun*in37e&a
$&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e.
C21
T.e su00&ession o( 3&an* -u&o&s8 la%(ul 0o%e&s +elies t.e intent o( t.e
Constitution t.at la% en(o&$e/ent o((i$ials +e su+-e$t to st&in3ent o:e&si3.t +, t.e $iti)en&, t.&ou3.
3&an* -u&ies. ?o*e&n 0oli$in3, in e((e$t, a$ts as a /i**le/an +et%een t.e 0eo0le an* t.e -u*i$ial
+&an$. o( 3o:e&n/ent t.at %as ne:e& $onte/0late* +, t.e 9&a/e&s.
T.e 9i(t. A/en*/ent also 0&o.i+its t.e $o/0ulsion o( sel(7in$&i/inatin3 testi/on,.
C22
=a&ious
$o/0etin3 inte&0&etations e++e* an* (lo%e* (&o/ t.is 0&o:ision until 1666, %.en t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t
.el* t.at 0oli$e a&e &eHui&e* to a$tuall, tell sus0e$ts a+out t.e 9i(t. an* Si2t. A/en*/ents8 0&ote$tions
+e(o&e inte&&o3atin3 t.e/.
C2B
T.e s.ee& :olu/e o( $&iti$is/ +, 0oli$e o&3ani)ations o( t.e Miranda
&ulin3 o:e& t.e ne2t t.&ee *e$a*es in*i$ates t.e st&on3 state inte&est in 'ee0in3 t.e Constitution8s
0&ote$tions $on$eale* (&o/ t.e A/e&i$an 0u+li$.
?o*e/ 0oli$e inte&&o3ation $oul* s$a&$el, .a:e +een i/a3ine* +, t.e 9&a/e&s %.o /et in
P.ila*el0.ia in t.e late ei3.teent. $entu&,. Poli$e ta$ti$s su$. as (alsi(,in3 0.,si$al e:i*en$e, (a'in3
i*enti(i$ation lineu0s, a*/iniste&in3 (a'e lie *ete$to& tests an* (alsi(,in3 la+o&ato&, &e0o&ts to o+tain
$on(essions a&e /et.o*s *e:elo0e* +, t.e professionals o( t.e t%entiet. $entu&,.
C2C
A3ainst su$.
/et.o*s a /o*e&n sus0e$t stan*s little $.an$e o( 'ee0in3 .is ton3ue. Li'e t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule an* t.e
ent&a0/ent *e(ense, t.e Miranda &ule o0e&ates as an a%'%a&* le:elin3 *e:i$e +et%een t.e &i3.ts o(
A/e&i$an $iti)ens an* t.ei& no%7le:iat.ani$ 3o:e&n/ent.
In 2000, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t u0.el* Fin*ee*, 1$onstitutionali)e*1G t.e Miranda &ule in t.e (a$e o(
%i*es0&ea* 0&e*i$tions t.at t.e 0oli$e7(a:o&in3 Re.nHuist /a-o&it, %oul* a+an*on t.e &ule.
C25
T.e
Cou&t *eli:e&e* an o0inion &e$o3ni)in3 t.at 1t.e &outine 0&a$ti$es o( I0oli$eJ inte&&o3ation IisJ itsel( a
&elati:el, ne% *e:elo0/ent.1
C26
T.e Miranda &eHui&e/ent, a$$o&*in3 to Justi$e Re.nHuist, %as
t.e&e(o&e -usti(ie* as an e2tension o( due process E a (a& /o&e sustaina+le $ou&se t.an one e2ten*in3
(&o/ t.e %o&*in3 o( t.e 9i(t. an* Si2t. A/en*/ents.
C25
T.e &ic+erson *e$ision illust&ates t.e in$&easin3l, a%'%a&* 0ea$e +et%een t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts an* t.e
0.eno/enon o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3. #e$ause t.e 9&a/e&s *i* not $onte/0late %i*e7s$ale e2e$ution o(
3o:e&n/ent 0o%e& t.&ou3. 0ai*, (ull7ti/e a3ents, /o*e&n -u&is0&u*en$e &e$on$ilin3 t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts
%it. to*a,8s 0oli$e 0&a$ti$es see/s in$&easin3l, (a&(et$.e*. Justi$es S$alia an* T.o/as *issente* (&o/
t.e &ic+erson /a-o&it, %it. %ell7(oun*e* te2tualist o+-e$tions, a&3uin3 t.at t.e /a-o&it, %as %&itin3 a
10&o0.,la$ti$, e2t&a$onstitutional Constitution1 to 0&ote$t t.e 0u+li$ (&o/ 0oli$e.
C28
4et in li3.t o( t.e
e2t&a$onstitutional natu&e o( /o*e&n 0oli$e, t.e &ic+erson /a-o&it, o0inion is no less $onsistent %it.
t.e 9&a/e&s8 $onstitutional intent.
;E PROCESS
;ue 0&o$ess o( la% *e0en*s u0on assu&an$es t.at a le:el 0la,in3 (iel* e2ists +et%een &i:al a*:e&sa&ies
0itte* a3ainst ea$. ot.e&.
C26
T.e $onstitutional *esi3n 0itte* a $iti)en *e(en*ant a3ainst .is $iti)en
a$$use& +e(o&e a -u&, o( .is Ft.e *e(en*ant8sG 0ee&s. T.e state 0&o:i*e* onl, t.e :enue, t.e 0&o$ess, an*
assu&an$es t.at t.e &ule o( la% %oul* 3o:e&n t.e out$o/e. #, $o/0a&ison, a /o*e&n *e(en*ant is
.a&*l, 0itte* in a (ai& (i3.t, (a$in3 t.e :ast t&easu&, an* .u/an &esou&$es o( t.e state. >.ile t.e
$&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/ o( t.e 9oun*in3 e&a %as :i$ti/7*&i:en, an* t.us sel(7li/itin3, to*a,8s s,ste/ is
(uele* +, a 0&o(essional a&/, o( 0oli$e %.o /easu&e t.ei& su$$ess in nu/+e&s o( a&&ests an*
$on:i$tions.
CB0
Poli$e t.e/sel:es o(ten i3no&e stan*a&* $on$e0ts o( (ai&ness, o((i$ial &e3ulations, an* statutes in t.ei&
%a& on $&i/e.
CB1
Poli$e a3en$ies .a:e e:en +een 'no%n to *e:elo0 institutional /eans to $i&$u/:ent
$ou&t atte/0ts to eHuali)e t.e 0la,in3 (iel*.
CB2
In t.e (a$e o( un%ante* 0u+li$it, o& $ont&o:e&s,
su&&oun*in3 0oli$e +&utalit, $ases, 0oli$e *e0a&t/ents .a:e +een 'no%n to &elease a&&est &e$o&*s to t.e
/e*ia to :ili(, :i$ti/s o( 0oli$e /is$on*u$t.
CBB
T.e 0oli$e /o*el o( la% en(o&$e/ent tilts t.e enti&e s,ste/ o( $&i/inal -usti$e in (a:o& o( t.e state. T.e
0oli$e, t.ou3. su00ose*l, neut&al in:esti3ato&s, a&e in &ealit, an a&/ o( t.e 0&ose$uto&8s o((i$e.
CBC

>.e&e 0oli$e se$u&e a $&i/e s$ene (o& in:esti3ation, t.e, in (a$t se$u&e it for the prosecution alone an*
*en, a$$ess to an,one ot.e& t.an t.e 0&ose$ution. A sus0e$t o& .is *e(ense atto&ne,s o(ten /ust o+tain
$ou&t 0e&/ission to :ie% t.e s$ene o& sea&$. (o& e:i*en$e. Onl, su$. e2$ul0ato&, e:i*en$e as +,
a$$i*ent (alls into t.e .an*s o( t.e 0&ose$ution nee* +e &e:eale* to t.e sus0e$t o& *e(en*ant.
CB5
In $ases
%.e&e 0oli$e /is$on*u$t is an issue, 0oli$e use t.ei& /ono0ol, o:e& t.e $&i/e s$ene to 0&e0a&e t.e
e:i*en$e to suit t.ei& :e&sion o( e:ents.
CB6
Mapp, Miranda an* &ic+erson not%it.stan*in3, t.e ten*en$, o( /o*e&n $ou&ts to %o&' a&oun* 0oli$e
0&a$ti$es, &at.e& t.an nulli(, o& &est&ain t.e/, 0oses t.e :e&, t.&eat to *ue 0&o$ess o( la% t.e 9&a/e&s
sa% as /ost *an3e&ous to li+e&t,. Instea* o( :ie%in3 t.e s,ste/ as a t&ue a*:e&sa&ial $ontest %it.
neut&al &ules, -u*3es an* la%/a'e&s .a:e *e$i*e* t.at $at$.in3 Fnon0oli$eG la%+&ea'e&s is /o&e
i/0o&tant t.an /aintainin3 a $o*e o( inte3&it,.
CB5
T.e 1s0o&tin3 t.eo&, o( $&i/inal -usti$e,1 %&ote
Justi$e >a&&en #u&3e&, 1.as +een e20e&ien$in3 a *e$line in ou& -u&is0&u*en$e.1
CB8
In its 0la$e is a
s,ste/ %.e&e t.e 3o:e&n/ent :ie%s t.e non0oli$e la%+&ea'e& as a t.&eat to its aut.o&it, an* 0la$es to0
0&io&it, on *e(eatin3 .i/ in $ou&t.
CB6
ENTRAP?ENT
A+an*on/ent o( :i$ti/7*&i:en, /ostl, 0&i:ate 0&ose$ution .as le* to $onseHuen$es t.e 9&a/e&s $oul*
ne:e& .a:e 0&e*i$te* an* %oul* li'el, ne:e& .a:e san$tione*. E:en in t.e /ost .o&&i(i$ e2a/0les o(
$olonial $&i/inal -usti$e Fan* t.e&e %e&e /an,G, *e(en*ants %e&e &a&el, i( e:e& ent&a00e* into $&i/inal
a$ti:it,. T.e *e:elo0/ent o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3 as an o/ni0otent 0o%e& o( t.e state, .o%e:e&, .as
ne$essitate* t.e si/ultaneous *e:elo0/ent o( $o/0li$ate* *o$t&ines su$. as ent&a0/ent an*
1out&a3eous 3o:e&n/ent $on*u$t1 as $ounte&%ei3.ts.
It %as not until t.e late nineteent. $entu&, t.at an, En3lis. o& A/e&i$an $ase *ealt %it. ent&a0/ent as a
t&ue *e(ense to a $&i/inal $.a&3e.
CC0
FT.e $ase la% until t.en .a* +een :i&tuall, *e:oi* o( 0oli$e
$on*u$t issues alto3et.e&G.
CC1
#e3innin3 in 1880, En3lis. $ase la% slo%l, +e$a/e in:ol:e* %it.
0.eno/ena su$. as state a3ents in*u$in3 sus0e$ts to sell %it.out 0&o0e& $e&ti(i$ates,
CC2
0e&sua*in3
*e(en*ants to su00l, *&u3s to te&/inate 0&e3nan$,,
CCB
an* enti$in3 0eo0le to $o//it ot.e& :i$ti/less
$&i/es. ;i$ta in so/e En3lis. $ases e20&esse* out&a3e t.at 0oli$e /i3.t so/e*a, 1+e tol* to $o//it
an o((ense t.e/sel:es (o& t.e 0u&0ose o( 3ettin3 e:i*en$e a3ainst so/eone.1
CCC
Poli$e %.o $o//it
su$. o((enses, sai* one En3lis. $ou&t, 1ou3.t also to +e $on:i$te* an* 0unis.e*, (o& t.e o&*e& o( t.ei&
su0e&io& %oul* a((o&* no *e(ense.1
CC5
Ent&a0/ent *i* not a&ise as a *e(ense in t.e nite* States until 1615, %.en t.e $on*u$t o( 3o:e&n/ent
o((i$e&s (o& t.e (i&st ti/e +&ou3.t t.e issue +e(o&e t.e (e*e&al $ou&ts. In $oo $ai v. ,nited !tates, t.e
Nint. Ci&$uit o:e&tu&ne* a $on:i$tion o( a *e(en*ant (o& ille3all, +&in3in3 C.inese 0e&sons into t.e
nite* States u0on e:i*en$e t.at 3o:e&n/ent o((i$e&s .a* in*u$e* t.e $&i/e.
CC6
A&o%t. in 0oli$e
nu/+e&s an* 1anti7$&i/e1 %a&(a&e %as so &a0i* t.at in 166B, t.e >,o/in3 Su0&e/e Cou&t %&ote t.at
ent&a0/ent .a* 10&o+a+l, &e0la$e* ine((e$ti:eness o( *e(ense $ounsel an* $.allen3e* $on*u$t o(
0&ose$uto&s as t.e /ost 0&e:alent issues in $u&&ent a00eals.1
CC5
T.e 3&o%t. o( t.e use o( ent&a0/ent +, t.e state &aises t&ou+lin3 Huestions a+out t.e natu&e an*
0u&0oses o( A/e&i$an 3o:e&n/ent. Rat.e& t.an 1se&:in3 an* 0&ote$tin31 t.e 0u+li$, /o*e&n 0oli$e
o(ten se&:e an* 0&ote$t t.e inte&ests o( t.e state a3ainst t.e li+e&ties an* inte&ests o( t.e 0eo0le. A
si3ni(i$ant a/ount o( 0oli$e +&utalit,, (o& e2a/0le, see/s ai/e* at /e&e 0.iloso0.i$al, &at.e& t.an
0.,si$al, o00osition. Poli$e *o/inan$e o:e& t.e $i:ilian F&at.e& t.an se&:i$e to o& 0&ote$tion o( .i/G is
t.e 1onl, t&ul, i&on an* in(le2i+le &ule1 (ollo%e* +, 0oli$e o((i$e&s.
CC8
T.us, an, 0e&son %.o *e(ies
0oli$e (a$es :i&tuall, $e&tain ne3ati:e &e0e&$ussions, %.et.e& a ti$'et, a le3al su//ons, an a&&est, o& a
+ullet.
CC6
One stu*, (oun* nea&l, .al( o( all ille3al (o&$e +, 0oli$e o$$u&&e* in &es0onse to /e&e
*e(ian$e o( an o((i$e& &at.e& t.an a 0.,si$al t.&eat.
C50
In t.e 0oliti$al s0.e&e, 0oli$e se&:e t.e inte&ests o( t.ose in 0o%e& against t.e &i3.ts o( t.e 0u+li$. Ne%
4o&' 0oli$e o( t.e late nineteent. $entu&, %e&e (oun* +, t.e Ne% 4o&' le3islatu&e to .a:e $o//itte*
1al/ost e:e&, $on$ei:a+le $&i/e a3ainst t.e ele$ti:e (&an$.ise,1 in$lu*in3 a&&estin3 an* +&utali)in3
o00osition70a&t, :ote&s, stu((in3 +allot +o2es, an* usin3 1o00&ession, (&au*, t&i$'e&, Ian*J $&i/e1 to
ensu&e t.e *o/inant 0a&t, .el* t.e $it,.
C51
In t.e t%entiet. $entu&,, J. E*3a& Hoo:e&8s 9#I a3ents
+u&3la&i)e* .un*&e*s o( o((i$es o( la%7a+i*in3, le(t7%in3 0oliti$al 0a&ties an* o&3ani)ations, 1o(ten %it.
t.e a$ti:e $oo0e&ation o& ta$it $onsent o( lo$al 0oli$e.1
C52
T.e 9#I .as also s0ent t.ousan*s o( /an7
.ou&s su&:eilin3 an* in:esti3atin3 %&ite&s, 0la,%&i3.ts, *i&e$to&s an* a&tists %.ose 0oliti$al :ie%s %e&e
*ee/e* a t.&eat to t.e inte&ests o( t.e &ulin3 0oliti$al esta+lis./ent.
C5B
Poli$e to*a, a&e a $onstant a3ent on +e.al( o( 3o:e&n/ental 0o%e&. #ot. in t.e .alls o( le3islatu&es an*
+e(o&e t.e $ou&ts, 0oli$e a$t as lo++,ists a3ainst in*i:i*ual li+e&ties.
C5C
Poli$e o&3ani)ations, (un*e* +,
/onies (unnele* *i&e$tl, (&o/ 0oli$e %a3es, lo++, in$essantl, a3ainst le3islati:e $onst&aints on 0oli$e
$on*u$t.
C55
Poli$e o&3ani)ations also (ile amicus curie +&ie(s in :i&tuall, e:e&, 0oli$e 0&o$e*u&e $ase
t.at 3oes +e(o&e t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t, o(ten 0&e*i$tin3 *i&e $onseHuen$es i( t.e Cou&t &ules a3ainst t.e/.
In 2000, (o& e2a/0le, t.e 0oli$e lo++, (ile* amicus +&ie(s in (a:o& o( allo%in3 0oli$e to sto0 an* (&is'
0e&sons u0on anon,/ous ti0s, %a&nin3 t.at i( t.e Cou&t &ule* a3ainst t.e/, 1t.e $onseHuen$e (o& la%
en(o&$e/ent an* t.e 0u+li$ $oul* +e in$&ease* assaults an* 0e&.a0s e:en /u&*e&s.1
C56
CONCLSION
T.e nite* States o( A/e&i$a %as (oun*e* %it.out 0&o(essional 0oli$e. Its ea&liest t&a*itions an*
(oun*in3 *o$u/ents e:i*en$e* no $onte/0lation t.at t.e 0o%e& o( t.e state %oul* +e i/0le/ente* +,
o/ni0&esent 0oli$e (o&$es. On t.e $ont&a&,, A/e&i$a8s $onstitutional 9&a/e&s e20&esse* .ostilit, an*
$onte/0t (o& t.e stan*in3 a&/ies o( t.e late ei3.teent. $entu&,, %.i$. (un$tione* as la% en(o&$e/ent
units in A/e&i$an $ities. T.e a*:ent o( /o*e&n 0oli$in3 .as 3&eatl, alte&e* t.e +alan$e o( 0o%e&
+et%een t.e $iti)en an* t.e state in a %a, t.at %oul* .a:e +een seen as $onstitutionall, in:ali* +, t.e
9&a/e&s. T.e i/0li$ations o( t.is alte&e* +alan$e o( 0o%e& a&e (a&7&ea$.in3, an* s.oul* in:ite
$onsi*e&ation +, -u*3es an* le3islato&s %.o $on$e&n t.e/sel:es %it. $onstitutional Huestions.
" Ro3e& Isaa$ Roots, J.;., ?.C.J., 3&a*uate* (&o/ Ro3e& >illia/s ni:e&sit, S$.ool o( La% in 1666,
Ro3e& >illia/s ni:e&sit, S$.ool o( Justi$e Stu*ies in 2001, an* ?ontana State ni:e&sit,7#illin3s
F#.S., So$iolo3,G in 1665. He is a (o&/e& (e*e&al 0&isone& an* (oun*e& o( t.e P&ison C&isis P&o-e$t, a
not7(o&70&o(it la% an* 0oli$, t.in' tan' +ase* in P&o:i*en$e, R.o*e Islan*. He is 3&ate(ul to ;uane
Ho&ton o( Po&ts/out., R.o*e Islan* (o& .is s$&u0ulous 0&oo(7&ea*in3 e((o&ts an* t.ou3.t(ul insi3.ts.
1
As o( June, 1666, t.e&e %e&e /o&e t.an 500,000 (ull7 an* 0a&t7ti/e 0&o(essional state7s%o&n 0oli$e in
t.e nite* States. !ee #REA O9 JSTICE STATISTICS, CENSS O9 STATE AN; LOCAL
LA> EN9ORCE?ENT AAENCIES, 1666 F1668G availale at M.tt0DNN:i&li+.n$-&s.o&3NStatisti$s.as0O.
9i3u&es (o& ea&lie& *e$a*es an* $entu&ies a&e *i((i$ult to o+tain, +ut a (e% in*i$ato&s su33est t.at t.e
&atio o( 0oli$e 0e& $iti)en .as 3&o%n +, at least (ou& t.ousan* 0e&$ent. In 1816, t.e #&itis. Pa&lia/ent
&e0o&te* t.at t.e&e %as at t.at ti/e one $onsta+le (o& e:e&, 18,185 0e&sons in A&eat #&itain. !ee Je&o/e
Hall, "egal and !ocial (spects of (rrest $ithout a $arrant, C6 HAR=AR; L. RE=. 566, 582 F16B6G.
Con:entional %is*o/ %oul* su33est t.at A/e&i$an &atios %e&e, i( an,t.in3, lo%e&. To*a, t.e&e is
a00&o2i/atel, one o((i$e& (o& e:e&, B86 A/e&i$ans.
2
T.e Cit, o( Los An3eles, (o& e2a/0le, s0en*s al/ost .al( FC6.1PG o( its annual *is$&etiona&, +u*3et
on 0oli$e +ut onl, 15.5P on (i&e an* 1C.8P on 0u+li$ %o&'s. !ee %ity of "os (ngeles -.../0111
#udget !ummary F:isite* ;e$. 2000G M.tt0DNN%%%.$it,o(la.o&3N$aoN+u*6600.0*(O. T.e Cit, o( C.i$a3o
s0en*s o:e& (o&t, 0e&$ent o( its annual +u*3et on 0oli$e. !ee %hicago #udget -... F:isite* ;e$. 2000G
M.tt0DNN%%%.$i.$.i.il.usN/a,o&N#u*3etl666Nsl*011..t/O F0ie $.a&tG. Seattle s0en*s /o&e t.an K150
/illion, o& C1 0e&$ent o( its annual +u*3et, on 0oli$e an* 0oli$e 0ensions. !ee Cit, o( Seattle 2000
P&o0ose* #u*3et F:isite* ;e$. 2000G M.tt0DNN%%%.$i.seattle.%a.usN+u*3etO. T.e Cit, o( Ne% 4o&' is
one e2$e0tion, *ue 0&i/a&il, to Ne% 4o&' State8s uniHue s,ste/ (o& (un*in3 e*u$ation. Poli$e an* t.e
a*/inist&ation o( -usti$e $onstitute t.e t.i&* la&3est se3/ent, o& t%el:e 0e&$ent, o( t.e Cit,8s +u*3et,
a(te& e*u$ation an* .u/an &esou&$es. !ee THE CIT4 O9 NE> 4OR@, E<ECTI=E #;AET,
9ISCAL 4EAR 2000 1 F2000G F0ie $.a&tG.
B
!ee Ca&ol S. Stei'e&, !econd Thoughts (out First 2rinciples, 105 HAR=. L. RE=. 820, 8B0 F166CG
Fsa,in3 t%entiet. $entu&, 0oli$e an* 1ou& $onte/0o&a&, sense o( 80oli$in38 %oul* +e utte&l, (o&ei3n to
ou& $olonial (o&e+ea&s1G.
C
!ee id.
5
!ee id. at 8B1 Fsa,in3 t.e sole /oneta&, &e%a&* (o& su$. o((i$e&s %as o$$asional $o/0ensation +,
0&i:ate in*i:i*uals (o& &etu&nin3 stolen 0&o0e&t,G.
6
!ee CHARLES SIL#ER?AN, CRI?INAL =IOLENCE, CRI?INAL JSTICE B1C F1658G. T.e
Cit, o( #oston, (o& e2a/0le, ena$te* an o&*inan$e &eHui&in3 *&a(te* $iti)ens to %al' t.e st&eets 1to
0&e:ent an, *an3e& +, (i&e, an* to see t.at 3oo* o&*e& is 'e0t.1 3d.
5
%.f. id. F/entionin3 t.at $o0s8 &ole o( /aintainin3 o&*e& 0&e*ates t.ei& &ole o( $&i/e $ont&olG.
8
#ut see4 e.g., Stei'e&, supra note B, at 82C Fsa,in3 t.e 1in:ention ... o( a&/e* Huasi7/ilita&,,
0&o(essional 0oli$e (o&$es, %.ose (o&/, (un$tion, an* *ail, 0&esen$e *i((e& *&a/ati$all, (&o/ t.at o( t.e
$olonial $onsta+ula&,, &eHui&es t.at /o*e&n7*a, -u*3es an* s$.ola&s &et.in'1 9ou&t. A/en*/ent
&e/e*iesG.
6
!ee4 e.g., RO#ERT H. #OR@, SLOCHINA TO>AR;S AO?ORRAHD ?O;ERN LI#ERALIS?
AN; A?ERICAN ;ECLINE 10C F1666G F$&iti$i)in3 Su0&e/e Cou&t &ulin3s t.at .a:e 1stea*il,
e20an*e*1 t.e &i3.ts o( $&i/inals an* 0la$e* li/itations u0on 0oli$e $on*u$tG.
10
%f. E.<. #OOQHIE, THE OTLA>8S #I#LE 15 F1688G Fstatin3 t.e t&ue /ission o( 0oli$e is to
0&ote$t t.e status Huo (o& t.e +ene(it o( t.e &ulin3 $lassG.
11
As a te2tual /atte&, t.e Constitution 3&ants aut.o&it, to t.e (e*e&al 3o:e&n/ent to *e(ine an* 0unis.
$&i/inal a$ti:it, in onl, (i:e instan$es. A&ti$le I 3&ants Con3&ess 0o%e& F1G 1ItJo 0&o:i*e (o& t.e
Punis./ent o( $ounte&(eitin3 t.e Se$u&ities an* $u&&ent Coin o( t.e nite* States,1 a&t. I, R 8, $l. 6L F2G
1ItJo *e(ine an* 0unis. Pi&a$ies an* 9elonies $o//itte* on t.e .i3. Seas, an* O((enses a3ainst t.e
La% o( Nations,1 id, $l. 10L FBG 1ItJo /a'e Rules (o& t.e Ao:e&n/ent an* Re3ulation o( t.e lan* an*
na:al 9o&$es,1 id. at $l. 1CL FCG 1ItJo e2e&$ise e2$lusi:e Le3islation in all Cases %.atsoe:e&, o:e&1 t.e
;ist&i$t o( Colu/+ia an* (e*e&al &ese&:ations. id. at $l. 15L see also Co.ens :. =i&3inia, 16 .S. F6
>.eat.G 26C, C26 F1821G F1Con3&ess .as a &i3.t to 0unis. /u&*e& in a (o&t, o& ot.e& 0la$e %it.in its
e2$lusi:e -u&is*i$tionL +ut no 3ene&al &i3.t to 0unis. /u&*e& $o//itte* %it.in an, o( t.e states1G.
Li'e%ise, F5G A&ti$le III *e(ines t.e $&i/e o( 1T&eason a3ainst t.e nite* States1 an* 3&ants to
Con3&ess t.e 1Po%e& to *e$la&e IitsJ Punis./ent....1 .S. CONST. a&t. III, R B.
12
Se:e&al ea&l, $onstitutions e20&esse* a &i3.t o( $iti)ens 1to +e 0&ote$te* in t.e en-o,/ent o( li(e,
li+e&t, an* 0&o0e&t,,1 an* t.e&e(o&e 0u&0o&te* to +in* $iti)ens to $ont&i+ute t.ei& 0&o0o&tion to%a&*
e20enses o( su$. 0&ote$tion. !ee ;ELA>ARE ;EC. O9 RIAHTS o( Se0t. 11, 1556, R 10L PA. CONST.
o( Se0t. 28, 1556, ;e$. o( Ri3.ts, R =IIIL =T. CONST. o( Jul, 8, 1555, C.a0. 1, R I<. Ot.e& t,0i$al
0&o:isions &eHui&e* t.at t.e 0o%e&s o( 3o:e&n/ent +e e2e&$ise* onl, +, t.e $onsent o( t.e 0eo0le, see4
e.g., N.C. CONST. o( ;e$. 18, 1556, R =, an* t.at all 0e&sons in:este* %it. 3o:e&n/ent 0o%e& +e
a$$ounta+le (o& t.ei& $on*u$t. !ee ?;. CONST. o( No:. 11, 1556, R I=.
1B
T.e $onstitutions o( se:e&al ea&l, states e20&esse* t.e intent t.at $iti)ens %e&e o+li3ate* to $a&&, out
la% en(o&$e/ent *uties. !ee4 e.g., ;ELA>ARE ;EC. O9 RIAHTS o( Se0t. 11, 1556, R 10 F0&o:i*in3
e:e&, $iti)en s.all ,iel* .is 0e&sonal se&:i$e %.en ne$essa&,, o& an eHui:alentGL N.H. CONST. o( June
2, 158C, Pa&t I, a&t. I, R <II F0&o:i*in3 t.at e:e&, /e/+e& o( t.e $o//unit, is +oun* to 1,iel* .is
0e&sonal se&:i$e %.en ne$essa&,, o& an eHui:alent1GL =T. CONST. o( Jul, 8, 1555, C.a0. 1, R I<
F0&o:i*in3 e:e&, /e/+e& o( so$iet, is +oun* to $ont&i+ute .is 0&o0o&tion to%a&*s t.e e20enses o( .is
0&ote$tion, 1an* to ,iel* .is 0e&sonal se&:i$e, %.en ne$essa&,1G.
1C
%.f. JA?ES #O=AR;, LOST RIAHTSD THE ;ESTRCTION O9 A?ERICAN LI#ERT4 51 F1
st

e*. 166CG F*is$ussin3 Re:olution7e&a 0e&$e0tion t.at t.e la% %as a /eans to &est&ain 3o:e&n/ent an* to
se$u&e &i3.ts o( $iti)ensG.
15
O&i3inall,, all $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e (ell un*e& t.e &ule o( 0&i:ate :en3ean$e. A :i$ti/ o& a33&ie:e*
0a&t, /a*e a *i&e$t a00eal to $ount, aut.o&ities to (o&$e a *e(en*ant to (a$e .i/.
!ee ARTHR TRAIN, THE PRISONER AT THE #AR 120 n. F1626G. 9&o/ t.ese :e&, ea&l, ti/es,
13&an*1 o& 1a$$usin31 -u&ies %e&e (o&/e* to e2a/ine t.e a$$usations o( 0&i:ate in*i:i*uals. 3d. at 121
n. Alt.ou3. t.e a$$usin3 -u&, (&eHuentl, a$te* as a t&ial -u&, as %ell, it e:entuall, e:ol:e* into a
se0a&ate +o*, t.at too' on t.e &ole o( a$$use& on +e.al( o( a33&ie:e* 0a&ties. It *eli+e&ate* se$&etl,,
a$tin3 on its /e/+e&s8 o%n 0e&sonal in(o&/ation an* u0on t.e a00li$ation o( in-u&e* 0a&ties. 3d. at 12C
n.
16
In t.e ea&l, *e$a*es o( A/e&i$an $&i/inal -usti$e, $&i/inal $ases %e&e .a&*l, *i((e&ent (&o/ $i:il
a$tions, an* $oul* easil, +e $on(use* (o& one anot.e& i( 1t.e 0u+li$ not +ein3 -oine* in it.1 Cla&' :.
Tu&ne&, 1 Root 200 FConn. 1560G F.ol*in3 a$tion (o& assault an* +atte&, %as no /o&e t.an a $i:il $ase
+e$ause t.e 0u+li$ %as not -oine*G. It %as a00a&entl, not unusual (o& t&ial -u*3es t.e/sel:es to +e
$on(use* a+out %.et.e& a $ase %as $&i/inal o& $i:il, an* to /a'e -u*i$ial e&&o&s &e3a&*in3 0&o$e*u&al
*i((e&en$es +et%een t.e t%o t,0es o( $ases. !ee ?ea$.a/ :. Austin, 5 ;a, 2BB FConn. 1811G
Fu0.ol*in3 lo%e& $ou&t8s *is/issal o( $&i/inal :e&*i$t +e$ause t.e $ase8s 0&o$ess .a* +een $onsistent
%it. $i:il 0&o$e*u&e &at.e& t.an $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&eG.
15
!ee Res0u+li$a :. A&i((it.s, 2 ;all. 112 FPa. 1560G Fin:ol:in3 a$tion +, 0&i:ate in*i:i*ual see'in3
0u+li$ san$tion (o& .is 0&ose$utionG.
18
!ee4 e.g., S/it. :. State, 5 Tenn. CB F18C6G Fusin3 t.e te&/ 0&ose$uto& to *es$&i+e a 0&i:ate 0e&sonGL
Plu/e& :. S/it., 5 N.H. 55B F18B2G Fsa/eGL Co//on%ealt. :. Ha&'ness, C #inn. 16B FPa. 1811G
Fsa/eG.
16
!ee Ha&ol* J. @&ent, 5xecutive %ontrol 'ver %riminal "aw 5nforcement6 !ome "essons From
7istory, B8 A?. . L. RE=. 255, 281760 F1686G Fsa,in3 t.at an, $lai/ t.at $&i/inal la% en(o&$e/ent
is a 8$o&e8 o& e2$lusi:e e2e$uti:e 0o%e& is .isto&i$all, ina$$u&ate an* t.e&e(o&e t.e Atto&ne, Aene&al
nee* not +e :este* %it. aut.o&it, to o:e&see o& t&i33e& in:esti3ations +, t.e in*e0en*ent $ounselG.
20
!ee Res0u+li$a :. A&i((it.s, 2 ;all. 112 FPa. 1560G F.ol*in3 t.e Atto&ne, Aene&al /ust allo% .is
na/e to +e use* +, t.e 0&ose$uto&G.
21
P&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s 3ene&all, .a* to 0a, t.e $osts o( t.ei& 0&ose$utions, e:en t.ou3. t.e state also
.a* an inte&est. !ee ;i$'inson :. Potte&, C ;a, BC0 FConn. 1810G. Ao:e&n/ent atto&ne,s 3ene&al too'
o:e& t.e 0&ose$utions o( onl, es0e$iall, %o&t., $ases an* 0u&sue* su$. $ases at 0u+li$ e20ense. !ee
>al*&on :. Tu&tle, C N.H. 1C6, 151 F1825G Fstatin3 i( a 0&ose$ution is not a*o0te* an* 0u&sue* +, t.e
atto&ne, 3ene&al, 1it %ill not +e 0u&sue* at t.e 0u+li$ e20ense, alt.ou3. in t.e na/e o( t.e state1G.
22
!ee State :. #&u$e, 2C ?e. 51, 5B F18CCG Fstatin3 a t.&eat +, $&i/e :i$ti/ to 0&ose$ute a su00ose*
t.ie( is 0&o0e& +ut e2to&tion (o& 0e$unia&, a*:anta3e is $&i/inalG.
2B
!ee Plu/e& :. S/it., 5 N.H. 55B F18B2G F.ol*in3 0&o/isso&, note in:ali* %.en ten*e&e* +, a
$&i/inal *e(en*ant to .is 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto& in e2$.an3e (o& 0&o/ise not to 0&ose$uteG.
2C
S.a% :. Ree*, B0 ?e. 105, 106 F18C6G.
25
!ee In &e A0&il 1656 Te&/ A&an* Ju&,, 2B6 9.2* 26B F5t. Ci&. 1656G.
26
!ee Aoo*/an :. nite* States, 108 9.2* 516 F6t. Ci&. 16B6G.
25
!ee @&ent, supra note 16, at 26B.
28
%.f. Ellen ;. La&ne*, 1 Histo&, o( >in*.a/ Count,, Conne$ti$ut 25275B F185CG F&e$ountin3
atte/0ts +, >in*.a/ Count, aut.o&ities in 15B0 to a&&est a la&3e 3&ou0 o( &iote&s %.o +&o'e o0en t.e
Ha&t(o&* Jail an* &elease* a 0&isone&G.
26
3d. at 25B.
B0
!ee #u$'/inste& :. A00le+ee, 8 N.H. 5C6 F18B5G Fstatin3 t.e s.e&i(( .as a *ut, to &aise t.e 0osse to
ai* .i/ %.en ne$essa&,G.
B1
!ee >ate&+u&, :. Lo$'%oo*, C ;a, 255, 256760 FConn. 1810G F$itin3 En3lis. $asesG.
B2
!ee Je&o/e Hall, "egal and !ocial (spects of (rrest $ithout ( $arrant, C6 HAR=. L. RE=. 566, 556
F16B6G.
BB
#a&&in3ton :. 4ello% Ta2i Co&0., 16C N.E. 526, 525 FN.4. 1628G.
BC
!ee Eustis :. @i**e&, 26 ?e. 65, 66 F18C6G.
B5
#, t.e ea&l, 1600s, $ou&ts .el* t.at $i:ilians $alle* into 0osse se&:i$e %.o %e&e 'ille* in t.e line o(
*ut, %e&e entitle* to (ull *eat. +ene(its. !ee ?onte&e, Count, :. Ra*e&, 2C8 P. 612 FCal. 1626GL =illa3e
o( >est Sale/ :. In*ust&ial Co//ission, 155 N.>. 626 F>is. 1616G.
B6
nite* States :. Ri$e, 25 9e*. Cas. 565 F>.;.N.C. 1855G.
B5
T.e Constitution is not %it.out 0&o:isions (o& $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e. In*ee*, /u$. o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts
is an outline o( +asi$ $&i/inal 0&o$e*u&e. !ee LA>RENCE ?. 9RIE;?AN, A HISTOR4 O9
A?ERICAN LA> 118 F2* e*. 1685G. #ut t.ese 0&o:isions &e0&esent ens.&ine/ents o( in*i:i*ual
li+e&ties &at.e& t.an 3o:e&n/ent 0o%e&. T.e onl, $onstitutional 0&o:isions %it. &e3a&* to $&i/inal
-usti$e &e0&esent arriers to 3o:e&n/ental 0o%e&, &at.e& t.an 0&o:isions (o& t.at 0o%e&. In*ee*, t.e
9oun*e&s8 intent to 0&ote$t in*i:i*ual li+e&ties %as /a*e $lea& +, t.e lan3ua3e o( t.e Nint. A/en*/ent
an* its eHui:alent in state $onstitutions o( t.e (oun*in3 e&a. T.e Nint. A/en*/ent, %.i$. *e$la&es t.at
1ItJ.e enu/e&ation in t.e Constitution, o( $e&tain &i3.ts, s.all not +e $onst&ue* to *en, o& *is0a&a3e
ot.e&s &etaine* +, t.e 0eo0le,1 0&o:i*es a $lea& in*i$ation t.at t.e 9&a/e&s assu/e* t.at 0e&sons /a,
*o %.ate:e& is not -ustl, 0&o.i+ite* +, t.e Constitution &at.e& t.an t.at t.e 3o:e&n/ent /a, *o
%.ate:e& is not -ustl, 0&o.i+ite* to it. !ee Ran*, E. #a&nett, 3ntroduction6 8ames Madison's *inth
(mendment4 in THE RIAHTS RETAINE; #4 THE PEOPLE CB FRan*, E. #a&nett e*., 1686G.
B8
!ee JA?ES S. CA?P#ELL ET AL., LA> AN; OR;ER RECONSI;ERE;D REPORT O9 THE
TAS@ 9ORCE ON LA> AN; LA> EN9ORCE?ENT TO THE NATIONAL CO??ISSION ON
THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE C50 F1650G F*is$ussin3 su&:e, +, t.e P&esi*ent8s
Co//ission on La% En(o&$e/ent an* A*/inist&ation o( Justi$eG.
B6
T.e te&/ 10oli$in31 o&i3inall, /eant 0&o/otin3 t.e 0u+li$ 3oo* o& t.e $o//unit, li(e &at.e& t.an
0&ese&:in3 se$u&it,. !ee Ro3an @e&s. et al., 9More a &istinction of $ords than Things96 The 5volution
of !eparated 2owers in the (merican !tates, C ROAER >ILLIA?S . L. RE=. 5, 21 F1668G.
C0
!ee4 e.g., N.C. CONST. o( ;e$. 18, 1556, ;e$. o( Ri3.ts, R II F0&o:i*in3 t.at 0eo0le o( t.e state .a:e
a &i3.t to &e3ulate t.e inte&nal 3o:e&n/ent an* 10oli$e t.e&eo(GL PA. CONST. o( Se0t. 28, 1556, ;e$. o(
Ri3.ts, a&t. III Fstatin3 t.at t.e 0eo0le .a:e a &i3.t o( 13o:e&nin3 an* &e3ulatin3 t.e inte&nal 0oli$e o(
It.e 0eo0leJ1G.
C1
!ee Poli$e Ju&, :. #&itton, 82 .S. F15 >all.G 566 F1852G. T.e 0u&0ose o( su$. -u&ies %as 1G to 0oli$e
sla:es an* &una%a,s, F2G to &e0ai& &oa*s, +&i*3es, an* ot.e& in(&ast&u$tu&e, an* FBG to la, ta2es as
ne$essa&, (o& su$. a$ts. 3d. at 568. !ee also #LAC@8S LA> ;ICTIONAR4 801 Fa+&i*3e* 6
t.
e*.
1661G.
C2
>.en #la$'stone %&ote o( o((enses a3ainst 1t.e 0u+li$ 0oli$e an* e$ono/,1 in 1566, .e /eant
o((enses a3ainst t.e 1*ue &e3ulation an* *o/esti$ o&*e& o( t.e 'in3*o/1 su$. as $lan*estine /a&&ia3e,
+i3a/,, &en*e&in3 +&i*3es in$on:enient to 0ass, :a3&an$,, an* o0e&atin3 3a/+lin3 .ouses. C
>ILLIA? #LAC@STONE, CO??ENTARIES 62C725 FAeo&3e C.ase e*., #a'e&, =oo&.isS Co.
16B8G F1566G.
CB
!ee4 e.g., >ol( :. Colo&a*o, BB8 .S. 25,25728 F16C8G F0&o$lai/in3 t.at 1se$u&it, o( one8s 0&i:a$,
a3ainst a&+it&a&, int&usion +, t.e 0oli$e1 is at t.e $o&e o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent F$lea&l, a sli3.t
/isstate/ent o( t.e 9oun*e&s8 o&i3inal 0e&$e0tionGG.
CC
!ee Ro3e& Lane, ,ranization and %riminal :iolence in the -.
th
%entury6 Massachusetts as a Test
%ase4 in NATIONAL CO??ISSION ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE,
=IOLENCE IN A?ERICAD HISTORICAL AN; CO?PARATI=E PERSPECTI=ES CC5, C51
FA&a.a/ S Au&& *i&., 1666G Fsa,in3 $iti)ens %e&e t&a*itionall, su00ose* to ta'e $a&e o( t.e/sel:es,
%it. .el0 o( (a/il,, (&ien*s, o& se&:ants 1%.en a:aila+le1G.
C5
!ee4 e.g., @enna&* :. #u&ton, 25 ?e. B6 F18C5G Fin:ol:in3 $ollision +et%een t%o %a3onsG.
C6
Lane, supra note CC, at C51.
C5
ALE<IS ;E TOCTE=ILLE, ;E?OCRAC4 IN A?ERICA 66 FJ.P. ?a,e& e*., Ha&0e& Pe&ennial
#oo's 1688G F18C8G.
C8
3d.
C6
!ee id. at 66.
50
!ee Pauline ?aie&, 2opular ,prisings and %ivil (uthority in 5ighteenth/%entury (merica, 25 >?.
S ?AR4 T. B7B5 F1650G.
51
;E TOCTE=ILLE, supra note C5, at 52.
52
Lane, supra note CC, at C50.
5B
!ee id.
5C
3d.
55
!ee id. at C51.
56
!ee4 e.g., La/+ :. ;a,, 8 =t. C05 F18B6G Fin:ol:in3 suit a3ainst $onsta+le (o& i/0&o0e& e2e$ution o(
$i:il %&itGL To/linson :. >.eele&, 1 Ai'. 16C F=t. 1826G Fin:ol:in3 s.e&i((8s ne3le$t to e2e$ute $i:il
-u*3/entGL Sto,el :. E*%a&*s, B ;a, 1 F1805G Fin:ol:in3 s.e&i((s e2e$ution o( $i:il -u*3/entG.
55
I( t.e /o*e&n 0oli$e 0&o(ession .as a (at.e&, it is Si& Ro+e&t Peel, %.o (oun*e* t.e ?et&o0olitan
Poli$e o( Lon*on in 1826. !ee SE TITS REI;, CRI?INAL JSTICED #LEPRINTS 58 F5
t.
e*.
1666G Fatt&i+utin3 t.e (oun*in3 o( t.e (i&st /o*e&n 0oli$e (o&$e to PeelG. Peel8s uni(o&/e* o((i$e&s E
ni$'na/e* 8#o++ies8 a(te& t.e (i&st na/e o( t.ei& (oun*e& E o0e&ate* un*e& t.e *i&e$tion o( a $ent&al
.ea*Hua&te&s FS$otlan* 4a&*, na/e* (o& t.e site on$e use* +, t.e @in3s o( S$otlan* as a &esi*en$eG,
%al'in3 +eats on a (ull7ti/e +asis to 0&e:ent $&i/e. !ee id. Less t.an t.&ee *e$a*es late&, Pa&lia/ent
ena$te* a statute &eHui&in3 e:e&, +o&ou3. an* $ount, to .a:e a Lon*on7t,0e 0oli$e (o&$e. !ee id.
T.e 8#o++ie8 /o*el o( 0oli$in3 $au3.t on /o&e slo%l, in t.e nite* States, +ut +, t.e 1880s /ost
/a-o& A/e&i$an $ities .a* a*o0te* so/e t,0e o( (ull7ti/e 0ai* 0oli$e (o&$e. !ee id. at 56 Fnotin3 t.at
t.e $ount, s.e&i(( s,ste/ $ontinue* in &u&al a&easG.
58
!ee LA>RENCE ?. 9RIE;?AN, CRI?E AN; PNISH?ENT IN A?ERICAN HISTOR4 1517
52 F166BG F$itation o/itte*G.
56
3d. at 151.
60
!ee id. at 152 F*es$&i+in3 ea&l, 0oli$e use o( station .ouses as .o/eless s.elte&s (o& t.e 0oo&G. T.is
sa/e t,0e o( 0u+li$ 0&o+le/7sol:in3 still &e/ains a la&3e 0a&t o( 0oli$e %o&'. Poli$e a&e $alle* u0on to
settle lan*lo&*7tenant *is0utes, *eli:e& e/e&3en$, $a&e, /ana3e t&a((i$, &e3ulate 0a&'in3, an* e:en to
&es0on* to alle3e* .aunte* .ouses. !ee id. at 151 F&e$ountin3 186C alle3e* 3.ost in$i*ent in Oa'lan*,
Cali(o&niaG. Poli$e $ontinue to 0&o:i*e essential se&:i$es to $o//unities, es0e$iall, at ni3.t an* on
%ee'en*s %.en t.e, a&e t.e onl, so$ial se&:i$e a3en$,. !ee SIL#ER?AN, supra note 6, at B21.
61
!ee AARR4 >ILLS, A NECESSAR4 E=ILD A HISTOR4 O9 A?ERICAN ;ISTRST O9
AO=ERN?ENT 2C8 F1666G F$itation o/itte*G.
62
!ee REI;, supra note 55, 65 F5
t.
e*. 1666G.
6B
!ee JERO?E H. S@OLNIC@ S JA?ES J. 949E, A#O=E THE LA>D POLICE AN; THE
E<CESSI=E SE O9 9ORCE 126 F166BG.
6C
!ee id.
65
!ee id. at 1B0.
66
!ee E.<. #OOQHIE, THE OTLA>8S #I#LE 15 F1688G.
65
P&i:ate 0&ose$ution %as not %it.out $osts to ta20a,e&s. T.e a:aila+ilit, o( (&ee $ou&t&oo/s to ai&
3&ie:an$es ten*e* to 0&o/ote liti3ation. In 180C, t.e Penns,l:ania le3islatu&e a$te* to allo% -u&ies to
/a'e 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s 0a, t.e $osts o( 0&ose$ution in es0e$iall, t&i(lin3 $ases. A$t o( ;e$. 8, 180C
PLB, C S/ L 20C F&e0eale* 1860G. P&i:ate 0e&sons %e&e t.e&ea(te& lia+le (o& $ou&t $osts i( t.e, o/itte*
/ate&ial e2$ul0ato&, in(o&/ation (&o/ a 3&an* -u&,, t.e&e+, $ausin3 a 3&an* -u&, to in*i$t %it.out
'no%le*3e o( 0otential *e(enses. !ee Co//on%ealt. :. Ha&'ness, C #inn. 16C FPa. 1811G. T.is
0&ote$tion, li'e /an, ot.e&s, %as lost %.en 0oli$e an* 0u+li$ 0&ose$uto&s too' o:e& t.e $&i/inal -usti$e
s,ste/ in t.e t%entiet. $entu&,. !ee nite* States :. >illia/s, 50C .S. B6 F1662G F.ol*in3 0&ose$uto&
.as no *ut, to 0&esent e2$ul0ato&, e:i*en$e to 3&an* -u&,G.
68
In t.e A/e&i$an $onstitutional s$.e/e, t.e states .a:e 83ene&al -u&is*i$tion,8 /eanin3 t.e, /a,
&e3ulate (o& 0u+li$ .ealt. an* %el(a&e an* ena$t %.ate:e& /eans to en(o&$e su$. &e3ulation as is
ne$essa&, an* $onstitutionall, 0&o0e&. !ee4 e.g., Aa&$ia :. San Antonio ?et&o. T&ansit Aut.., C66 .S.
528 F1685G, National Lea3ue o( Cities :. se&,, C26 .S. 8BB F1656G F+ot. stan*in3 (o& t.e 3ene&al
0&o0osition t.at states .a:e $onstitutional 0o%e& to 0&o:i*e (o& 0&ote$tion, .ealt., sa(et,, an* Hualit, o(
li(e (o& t.ei& $iti)ensG. !ee also La%&en$e T&i+e, A/e&i$an Constitutional La%, RR 67B, 57B F2* e*.
1688G. State an* /uni$i0al 0oli$e (o&$es $an t.e&e(o&e +e :ie%e* as $onstitutional to t.e e2tent t.e,
a$tuall, $a&&, out t.e la%(ul ena$t/ents o( t.e state.
66
!ee infra notes 2857B68 an* t.ei& a$$o/0an,in3 te2t.
50
!ee Silas J. >asse&st&o/, The 3ncredile !hrin+ing Fourth (mendment, 21 A?. CRI?. L. RE=. 255,
BC5 F168CG.
51
!ee Je&o/e Hall, "egal and !ocial (spects of (rrest $ithout ( $arrant, C6 HAR=. L. RE=. 566, 565
F16B6G.
52
!ee id.
5B
!ee id. at 565751 F*is$ussin3 ea&liest s$.ola&l, &e(e&en$es to t.e *istin$tionG. A 16B6 Ha&:a&* La%
Re:ie% a&ti$le su33este* t.e *istin$tion is a (alse one o%e* to i/0&o0e& /a&s.allin3 o( s$.ola&s.i0.
!ee id. F%&itin3 o( 1t.e 3ene&al /isinte&0&etation1 &esultin3 (&o/ a 1580 $ase in En3lan*G.
5C
!ee id. at 555 n.CC F$itin3 t.e $ase o( #ec+with v. 2hily, 6 #. S C. 6B5 F@. #. 1825GG.
55
!ee id. at 551752. Alt.ou3. o((i$ial &i3.t %as a00a&entl, $onsi*e&e* so/e%.at 3&eate& t.an t.at o(
0&i:ate $iti)ens *u&in3 /u$. o( t.e 1500s, t.e $ase la% enun$iates no su00o&t (o& an, su$. *istin$tion
until Rohan :. !awin, 56 ?ass. F5 Cus..G 281 F1850G. It %as a00a&entl, al&ea*, t.e $o//on 0&a$ti$e o(
En3lis. $onsta+les to a&&est u0on in(o&/ation (&o/ t.e 0u+li$ in t.e 15808s. !ee id. at 552. T.e 1ea&lie&
&eHui&e/ent o( a $.a&3e o( a (elon, .a* al&ea*, +een enti&el, (o&3otten1 in En3lan* +, t.e ea&l,
nineteent. $entu&,. 3d. at 55B. A$$o&*in3 to Hall, t.e onl, &eal *istin$tion in 0&a$ti$e in t.e ea&l,
nineteent. $entu&, %as t.at o((i$e&s %e&e 0&i:ile3e* to *&a% t.ei& sus0i$ions (&o/ state/ents o( ot.e&s,
%.e&eas 0&i:ate a&&esto&s .a* to +ase t.ei& $ause (o& a&&est on their own &easona+le +elie(s. !ee id. at
566.
56
!ee Ro.an :. Sa%in, 56 ?ass. F5 Cus..G 281, 285 F1850G.
55
!ee id.
58
!ee 18 .S.C. R 625 FaGFlG F2000G Fe2e/0tin3 3o:e&n/ent o((i$e&s (&o/ (e*e&al (i&ea&/ *isa+ilitiesG.
56
!ee4 e.g., CAL. PENAL CO;E R C68 F>est 1685G F&eleasin3 0oli$e (&o/ lia+ilit, (o& 0ossession o(
sni0e& s$o0es an* in(&a&e* s$o0esG.
80
!ee4 e.g., 9LA. STAT. CH. BB8. 155 F1660G.
81
!ee4 e.g., 9LA. STAT. CH. B20.025 F1660G Fallo%in3 $on(i*ential auto &e3ist&ation (o& 0oli$eG.
82
!ee AR@. CO;E ANN. R 20722750B F?i$.ie 2000G.
8B
!ee 18 .S.C. R 111C Fa/en*e* 166CG F0&o:i*in3 %.oe:e& /u&*e&s a (e*e&al o((i$e& in (i&st *e3&ee
s.all su((e& *eat.G.
8C
!ee CAL. PENAL CO;E R 8B2.6 F>est 1665G.
85
!ee4 e.g., CAL. HEALTH S SA9ET4 CO;E RR 166.657166.66 F>est 1660G F/an*atin3 HI= testin3
(o& 0e&sons $.a&3e* %it. inte&(e&in3 %it. 0oli$e o((i$e&s %.ene:e& o((i$e&s &eHuestG.
86
!ee Ele$t&oni$ Co//uni$ations P&i:a$, A$t, 18 .S.C. 2511 F2000GL nite* States :. Leon, 10C S.
Ct. BC05 F168CG.
85
!ee >illia/s :. Poulos, 11 9.B* 251 Fl
st
Ci&. 166BG.
88
!ee4 e.g., Peo0le :. Cu&tis, C50 P.2* BB, B5 FCal. 1666G Fs0ea'in3 o( t.e 1I3Jene&al a$$e0tan$e1 +,
$ou&ts o( t.e eli/ination o( t.e &i3.t to &esist unla%(ul a&&estG.
86
!ee HER#ERT J. STORINA, >HAT THE ANTI79E;ERALISTS >ERE 9ORD THE POLITICAL
THOAHT O9 THE OPPONENTS O9 THE CONSTITTION 5B F1681G. T.e state/ents o( Ja/es
?a*ison %.en int&o*u$in3 t.e 0&o0ose* a/en*/ents to t.e Constitution +e(o&e t.e House o(
Re0&esentati:es, June 8, 1586, also su00o&t su$. a &ea*in3 o( t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts. House o(
Re0&esentati:es, June 8, 1586 ;e+ates, reprinted in THE ORIAIN O9 THE SECON; A?EN;?ENTD
A ;OC?ENTAR4 HISTOR4 O9 THE #ILL O9 RIAHTS 158571562 6C5, 655 F;a:i* E. 4oun3,
e*.G F2* e*. 1665G Fstatin3 1t.e 3&eat o+-e$t in :ie% is to li/it an* Huali(, t.e 0o%e&s o( Ao:e&n/ent1G.
60
!ee STORINA, supra note 86, at C8.
61
!ee4 e.g., ?;. CONST. o( 1556, a&t. I F*e$la&in3 t.at 1all 3o:e&n/ent o( &i3.t o&i3inates (&o/ t.e
0eo0le, is (oun*e* in $o/0a$t onl,, an* institute* solel, (o& t.e 3oo* o( t.e %.ole1GL ?ASS. CONST.
o( 1580, a&t. I F1All /en a&e +o&n (&ee an* eHual, an* .a:e $e&tain natu&al, essential, an* unaliena+le
&i3.ts1GL N.H. CONST. o( 158C, a&t. I F1All /en a&e +o&n eHuall, (&ee an* in*e0en*ent1G.
62
!ee Co,le :. Hu&tin, 10 Jo.ns. 85 FN.4. 181BG.
6B
!ee #a* El' :. nite* States, 155 .S. 526 F1600G.
6C
!ee Re2 :. Aa,, Tuin$, ?ass. Re0. 156171552 61 F?ass. 156BG Fa$Huittin3 assault *e(en*ant %.o
+eat a s.e&i(( %.en s.e&i(( atte/0te* to a&&est .i/ 0u&suant to in:ali* %a&&antG.
65
See >ol( :. Colo&a*o, BB8 .S. 25, B0 n. 1, B1 n. 2 F16C8G F$itin3 $ases u0.ol*in3 &i3.t to &esist
unla%(ul sea&$. an* sei)u&eG.
66
!ee A*a/s :. State, C8 S.E. 610 FAa. 160CG.
65
!ee ?;. CONST. o( 1556, a&t. I=L N.H. Const. o( 158C, a&t. <.
68
!ee4 e.g., State :. @ut$.a&a, B50 N.>.2* 62C, 625 F?inn. 168CG Fsa,in3 ?innesota la% *oes not
&e$o3ni)e &i3.t to &esist unla%(ul a&&est o& sea&$.GL Peo0le :. Cu&tis, C50 P.2* BB, B6 FCal. 1666G
F.ol*in3 Cali(o&nia la% 0&o.i+its (o&$e(ul &esistan$e to unla%(ul a&&estG.
66
!ee4 e.g., CAL. PENAL CO;E R 2CB F$&i/inali)in3 t.e &esistan$e, *ela, o& o+st&u$tion o( an o((i$e&
in t.e *is$.a&3e o( 1an, *ut, o( .is o((i$e1G. CAL. PENAL CO;E R 8BCFaG F1655G F1I( a 0e&son .as
'no%le*3e ... t.at .e is +ein3 a&&este* +, a 0ea$e o((i$e&, it is t.e *ut, o( su$. 0e&son to &e(&ain (&o/
usin3 (o&$e o& an, %ea0on to &esist su$. a&&est1G.
100
!ee4 e.g., nite* States :. C.a&les, 88B 9.2* B55 F5
t.
Ci&. 1686G Fe2$usin3 as .a&/less e&&o& t.e
(ailu&e o( o((i$e&s e2e$utin3 %a&&ant to .a:e t.e %a&&ant in .an* *u&in3 &ai*GL nite* States :. Ca(e&o,
C5B 9.2* C86, C66 FB* Ci&. 165BG F.ol*in3 (ailu&e to *eli:e& $o0, o( %a&&ant to t.e 0a&t, +ein3 sea&$.e*
o& sei)e* *oes not in:ali*ate sea&$. o& sei)u&e in t.e a+sen$e o( 0&e-u*i$eGL >ille(o&* :. State, 625
S.>.2* 88, 60 FTe2. A00. 1681G Fu0.ol*in3 :ali*it, o( sea&$. an* sei)u&e +e(o&e a&&i:al o( %a&&antG.
Not onl, .as t.e &eHui&e/ent t.at o((i$e&s s.o% t.ei& %a&&ant +e(o&e e2e$utin3 it +een eli/inate*, +ut
t.e &eHui&e/ent t.at o((i$e&s announ$e t.ei& aut.o&it, an* 0u&0ose +e(o&e e2e$utin3 sea&$. %a&&ants .as
+een all +ut eli/inate*. !ee Ri$.a&*s :. >is$onsin, 550 .S. B85 F1665G Feli/inatin3 &eHui&e/ent t.at
o((i$e&s +e &e(use* a*/ittan$e +e(o&e usin3 (o&$e to ente& t.e 0la$e to +e sea&$.e* in /an, $asesG.
101
!ee >illia/ A. S$.&oe*e&, $arrantless Misdemeanor (rrests and the Fourth (mendment, 58 ?O.
L. RE=. 551 F166BG F*is$ussin3 t.e e&osion o( &eHui&e/ents (o& a&&est %a&&ants in /an, -u&is*i$tionsG.
102
!ee4 e.g., Pol' :. State, 1C2 So. C80, C81 F?iss. 16B2G Fst&i'in3 *o%n statute allo%in3 %a&&antless
a&&est (o& /is*e/eano&s $o//itte* outsi*e an o((i$e&8s 0&esen$eGL E2 Pa&te R.o*es, 56 So. C62, C6276B
FAla. 1618G F.ol*in3 statute un$onstitutional %.i$. allo%e* (o& %a&&antless a&&est (o& out7o(70&esen$e
/is*e/eano&sG.
10B
!ee S$.&oe*e&, supra note 101, at 56B.
10C
!ee T.o& :. Su0e&io& Cou&t, 855 P.2* B55, B80 FCal. 166BG Fsa,in3 t.e *e:elo0in3 $onsensus
1uni(o&/l, &e$o3ni)es1 a 0atient8s &i3.t to $ont&ol .is o%n +o*,, ste//in3 (&o/ t.e 1lon37stan*in3
i/0o&tan$e in ou& An3lo7A/e&i$an le3al t&a*ition o( 0e&sonal autono/, an* t.e &i3.t o( sel(7
*ete&/ination.1G F$itations o/itte*G. 19o& sel(7*ete&/ination to .a:e an, /eanin3, it $annot +e su+-e$t
to t.e s$&utin, o( an,one else8s $ons$ien$e o& sensi+ilities.1 3d. at B85.
105
!ee ?i$.ael :. He&t)le&, 600 P.2* 11CC, 11C5 F>,o. 1665G Fstatin3 i( a statute &ea$.es a (un*a/ental
inte&est, $ou&ts a&e to e/0lo, st&i$t s$&utin, in /a'in3 *ete&/ination as to %.et.e& ena$t/ent is
essential to a$.ie:e $o/0ellin3 state inte&estG.
106
1IOnl,J t.e 3&a:est a+uses, en*an3e&in3 0a&a/ount inte&ests, 3i:e o$$asion (o& 0e&/issi+le
li/itation.1 T.o/as :. Collins, B2B .S. 516, 5B0 F16C5G. A 1$o/0ellin3 state inte&est1 is *e(ine* as
1IoJne %.i$. t.e state is (o&$e* o& o+li3e* to 0&ote$t.1 #LAC@8S LA> ;ICTIONAR4 282 F6
t.
e*.
1660G F$itin3 Cole/an :. Cole/an, 261 N.E.2* 5B0, 5BC F1652GG.
105
T.e A/e&i$an $onstitutional o&*e& 3&ants to e:e&, in*i:i*ual a 0&i:ile3e to stan* .is 3&oun* in t.e
(a$e o( a :iolent $.allen3e& an* /eet :iolen$e %it. :iolen$e. A 1*ut, to &et&eat1 e:ol:e* in so/e
-u&is*i$tions, .o%e:e&, %.e&e a *e(en*e& $onte/0lates t.e use o( deadly force. !ee >A4NE R.
LA9A=E S ASTIN >. SCOTT, CRI?INAL LA> C61 F2* e*. 1686G. #ut %it. 0oli$e, t.e $ou&ts
.a:e ne:e& i/0ose* a *ut, to &et&eat. !ee id. T.is, $o/+ine* %it. t.e &e$u&&in3 0oli$e $lai/ t.at an
atta$'e& /i3.t 3et $lose enou3. to 3&as0 t.e o((i$e&8s si*ea&/, .as /eant, in 0&a$ti$al te&/s, t.at an
o((i$e& /a, &e0el e:en a /ino& 0.,si$al t.&eat %it. *ea*l, (o&$e.
T.e e((e$t o( t.is e2$e0tion (o& la% en(o&$e/ent o((i$e&s .as +een to 3&ant an al/ost a+su&* a*:anta3e
to 0oli$e in 8sel(7*e(ense8 in$i*ents. Not onl, *o $o0s .a:e no *ut, to &et&eat, +ut t.e, see/ 0&i:ile3e*
to 'ill %.ene:e& a 0lausi+le t.&eat o( an, in-u&, /ani(ests itsel(. !ee infra, notes 11571C5, an*
a$$o/0an,in3 te2t. Co0s E unli'e t.e 3ene&al 0u+li$ E a00ea& e2$use* %.ene:e& t.e, o0en (i&e on
an in*i:i*ual %.o t.&eatens any .a&/ E e:en utte&l, nonlet.al E a3ainst t.e/, su$. as a :e&+al t.&eat
to 0un$. t.e o((i$e& $o/+ine* %it. a ste0 (o&%a&*. !ee infra, notes 12B71C5, an* a$$o/0an,in3 te2t.
108
!ee Ja/es J. 9,(e, 2olice ,se of &eadly Force6 Research and Reform4 in THE CRI?INAL
JSTICE S4STE?D POLITICS AN; POLICIES 1BC7C0 FAeo&3e 9. Cole S ?a&e A. Ae&t) e*s., 5
t.

e*. 1668G.
106
3d. at 1B5 FHuotin3 C.a0/an an* C&o$'etG.
110
!ee Peo0le :. @lein, 1B5 N.E. 1C5, 1C6 FIll. 1622G F&e0o&tin3 t.at 1nu/e&ous1 0ea$e o((i$e&s
testi(ie* t.at s.ootin3 %as t.e $usto/a&, /et.o* o( a&&estin3 s0ee*e&s *u&in3 t&ial o( 0ea$e o((i$e&
a$$use* o( /u&*e&G.
111
!ee id.L ?ille& :. Peo0le, 5C N.E. 5CB FIll. 1605G Fin:ol:in3 :illa3e /a&s.al %.o s.ot an* 'ille*
s0ee*in3 $a&&ia3e *&i:e&G.
112
!ee 9,(e, supra note 108, at 1B5.
11B
!ee id. at 1C0.
11C
!ee id. at 1C1 Fta+le s.o%in3 (atal s.ootin3s 0e& 1,000 0oli$e o((i$e&s, P.ila*el0.iaG. A stu*, o(
P.ila*el0.ia P.;. (i&ea&/ *is$.a&3es (&o/ 1650 t.&ou3. 1658 (oun* onl, t%o $ases t.at &esulte* in
*e0a&t/ental *is$i0line a3ainst o((i$e&s on *ut,. !ee id. at 1C5 n.2. One $ase in:ol:e* an o((i$e& (i&in3
unne$essa&, s.ots into t.e ai&L t.e ot.e& in:ol:e* an o((i$e& %.o s.ot an* 'ille* .is %i(e in a 0oli$e
station *u&in3 an a&3u/ent o:e& .is 0a,$.e$'. !ee id.
115
See Tennessee :. Aa&ne&, C51 .S. 1 F1685G.
116
C51 .S. 1 F1685G.
115
!ee 9,(e, supra 108, at 1B6.
118
T.e Garner *e$ision .as +een inte&0&ete* in *i((e&ent %a,s +, *i((e&ent $ou&ts an* la%7/a'in3
+o*ies. !ee ?i$.ael R. S/it., 2olice ,se of &eadly Force6 7ow %ourts and 2olicy/Ma+ers 7ave
Misapplied Tennessee v. Garner, 1 @AN. J. L. S P#. POL84, 100, 100701 F1668G. S/it. a&3ues t.at
/an, o( t.ese inte&0&etations ste/ (&o/ ina$$u&ate &ea*in3s o( Garner an* t.at lo%e& $ou&ts .a:e
(aile* to .ol* 0oli$e o((i$e&s lia+le a$$o&*in3 to t.e stan*a&* &eHui&e* +, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t. !ee id.
116
On +e.al( o( /o*e&n 0oli$e, $ou&ts .a:e a*o0te* a Huali(ie* i//unit, *e(ense to 0oli$e /is$on*u$t
$lai/s. Essentiall,, %.e&e $o0s $an -usti(, +, 0lausi+le e20lanation t.at t.ei& $on*u$t %as %it.in t.e
+oun*s o( t.ei& o$$u0ational *uties, t.e&e is a 13oo* (ait.1 *e(ense. !ee Ha&lo% :. 9it)3e&al*, C55 .S.
800 F1682GL P&o$unie& :. Na:a&ette, CBC .S. 555 F1658GL I/+le& :. Pa$.t/an, C2C .S. C06 F1656GL
>oo* :. St&i$'lan*, C20 .S. B08 F1655G. #ut as ;a:i* Ru*o:s', 0oints out, t.e 13oo* (ait.1 *e(ense
is an a&ti(i$ial in3&e*ient to no&/al to&t lia+ilit,. 1T.e stan*a&* &ule,1 notes Ru*o:s',, 1is t.at a
:iolation o( anot.e&8s &i3.ts o& t.e (ailu&e to a*.e&e to 0&es$&i+e* stan*a&*s o( $on*u$t $onstitutes
3&oun*s (o& lia+ilit,.1 ;a:i* Ru*o:s',, The %riminal 8ustice !ystem and the Role of the 2olice4 in THE
POLITICS O9 LA>D A PROARESSI=E CRITITE, 2C2, 2C8 F;a:i* @ai&,s e*., 1682G. T.e 13oo*
(ait.1 *e(ense (o& 0oli$e is t.us an a&ti(i$ial la,e& o( to&t i//unit, 0&ote$tion not no&/all, a:aila+le to
ot.e& t,0es o( liti3ants. n*e& t.e stan*a&* &ules o( to&t la%, a(te& all, a *e(en*ant8s 3oo* (ait., intent, o&
'no%le*3e o( t.e la% a&e i&&ele:ant. !ee id. at 2C8.
120
!ee S/it., supra note 118, at 115.
121
!ee id. at 106.
122
I*a.o :. Ho&iu$.i, 215 9.B* 686 F6
t.
Ci&. 2000G F@o)ins'i, J., *issentin3G.
12B
OCTO#ER 22 COALITION TO STOP POLICE #RTALIT4 ET AL., STOLEN LI=ESD @ILLE;
#4 LA> EN9ORCE?ENT B05 F2*. e*. 1666G F.e&eina(te& 1STOLEN LI=ES1G Fsa,in3 o((i$e& s.ot
an* 'ille* :i$ti/ a(te& :i$ti/ 8/a*e a /o:e8 (ollo%in3 a (oot $.aseG.
12C
!ee id. at 205 Flistin3 a 166B ?i$.i3an $aseG.
125
!ee id. at 262 F&e0o&tin3 1660 #&oo'l,n $ase in %.i$. $o0 .a* s.ot una&/e* teena3e sus0e$t in
+a$' o( .ea* (o& alle3e*l, &ea$.in3 into -a$'etG.
126
!ee id. at 250 F&e0o&tin3 1666 Ne% 4o&' $ase in %.i$. /an %as s.ot 2C ti/es +, 0oli$e %.ile
sittin3 in $a& %it. .is .an*s in t.e ai&GL id. at 252 F&e0o&tin3 s.ootin3 o( alle3e* $a& t.ie( a(te& /otion as
i( t.e, %e&e 3oin3 (o& a 3un8G.
125
!ee id. at 262 F&e0o&tin3 1660 #&on2 s.ootin3 0&e$i0itate* +, t.e *e$e*ent tu&nin3 to%a&* an o((i$e&
as o((i$e& o0ene* *oo& o( *e$e*ent8s $a+G.
128
!ee id. at 26B F&e0o&tin3 1688 Ne% 4o&' $ase initiate* %.en a *&i:e& /a*e ille3al tu&n an* en*in3
%it. 0oli$e 0u/0in3 16 +ullets into .e&G.
126
!ee id. at 262 F&e0o&tin3 1660 #&oo'l,n $ase in %.i$. *e$e*ent %as s.ot nine ti/es %.ile stan*in3
an* t%i$e in +a$' %.ile l,in3 on 3&oun*G.
1B0
!ee id. at 2C0 F&e0o&tin3 a 1668 Ne% 4o&' $aseG.
1B1
!ee id. at 2B2 F&e0o&tin3 1661 Ne% ?e2i$o $aseG.
1B2
!ee id. at 220 F&e0o&tin3 1668 Ne:a*a $aseG.
1BB
!ee id. at 26.
1BC
3d. at CC.
1B5
3d. at C6. T.e 0ossession o( a %oo*en sti$' .as $ost /o&e t.an one 0e&son .is li(e at t.e .an*s o(
0oli$e. !ee also id. at 68.
1B6
3d. at 5B.
1B5
3d. at 5B.
1B8
!ee &etroit 2olice ;ill Mentally 3ll &eaf Man, #OSTON ALO#E, Au3. B1, 2000 at A8.
1B6
!ee STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at 55.
1C0
!ee id. at 60.
1C1
!ee id. at 62.
1C2
!ee id. at 206 Flistin3 a 166B ?i$.i3an $aseG. In anot.e& ?i$.i3an $ase, a $o0 s.ot so/eone %.o
/e&el, .a* a =CR &e/ote $ont&ol in .is 0o$'et, $lai/in3 .e /istoo' it (o& a 3un. !ee id. at 205.
1CB
!ee id. at B05 Fsa,in3 Houston 0oli$e su&&oun*e* t&u$' an* (i&e* 56 ti/es at :i$ti/ as .e sat in
t&u$' .ol*in3 $an o0ene&G. No $i:ilian %itnesses sa% t.e 1s.in, o+-e$t1 F$an o0ene&G 0oli$e $lai/e*
t.e, sa%. !ee id.
1CC
Poli$e use o( t.&o%*o%n 3uns .as +een alle3e* a$&oss t.e $ount&,. Auns %.i$. a&e int&o*u$e*
%it.out a sus0e$t8s (in3e&0&ints %.en t.e, s.oul* .a:e (in3e&0&ints, an* 3uns t.at a&e (oun* +, 0oli$e
o((i$e&s a(te& an initial, su00ose*l, $o/0lete, sea&$. o( a $&i/e s$ene +, ot.e& *ete$ti:es, $an +e sai* to
&aise Huestions a+out 0oli$e use o( t.&o%7*o%n 3uns. %.f. Joe Cantlu0e S ;a:i* Hase/,e&, 2ursuit of
8ustice6 7ow !an &iego 2olice 'fficers 7andled the ;illing of 'ne of Their 'wn. 3t 3s a %ase Flawed
y 5rratic Testimony and <uestionale %onduct, SAN ;IEAO NION7TRI#NE, Se0t. 11, 166C, at
A1 F&aisin3 t.e issue in a San ;ie3o $aseG.
1C5
!ee >e+ste& :. Cit, o( Houston, 686 9.2* 1220, 1225 F5t. Ci&. 1682G.
1C6
3d. at 1222.
1C5
!ee id. at 122172B F*es$&i+in3 1*a/nin31 e:i*en$e o( o((i$ial $o:e&7u0 an* 0oli$e :in*i$ation as a
/atte& o( 0oli$,G.
1C8
!ee STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at 52. In one 1685 Los An3eles $ase, a /an %as s.ot (ou&
ti/es an* 'ille* %.en .e 0i$'e* u0 a *is$a&*e* 0us.+&oo/ to *e(le$t 0oli$e +aton +lo%s. !ee id. 52.
1C6
!ee id. at i:. In one 0a&ti$ula&l, e3&e3ious $ase, a 0oli$e 'illin3 %as u0.el* as +e,on* lia+ilit,
%.e&e o((i$e&s s.ot a s0ee*in3 t&u$'e& %.o &e(use* to sto0. !ee Cole :. #one, 66B 9.2* 1B28 F8
t.
Ci&.
166BG. #ut see4 e.g., Autie&&e)7Ro*&iHue) :. Ca&ta3ena, 882 9.2* 55B F1
st
Ci&. 1686G Fa((i&/in3 :e&*i$t
a3ainst 0lain$lot.es o((i$e&s %.o s.ot *&i:e& %.o *&o:e a%a,GL S.e&&o* :. #e&&,, 825 9.2* 165 F5
t.
Ci&.
1685G Fa((i&/in3 :e&*i$t a3ainst o((i$e&s %.o s.ot *&i:e& as *&i:e& &ea$.e* into -a$'et 0o$'et *u&in3
Huestionin3GL ?oo*, :. 9e&3uson, 5B2 9. Su00. 156 F;.S.L. 1686G F&en*e&in3 -u*3/ent a3ainst o((i$e&s
%.o s.ot *&i:e& (leein3 in :e.i$le (&o/ t&a((i$ sto0G.
150
!ee Qu$.el :. Cit, an* Count, o( ;en:e&, Colo&a*o, 665 9.2* 5B0 F10
t.
Ci&. 166BG.
151
!ee Alison L. Patton, The 5ndless %ycle of (use6 $hy =0 ,.!.%. > -.?@ 3s 3neffective in &eterring
2olice #rutality, CC HASTINAS L. J. 55B, 55C F166BG Fsa,in3 0lainti((s &a&el, %in a+sent in*e0en*ent
%itnesses o& 0.,si$al e:i*en$eG.
152
!ee Pete& L. ;a:is, Rodney ;ing and the &ecriminalization of 2olice #rutality in (merica, 5B ?;.
L. RE=. 251, 288 F166CG. P&io& to t.e 1600s, it %as not un$o//on (o& la% en(o&$e&s %.o 'ille*
sus0e$ts *u&in3 $on(&ontations to +e 0la$e* on t&ial (o& t.ei& li:es e:en %.en t.e, &ea$te* to :iolent
&esiste&s. !ee nite* States :. Ri$e, 25 9. Cas. 565 FC.C.N.C. 1855G FNo. 16,15BG Fin:ol:in3 *e0ut,
nite* States ?a&s.all on t&ial (o& /u&*e& o( ta2 e:asion sus0e$tGL State :. #&o%n, 5 ;el. F5 Ha&&.G 505
FCt. Aen. Sess. 185BG F(inin3 0ea$e o((i$e&s (o& assault an* (alse i/0&ison/entGL Conne& :.
Co//on%ealt., B #in. B8 FPa. 1810G Fin:ol:in3 a $onsta+le in*i$te* (o& &e(usin3 to e2e$ute a&&est
%a&&antG. E:en -usti$es o( t.e 0ea$e $oul* +e $&i/inall, in*i$te* (o& *e&eli$tion o( *uties. !ee
Res0u+li$a :. ?ont3o/e&,, ;all. C16 F1565G Fu0.ol*in3 :ali*it, o( a $&i/inal $.a&3e a3ainst a -usti$e
o( t.e 0ea$e %.o (aile* to su00&ess a &iotG.
15B
!ee ;a:is, supra note 152, at 260 Fnotin3 t.e .o0eless $on(li$t o( inte&est in .an*lin3 0oli$e
:iolen$e $o/0laintsG.
15C
9o& an o:e&:ie% o( t.e 0o%e&s o( ea&l, 3&an* -u&ies to a$$use 3o:e&n/ent o((i$ials, see Ro3e&
Roots, 3f 3t's *ot a Runaway4 3t's *ot a Real Grand 8ury, BB CREIAHTON L. RE=. 821 F2000G.
155
!ee Stei'e&, supra note B, at 8B6 Fsa,in3 0oli$e e2$esses su$. as +eatin3s, to&tu&e, (alse a&&ests an*
t.e t.i&* *e3&ee a&$ %ell *o$u/ente*G.
156
!ee STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at :ii.
155
!ee Inte&national Se$&eta&iat o( A/nest, Inte&national, Ne%s Release, From (laama to $yoming6
A1 %ounts of &oule !tandards B The Missing 5ntries in the ,! Report on 7uman Rights, 9e+. 25,
1666.
158
!ee STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at i:.
156
!ee id. at :.
160
Ce&tain e2a/0les *e/onst&ate. 9#I a3ents in Eli)a+et., Ne% Je&se, s.ot B8 ti/es insi*e an
a0a&t/ent to 'ill an una&/e* /an %.o t.e, (i&st t&ie* to sa, .a* (i&e* (i&st. !ee id. at 226. In 9e+&ua&,
1666, #&on2 0oli$e (i&e* C1 +ullets at an una&/e* A(&i$an i//i3&ant in .is a0a&t/ent *oo&%a,. !ee id.
at 2BC. A(te& t.is unla%(ul 'illin3, $o0s unla%(ull, sea&$.e* t.e *e$e*ent8s a0a&t/ent to -usti(,
s.ootin3, (ailin3 to (in* an, e:i*en$e o( *&u3s. !ee id. In Au3ust 1666, ?an.attan $o0s (i&e* a total o(
B5 s.ots at alle3e* &o++e& F%.o 0&o+a+l, *i* not (i&eG, in-u&in3 +,stan*e& an* sen*in3 $&o%*s (leein3.
!ee id.
161
?ost states t.at allo% t.e *eat. 0enalt, &eHui&e t.at a33&a:atin3 (a$to&s e2ist +e(o&e i/0osition o(
$a0ital 0unis./ent. !ee4 e.g., I;AHO CO;E R 1672515 F1665G Fallo%in3 *eat. 0enalt, (o& $&i/es
in:ol:in3 1es0e$iall, .einous, at&o$ious o& $&uel, Io&J /ani(estin3 e2$e0tional *e0&a:it,1 o& s.o%in3
1utte& *is&e3a&* (o& .u/an li(e1GL TE<. CRI?. P. ANN. R B5.051 F>est 1681G Flistin3 (a$to&s su$. as
%.et.e& t.e $&i/e %as 1un&easona+le in &es0onse to t.e 0&o:o$ation1GL >4O. STAT. ANN. R 6727102
F?i$.ie 1666G Fallo%in3 *eat. 0enalt, onl, u0on a (in*in3 o( a33&a:atin3 (a$to&s su$. as a $&eation o(
3&eat &is' o( *eat. to t%o o& /o&e 0e&sons o& (o& 1es0e$iall, at&o$ious o& $&uel1 $on*u$tG.
162
T.e ea&liest atte/0ts at 0&o(essionali)ation o( $onsta+les (aile* in t.e nite* States *ue to
insu((i$ien$, o( 0u+li$ (un*s. !ee Stei'e&, supra note B, at 8B1. So/e o( t.e ea&liest .S. Su0&e/e
Cou&t *e$isions &e3a&*in3 0oli$e (o&$es in:ol:e *is0utes o:e& /uni$i0al 0oli$e s0en*in3. !ee4 e.g.,
Louisiana e2 &el. Hu+e&t :. Ne% O&leans, 215 .S. 150 F1606G F&esol:in3 *is0ute o:e& *e+ts &un u0 +,
/uni$i0al 0oli$e *ist&i$tGL Ne% O&leans :. #en-a/in, 15B .S. C11 F186CG Fin:ol:in3 *is0ute o:e&
un+u*3ete* *e+ts &un u0 +, Ne% O&leans 0oli$e +oa&*GL ;ist&i$t o( Colu/+ia :. Hutton, 1CB .S. 18
F1861G F*ealin3 %it. sala&, *is0ute in:ol:in3 ;ist&i$t o( Colu/+ia 0oli$e (o&$eG.
16B
!ee 9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at B62 F166BG. ;allas 0oli$e, (o& e2a/0le, a&&este* 8,526 0eo0le in
1626 1on sus0i$ion1 +ut $.a&3e* less t.an (i:e 0e&$ent o( t.e/ %it. a $&i/e. !ee id.
16C
T.e in(a/ous $ase o( #rown v. Mississippi, 265 .S. 258 F16B6G, 0&o:i*es a 3&i/ &e/in*e& o( t.e
to&tu&e te$.niHues t.at .a:e +een e/0lo,e* u0on sus0e$ts *u&in3 t.e 0ast $entu&,. In #rown, o((i$e&s
0la$e* nooses a&oun* t.e ne$'s o( sus0e$ts, te/0o&a&il, .an3e* t.e/, an* $ut t.ei& +a$'s to 0ie$es
%it. a leat.e& st&a0 to 3ain $on(essions. 3d. at 281782.
165
9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at 151 n.20 FHuotin3 Aeo&3e S. ?$>atte&s, %.o stu*ie* Ne% 4o&'
*ete$ti:es in t.e 1850sG.
166
!ee TITS REI;, su0&a note 55, at 122 F$itations o/itte*G.
165
!ee Pete& #. @&as'a S =i$to& E. @a00ele&, Militarizing (merican 2olice6 The Rise and
*ormalization of 2aramilitary ,nits, CC SOC. PRO#S. 1, 11 F1665G.
168
One7.un*&e*7se:enteen (e*e&al, state, an* lo$al o((i$e&s %e&e 'ille* (eloniousl, in 1666 E t.e
lo%est nu/+e& sin$e 1660. !ee Sue TITS REI;, supra note 55, at 12B.
166
!ee National Institute (o& O$$u0ational Sa(et, an* Healt., :iolence in the $or+ 2lace, June 1665.
150
!ee id.
151
A00&o2i/atel, C0 0e&$ent o( 0oli$e *eat.s a&e *ue to a$$i*ents. !ee TITS REI;, supra note 55, at
12B.
152
!ee National Institute (o& O$$u0ational Sa(et, an* Healt., Fatal 3nCuries to $or+ers in the ,nited
!tates4 -.?1/-.?.6 ( &ecade of !urveillance 1C FA0&il 15, 1666GL Ro+e&t Ro$'%ell, 2olice #rutality6
More than 8ust a Few #ad (pples, RE9SE S RESIST, Au3. 1C, 1665 F*es$&i+in3 t.e 1$ulti:ation o(
t.e /,t. o( 0oli$in3 as t.e /ost *an3e&ous o$$u0ation1G.
15B
!ee id. at 1B.
15C
!ee S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 6B.
155
!ee Hall, supra note 51, at 58278B F*es$&i+in3 ea&l, $onsta+les as 1IaJ+o/ina+l, 0ai*1G.
156
%.f. STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at : Fsa,in3 %.en 0oli$e a&&i:e on t.e s$ene, t.e, o(ten
es$alate t.e situation &at.e& t.an *e(use itG.
155
!ee STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at :i.
158
!ee4 e.g., #&an*on :. Cit, o( P&o:i*en$e, 508 A.2* 86B FR.I. 1668G F(in*in3 /uni$i0alit, i//une
(&o/ lia+ilit, %.en $o0s 0&e:ente* &elati:es o( in-u&e* s.ootin3 :i$ti/ (&o/ ta'in3 :i$ti/ to t.e
.os0ital +e(o&e :i$ti/ *ie*G. !ee also Stolen Li:es, supra note 155, at B05 Fsa,in3 Tennessee 0oli$e
0&e:ente* (i&e (i3.te&s (&o/ sa:in3 :i$ti/ o( (i&e in 1665 $aseG. Ot.e& noto&ious e2a/0les $an +e $ite*,
in$lu*in3 t.e 166B >a$o (i&e Fin %.i$. (i&e t&u$'s %e&e .el* +a$' +, (e*e&al a3entsG an* t.e 1685
?O=E *e+a$le in P.ila*el0.ia in %.i$. 0oli$e *&o00e* a +o/+ on a +uil*in3 o$$u0ie* +, %o/en an*
$.il*&en an* t.en .el* +a$' (i&e (i3.te&s (&o/ &es$uin3 +u/ :i$ti/s. !ee >ILLIE L. >ILLIA?S,
TA@INA #AC@ OR STREETSD 9IAHTINA CRI?E IN A?ERICA 16 F1666G Fsa,in3 in:esti3ati:e
.ea&in3s &e:eale* $o0s .a* .el* +a$' &es$ue&s as a 8ta$ti$al *e$ision8G.
156
!ee S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 55 F$itin3 .S. Ci:il ;iso&*e& Co//ission stu*,G.
180
!ee S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 8B F*es$&i+in3 0oli$e &iots at Colu/+ia ni:e&sit, an*
Los An3elesG.
181
!ee RIAHTS IN CON9LICTD THE O99ICIAL REPORT TO THE NATIONAL CO??ISSION
ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE 22iii, 22:i F1668G.
182
!ee Jo.n ;. #essle&, The 2ulic 3nterest and the ,nconstitutionality of 2rivate 2rosecutors, C5
AR@. L. RE=. 511 F166CG Fatta$'in3 0&i:ate 0&ose$ution as un(ai&, a&+it&a&,, an* not in t.e 0u+li$
inte&estG.
18B
!ee Hall, supra note 51, at 580785 F*etailin3 ina*eHua$ies o( 0&i:ate la% en(o&$e/entG.
18C
!ee nite* States :. >on3, CB1 .S. 15C F1655G F.ol*in3 ?i&an*a &eHui&e/ents *o not a00l, to a
%itness testi(,in3 +e(o&e a 3&an* -u&,GL nite* States :. Calan*&a, C1C .S. BB8 F165CG F.ol*in3 3&an*
-u&, %itness /a, not &e(use to ans%e& Huestions on 3&oun* t.at t.e, a&e +ase* on e:i*en$e o+taine*
(&o/ unla%(ul sea&$.GL nite* States :. ;ionisio, C10 .S. 1 F165BG F.ol*in3 sei)u&e o( a 0e&son +,
su+0oena (o& 3&an* -u&, a00ea&an$e is 3ene&all, not %it.in 9ou&t. A/en*/ent8s 0&ote$tionG.
185
!ee Ri$.a&* ?. #&o%n, 7istorical 2atterns of :iolence in (merica4 in NATIONAL CO??ISSION
ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE, =IOLENCE IN A?ERICAD HISTORICAL
AN; CO?PARATI=E PERSPECTI=ES 55 FA&a.a/ S Au&&, e*. 1666G.
186
!ee State :. >al'e&, B2 ?e. 165 F1850G Fu0.ol*in3 a$tions o( t.e 0&i:ate 3&ou0G.
185
See nite* States :. >.ittie&, 28 9. Cas. 561 FC.C.E.;. ?o. 1858G.
188
!ee supra notes CB87CC5 an* a$$o/0an,in3 te2t (o& a *is$ussion o( t.e e:olution o( ent&a0/ent as a
la% en(o&$e/ent 0&a$ti$e.
186
!ee Ri$.a&* ?a2%ell #&o%n, The (merican :igilante Tradition4 in NATIONAL CO??ISSION
ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE, =IOLENCE IN A?ERICAD HISTORICAL
AN; CO?PARATI=E PERSPECTI=ES 55 FA&a.a/ S Au&&, *i&. 1666G.
160
!ee JA?ES S. CA?P#ELL, ET AL., LA> AN; OR;ER RECONSI;ERE;D REPORT O9 THE
TAS@ 9ORCE ON LA> AN; LA> EN9ORCE?ENT CC1 F1650G F*is$ussin3 su$$esses o( $iti)en
au2ilia&, units in Tueens, Ne% 4o&' an* ot.e& a&easG.
161
!ee id. CB575C F1650G F*is$ussin3 su$$esses o( $iti)en in:ol:e/ent in la% en(o&$e/entG.
162
A/e&i$an (&ontie& :i3ilantis/ 3ene&all, ta&3ete* se&ious $&i/inals su$. as /u&*e&e&s, $oa$. &o++e&s
an* &a0ists as %ell as .o&se t.ie:es, $ounte&(eite&s, outla%s, an* 8+a* /en.8 !ee NATIONAL
CO??ISSION ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE, =IOLENCE IN
A?ERICAD HISTORICAL AN; CO?PARATI=E PERSPECTI=ES 65 FA&a.a/ S Au&&, *i&. 1666G.
A&3ua+l,, su$. o((en*e&s Huali(ie* as (elons an* %oul* .a:e (a$e* t.e *eat. 0enalt, un*e& t.e $o//on
la% e:en i( /o&e $on:entional $ou&t 0&o$esses %e&e (ollo%e*. T.at su$. :i3ilante /o:e/ents o(ten
(ollo%e* &u*i/enta&, *ue 0&o$ess o( la% is atteste* +, .isto&ians su$. as Ri$.a&* ?a2%ell #&o%n,
%.o &e$ounts t.at 1:i3ilantes8 attention to t.e s0i&it o( la% an* o&*e& $ause* t.e/ to 0&o:i*e, +, t.ei&
li3.ts, a (ai& +ut s0ee*, t&ial.1 Ri$.a&* ?a2%ell #&o%n, supra note 186, at 16C. T.e no&t.e&n Illinois
Re3ulato& /o:e/ent o( 18C1, (o& e2a/0le, 0&o:i*e* a$$use* .o&se t.ie:es an* /u&*e&e&s %it. a
la%,e&, an o00o&tunit, to $.allen3e -u&o&s, an* an a&&ai3n/ent. !ee id. at 16B. At least one a$$use*
/u&*e&e& %as acquitted +, a :i3ilante $ou&t on t.e >,o/in3 (&ontie&. !ee Joe #. 9&ant), The Frontier
Tradition6 (n 3nvitation to :iolence4 in NATIONAL CO??ISSION ON THE CASES AN;
PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE, =IOLENCE IN A?ERICAD HISTORICAL AN; CO?PARATI=E
PERSPECTI=ES 1267B0 FA&a.a/ S Au&&, *i&. 1666G. ?an, a$$use* %e&e let o(( %it. %.i00in3 an*
e20ulsion &at.e& t.an e2e$ution in t.e ea&l, *e$a*es o( :i3ilante -usti$e. !ee #&o%n, supra note 186, at
16C. Less t.an .al( o( all :i3ilante 3&ou0s e:e& 'ille* an,one. !ee id. I&oni$all,, t.e /o:e +, :i3ilante
3&ou0s to%a&* 'illin3 $on:i$te* sus0e$ts +e3an in t.e 1850s, E $o&&es0on*in3 $losel, %it. t.e
/eteo&i$ &ise o( 0&o(essional 0oli$in3. !ee id.
=i3ilante /o:e/ents o$$asionall, *e:elo0e* to rescue t.e la% (&o/ $o&&u0t 0u+li$ o((i$ials %.o %e&e
:iolatin3 t.e la%. T.e $ase o( t.e :i3ilantes %.o a&&este* an* .an3e* S.e&i(( Hen&, Plu//e& o(
=i&3inia Cit,, ?ontana in 186C is su$. an e2a/0le. !ee LE> L. CALLA>A4, ?ONTANA8S
RIAHTEOS HANA?EN F1665G Fa&3uin3 t.e :i3ilantes .a* no $.oi$e +ut to ta'e t.e la% into t.ei&
o%n .an*sG.
16B
1ITJ.e >este&n (&ontie& *e:elo0e* too s%i(tl, (o& t.e $ou&ts o( -usti$e to 'ee0 u0 %it. t.e
0&o3&ession o( t.e 0eo0le.1 Joe #. 9&ant), supra note 162, at 128. =i3ilante /o:e/ents *i* little /o&e
t.an 0la, $at$.7u0 to %.at $an onl, +e *es$&i+e* as &a/0ant (&ontie& la%lessness. 9i:e7t.ousan*
%ante* /en &oa/e* Te2as in 1855. !ee id. at 128. ?a-o& $&i/es o(ten %ent totall, un0&ose$ute* an*
$ountless o((en*e&s %.ose $&i/es %e&e %ell 'no%n li:e* o0enl, %it.out (ea& o( a&&est on t.e %este&n
(&ontie&. !ee id. =i3ilantes (ille* in onl, t.e /ost 3a0in3 .oles in $ou&t -u&is*i$tion, 3ene&all, F+ut not
al%a,sG inte&:enin3 to a&&est onl, t.e 0e&0et&ato&s o( se&ious $&i/es. !ee id. an* at 1B0 Fsa,in3
1i/0&o:ise* 3&ou0 a$tion1 %as t.e onl, &eso&t (o& /an, on t.e (a& (&ontie&G.
16C
;a:i* H. #a,le, S Cli((o&* ;. S.ea&in3, The Future of 2olicing4 in THE CRI?INAL JSTICE
S4STE?D POLITICS AN; POLICIES 150, 150 FAeo&3e 9. Cole S ?a&$ A. Ae&t), e*s., 5
t.
e*. 1668G.
165
!ee id. at 151, 15C.
166
Tu$'e& Ca&lson, $ashington's 3nept 2olice Force4 >ALL ST. J., No:. B, 166B, at A16.
165
!ee SIL#ER?AN, supra note 6, at 265. Sil+e&/an 0oints out t.at Ne% 4o&' Cit, 0oli$e sol:e*
onl, t%o 0e&$ent o( &o++e&, $ases in %.i$. a %itness $oul* not i*enti(, an o((en*e& o& t.e o((en*e& %as
not $a0tu&e* at t.e s$ene. !ee id.
168
!ee id. at 266 Fsa,in3 $lea&an$e &ate *&o00e* 0&e$i0itousl, +et%een 1660 an* 1656 as 0&o0o&tion o(
$&i/es $o//itte* +, st&an3e&s in$&ease*G.
166
!ee id. F$itin3 (i3u&es &e3iste&e* +et%een 1660 an* 1656G.
200
!ee id. at 266.
201
!ee Lau&a Pa&'e& S Aa&, 9iel*s, ,nsolved ;illings on Rise6 2ercent of %ases %losed &rops From
?DE to D.E, SA TO;A4, 9e+. 22, 2000, at A1.
202
!ee id.
20B
!ee #ARR4 SCHEC@, ET AL., ACTAL INNOCENCE 155 F2000G.
20C
C28 .S. 15B F1656G F(in*in3 *eat. 0enalt, $onstitutional so lon3 as a*eHuate 0&o$e*u&es a&e
0&o:i*e* to a *e(en*antG.
205
!ee SCHEC@, supra note 20B, at 218.
206
!ee 3llinois Governor 'rders 5xecution Moratorium4 SA TO;A4, 9e+. 1, 2000, at BA.
205
!ee id.
208
!ee SCHEC@, supra note 20B, at 218 Fnotin3 an a:e&a3e o( C.6 $on*e/ne* 0eo0le 0e& ,ea& .a:e
+een set (&ee a(te& 1666, %.ile onl, 2.5 *eat. &o% in/ates 0e& ,ea& %e&e (&ee* +et%een 165B an*
166BG.
206
!ee id. at 2: Fnotin3 t.ese 5,000 e2one&ations $a/e (&o/ onl, t.e (i&st 18 t.ousan* &esults o( ;NA
testin3 at $&i/e la+o&ato&ies E a &ate o( al/ost B0P e2one&ate*G.
210
%.f. id. at 180 F*etailin3 in*i$t/ent o( (ou& o((i$e&s (o& 0e&-u&, an* o+st&u$tion o( -usti$e in t.e
%a'e o( one ;NA e2one&ationG.
211
;NA testin3 .as 0&o:en t.at at least 65 0eo0le %e&e sent to 0&ison o& *eat. &o% (o& $&i/es t.e, *i*
not $o//it. !ee id. at 2i:. T.is nu/+e& 3&o%s ea$. /ont.. !ee id.
212
%.f. ?o&3an Clou*, The &irty "ittle !ecret, CB E?OR4 L. J. 1B11, 1B11 F166CG Fsa,in3 1I0Joli$e
0e&-u&, is t.e *i&t, little se$&et o( ou& $&i/inal -usti$e s,ste/1G.
21B
!ee #RTON S. @ATQ, JSTICE O=ERRLE;D N?AS@INA THE CRI?INAL JSTICE
S4STE? 55786 F1666G.
21C
!ee SIL#ER?AN, supra note 6, at B08 F*es$&i+in3 inte&&o3ation te$.niHues o( 0oli$e as 1an a&t
(o&/ in its o%n &i3.t.1G. L,in3 o& +lu((in3 $an o(ten 0e&sua*e a sus0e$t to a*/it $&i/es to t.e 0oli$e
%.i$. %oul* not ot.e&%ise +e 0&o:en. !ee id.
215
%.f. id. F&e$ountin3 t.at an o((i$e& un*e& o+se&:ation %oul* si/0l, lie on t.e stan* i( $.allen3e* in
$ou&t a+out %.et.e& ?i&an*a %a&nin3s %e&e 3i:en +e(o&e Huestionin3 a sus0e$tG.
216
!ee Joe Cantlu0e S ;a:i* Hase/,e&, 2ursuit of 8ustice6 7ow !an &iego 2olice 'fficers 7andled
the ;illing of 'ne of Their 'wn. 3t 3s a %ase Flawed y 5rratic Testimony and <uestionale %onduct,
SAN ;IEAO NION7TRI#NE, Se0t. 11, 166C, at A1 Fe20osin3 t.at so/e o((i$e&s 3a:e (alse
testi/on, in $ase o( sus0e$te* $o07'ille&sG.
215
An*&e% Ho&%it), Ta+ing the %op 'ut of %opping a 2lea6 5radicating 2olice 2rosecution of
%riminal %ases, C0 ARIQ. L. RE=. 1B05, 1B21 F1668G FHuotin3 Je&o/e H. S'olni$'G.
218
!ee ;aniel #. >oo*, 'ne precinct stirs a criminal/Custice crisis, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE
?ONITOR, 9e+. 18, 2000, at 1.
216
!ee TITS REI;, supra note 55, at 120.
220
!ee SIL#ER?AN, supra note 6, at 2B1.
221
!ee Aa&, 9iel*s, *ew 'rleans' %rime Fight !tarted $ith 2olice, SA TO;A4, 9e+. 1, 2000, at 6A.
222
!ee Tu$'e& Ca&lson, $ashington's 3nept 2olice Force, >ALL ST. J., No:. B, 166B, at A16.
22B
!ee (use of 2ower, ;ETROIT NE>S, ?a, B, 1666.
22C
!ee La%&en$e >. S.e&/an, #ecoming #ent6 Moral %areers of %orrupt 2olicemen4 3* 1OR;ER
N;ER LA>1D REA;INAS IN CRI?INAL JSTICE 66, 10C706 F1681G F*is$ussin3 0oli$e +u&3la&,
s$an*als o( t.e 1660sG.
225
!ee >oo*, supra note 218, at 5 F$itin3 $&iti$sG.
226
!ee 9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at 15C. T.e Le2o% Co//ittee o( 186C %as 0e&.a0s t.e (i&st to
0&o+e 0oli$e /is$on*u$t in Ne% 4o&' Cit,. T.e Co//ittee (oun* t.at t.e 0oli$e .a* (o&/e* a
1se0a&ate an* .i3.l, 0&i:ile3e* $lass, a&/e* %it. t.e aut.o&it, an* t.e /a$.ine&, o( o00&ession.1 !ee
id.. >itnesses +e(o&e t.e Co//ittee testi(ie* to +&utal +eatin3s, e2to&tion an* 0e&-u&, +, Ne% 4o&'
0oli$e. !ee id. at 15C755.
225
In A0&il 166C, (o& e2a/0le, t.i&t,7t.&ee Ne% 4o&' o((i$e&s %e&e in*i$te* an* ulti/atel, $on:i$te*
o( 0e&-u&,, *&u3 *ealin3 an* &o++e&,. !ee Ja/es La&*ne&, #etter %ops. Fewer Roers, N.4. TI?ES
?AA., 9e+. 6, 1665, 00. CC752. T.e (ollo%in3 ,ea&, si2teen #&on2 0oli$e o((i$e&s %e&e in*i$te* (o&
&o++in3 *&u3 *eale&s, +eatin3 0eo0le, an* a+usin3 t.e 0u+li$. !ee id.
228
!ee Je&o/e H. S'olni$', ( !+etch of the 2oliceman's 9$or+ing 2ersonality49 in THE CRI?INAL
JSTICE S4STE?D POLITICS AN; POLICIES 116, 12B FAeo&3e 9. Cole S ?a&$ A. Ae&t) 5
t.
e*.
1668G.
226
!ee >oo*, supra note 218, at 5 FHuotin3 $&iti$sG.
2B0
%.f. TITS REI;, supra note 55, at 1157116 F*es$&i+in3 0oli$e su+$ultu&eG.
2B1
!ee 9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at 15C Fsa,in3 Ne% 4o&' 0oli$e o( t.e 1860s en3a3e* in &outine
e2to&tion o( +usinesses, $olle$tin3 'i$'+a$'s (&o/ 0us.7$a&t :en*o&s, $o&ne& 3&o$e&ies, an*
+usiness/en %.ose (la3 0oles e2ten*e* too (a& into t.e st&eetG. In C.i$a3o, 0oli$e .isto&i$all, sou3.t
1$ont&i+utions1 (&o/ saloon'ee0e&s. !ee id. at 155.
2B2
!ee4 e.g., PATRIC@ J. #CHANAN, RIAHT 9RO? THE #EAINNINA 28B78C F1660G F*etailin3
0oli$e (a:o&itis/ to%a&* one St. Louis ne%s0a0e& an* anta3onis/ to%a&* its $o/0etito&GL Jonat.an ;.
Ro$'o((, %omment %osts ;ennedy 2olice #ac+ing, PRO=I;ENCE J., A0&il 21, 2000, at 1#
F*es$&i+in3 0oli$e unions8 t.&eats to *&o0 t.ei& su00o&t (o& Re0. @enne*, *ue to @enne*,8s 0u+li$
&e/a&'sG.
2BB
!ee ;a:is, supra note 152, at B55.
2BC
!ee >asse&st&o/, supra note 50, at 26B76C n.188 F168CG Fstatin3 no one .as e:e& +een $on:i$te*
un*e& t.e statute, 18 .S.C. R 22B6G.
2B5
!ee .S. ;e08t o( Justi$e, O((i$e o( Ins0e$to& Aene&al, The F#3 "aoratory6 (n 3nvestigation into
"aoratory 2ractices and (lleged Misconduct in 5xplosives/Related and 'ther %ases FA0&il 1665G
F*etailin3 Justi$e ;e0a&t/ent8s (in*in3s o( i/0&o0&iet, at t.e 9#I C&i/e La+G.
2B6
%f. SlL#ER?AN, supra note 6, at 21171C Fo+se&:in3 t.e +e.a:io& o( $o0s on 0at&olG.
2B5
!ee id. at 215716 F$itin3 stu*, $on*u$te* in @ansas Cit, in t.e 1650sG.
2B8
%.f. id. at 215 F0ointin3 to /ountin3 $&iti$is/ o( t&a*itional a00&oa$.G. Stu*ies o( 0oli$e 0ull7o:e&s
an* si*e%al' sto0s in:a&ia+l, *e/onst&ate 0atte&ns o( e$ono/i$, &a$ial, an* so$ial *is$&i/ination as
%ell. !ee4 e.g., #&u$e Lan*is, !tate 2olice Records !upport %harges of #ias in Traffic !tops,
PRO=I;ENCE J., Se0t. 5, 1666 at 1A F&e0o&tin3 R.o*e Islan* t&a((i$ sto0 statisti$s *e/onst&ate &a$ial
+ias +, state 0oli$eG.
2B6
T.e nite* States8 8%a& on *&u3s8 is a 0e&(e$t illust&ation o( t.e *i((i$ulties o( i/0le/entin3 +&oa*7
&an3in3 so$ial 0oli$, t.&ou3. 0oli$e en(o&$e/ent /e$.anis/s. 1Not sin$e =ietna/ .aIsJ a national
/ission (aile* so /ise&a+l,.1 JI? ?CAEE S #RIAN ;994, ?AIN JSTICED THE ?EN AN;
>O?EN >HO EN9ORCE THE NATION8S CRI?INAL LA>S AN; AAR; ITS LI#ERTIES CB
F1666G. T.e (e*e&al *&u3 $ont&ol +u*3et in$&ease* (&o/ KC.B +illion in 1688 to K11.6 +illion in 1662,
,et national *&u3 su00l, in$&ease* 3&eatl, an* 0&i$es *&o00e* *u&in3 t.e sa/e 0e&io*. !ee id. at C2. T.e
$osts o( en(o&$e/ent in 166C &an3e* (&o/ K56,B56 0e& a&&estee +, t.e ;EA to K260,000 0e& a&&estee +,
t.e 9#I, %it. no 0&o3&ess /a*e at all to%a&* *e$&easin3 t.e *&u3 t&a*e. !ee id.
2C0
!ee JOHN R. LOTT, JR., ?ORE ANS, LESS CRI?ED N;ERSTAN;INA CRI?E AN; AN
CONTROL LA>S 21B n.B F1668G F$itin3 (o&t.$o/in3 0a0e&G.
2C1
So/e t%o7t.i&*s o( t.e 0u+li$ sa, t.e, .a:e a 3&eat *eal o( &es0e$t (o& t.e 0oli$e. See SH?EL
LOC@, CRI?E, P#LIC OPINION, AN; CI=IL LI#ERTIESD THE TOLERANT P#LIC 66
F1666G. Inte&estin3l,, .o%e:e&, la%,e&s a&e /o&e t.an 20 0e&$enta3e 0oints lo%e& in t.ei& 3ene&al
assess/ent o( 0oli$e. !ee id.
2C2
Pu+li$ o0inion 0olls &e0eate*l, s.o% t.at a /a-o&it, o( t.e 0u+li$ (a:o& *e$&easin3 $onstitutional
0&ote$tions. !ee4 e.g.4 id. at 6. It /ust +e note*, .o%e:e&, t.at t.e 3ene&al 0u+li$ is more in$line* t.an
la%,e&s an* t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t to (a:o& 0&ote$tin3 so/e $i:il li+e&ties. 9o& e2a/0le, C6 0e&$ent o( t.e
0u+li$ *isa00&o:es o( 0oli$e sea&$.in3 0&i:ate 0&o0e&t, +, ai& %it.out %a&&ant, %.ile onl, B5 0e&$ent o(
la%,e&s *isa00&o:e an* t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t u0.el* t.e 0&a$ti$e in ,nited !tates v. &unn, C80 .S. 26C
F1685G. !ee id. at B6. A /a-o&it, o( t.e 0u+li$ F51PG %oul* 0&o.i+it 0oli$e (&o/ sea&$.in3 one8s
3a&+a3e %it.out a %a&&ant, %.ile onl, B6 0e&$ent o( la%,e&s *isa00&o:e an* t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t u0.el*
t.e 0&a$ti$e in %alifornia v. Greenwood, C86 .S. B5 F1688G. !ee id. T.e 0u+li$ is also less in$line*
t.an la%,e&s to a00&o:e o( usin3 ille3all, o+taine* e:i*en$e to i/0ea$. a %itness. !ee id. at C5.
2CB
%.f. Illinois :. @&ull, C80 .S. BC0, B65 F1685G FO8Conno&, J., *issentin3G Fstatin3 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent &i3.ts .a:e at ti/es 0&o:e* un0o0ula& an* t.e 9&a/e&s *&a(te* t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent in
(ea& t.at (utu&e /a-o&ities /i3.t $o/0&o/ise 9ou&t. A/en*/ent :aluesG.
2CC
!ee JOHN PHILLIP REI;, IN ;E9IANCE O9 THE LA>D THE STAN;INA7AR?4
CONTRO=ERS4, THE T%o CONSTITTIONS, AN; THE CO?INA O9 THE A?ERICAN
RE=OLTION F1681G F&e$ountin3 t.e .isto&, an* $onstitutional +a$'3&oun* o( t.e stan*in37a&/,
$ont&o:e&s, t.at 0&e$e*e* t.e Re:olutionG.
2C5
THE ;ECLARATION O9 IN;EPEN;ENCE 0a&as. 12, 1B, 1C F.S. 1556G.
2C6
!ee JOHN P. REI;, supra note 2CC, at 56.
2C5
!ee id. at 56.
2C8
!ee id. at 50 F$itation o/itte*G.
2C6
!ee id. at 26 FHuotin3 t.e o&ations o( Han$o$'G.
250
In E*in+u&3. in 15B6, a unit o( to%n 3ua&*s /aintainin3 o&*e& *u&in3 t.e e2e$ution o( a $on:i$te*
s/u33le& %as 0elte* %it. stones an* /u* until so/e sol*ie&s +e3an (i&in3 %ea0ons at t.e 0o0ula$e.
!ee JOHN P. REI;, supra note 2CC, at 11C715 F&e$ountin3 t.e .isto&, an* $onstitutional +a$'3&oun* o(
t.e stan*in37a&/, $ont&o:e&s, %.i$. 0&e$e*e* t.e Re:olutionG. A(te& nine $iti)ens %e&e (oun* *ea*,
t.e $a0tain o( t.e 3ua&* %as t&ie* (o& /u&*e&, $on:i$te*, an* .i/sel( $on*e/ne* to +e .an3e*. !ee id.
>.en o((i$e&s o( t.e $&o%n in*i$ate* a %illin3ness to 0a&*on t.e $a0tain, a /o+ o( $i:ilians 1&es$ue*1
t.e $a0tain (&o/ 0&ison an* .an3e* .i/. !ee id.
251
!ee Hall, supra note 51, at 585788.
252
3d. at 585.
25B
#en C. Ro+e&ts, 'n the 'rigins and Resolution of 5nglish $or+ing/%lass 2rotest4 in NATIONAL
CO??ISSION ON THE CASES AN; PRE=ENTION O9 =IOLENCE, =IOLENCE IN
A?ERICAD HISTORICAL AN; CO?PARATI=E PERSPECTI=ES 2B8, 252 FA&a.a/ S Au&&, *i&.
1666G.
25C
JOHN P. REI;, supra note 2CC, at 80.
255
!ee id. at 65 FHuotin3 (&o/ a 1550 issue o( t.e *ew 7ampshire Gazette).
256
!ee @&as'a S @a00ele&, supra note 165, at 27B F$itin3 National Institute o( Justi$e &e0o&t *etailin3
10a&tne&s.i01 +et%een ;e(ense an* Justi$e ;e0a&t/ents in eHui00in3 0e&sonnel to 1en3a3e t.e $&i/e
%a&1G.
255
!ee >illia/ #oot., The Militarization of 'Mayerry4' >ASH. POST, June 15, 1665, at A1.
258
!ee id.
256
!ee id.
260
!ee id. FHuotin3 @&as'aG.
261
!ee @&as'a S @a00ele&, supra note 165, at 10.
262
!ee Ro3e& Roots, The (pproaching &eath of the %ollective Right Theory of the !econd (mendment,
B6 ;TESNE L. RE=. 51 F2000G.
26B
!ee id.
26C
%.f. id.
265
!ee JOHN R. LOTT, JR., ?ORE ANS, LESS CRI?ED N;ERSTAN;INA CRI?E AN; AN
CONTROL LA>S F1668G Fsu00o&tin3 a 0&o0osition $onsistent %it. t.e titleGL AAR4 @LEC@, POINT
#LAN@D ANS AN; =IOLENCE IN A?ERICA F1661G.
266
@LEC@, supra note 265, at 1117116, 1C8.
265
!ee Aeo&3e 9. >ill, (re $e a *ation of %owardsF, NE>S>EE@, No:. 15, 166B, at 6B. T.e e&&o&
&ate is *e(ine* as t.e &ate o( s.ootin3s in:ol:in3 an inno$ent 0e&son /ista'enl, i*enti(ie* as a $&i/inal.
See i*.
268
!ee ANTHON4 J. PINIQQOTTO, ET AL., .S. ;EP8T O9 JSTICE, NAT8L INST. O9 JSTICE,
IN THE LINE O9 9IRED A ST;4 O9 SELECTE; 9ELONIOS ASSALTS ON LA>
EN9ORCE?ENT O99ICERS 8 F1665G Fta+le s.o%in3 C1 0e&$ent a$$u&a$, +, 0oli$e as o00ose* to 61
0e&$ent a$$u&a$, +, t.ei& assailants %it. .an*3unsG.
266
!ee4 e.g., ?o&3an :. Cali(o&nia, 5CB 9.2* 528 F6
t.
Ci&. 168CG Fin:ol:in3 *&un' o((i$e&s %.o +a$'e*
t.ei& $a& into inno$ent $i:ilian $ou0le an* t.en +&an*is.e* 3uns to t.&eaten t.e/G.
250
!ee S.a0i&o :. Ne% 4o&' Cit, Poli$e ;e0t., 565 N.4.S.2* 86C FN.4. Su0. Ct. 166BG Fu0.ol*in3
&e:o$ation o( 0istol li$ense o( $o0 %.o t.&eatene* *&i:e&s %it. 3un *u&in3 t%o t&a((i$ *is0utesGL ?atte&
o( #eninson :. Poli$e ;e0t., 55C N.4.S.2* B05 FN.4. Su0. Ct. 1661G Fin:ol:in3 &e:o$ation o( 0istol
0e&/it o( $o0 +ase* on t%o *is0la,s o( (i&ea&/s in t&a((i$ situationsG.
251
!ee JOSHA ;RESSLER, N;ERSTAN;INA CRI?INAL LA> 255 n. BC F2* e*. 1665G F$itin3
&e:ie% o( nea&l, 500 s.ootin3sG.
252
!ee Tu$'e& Ca&lson, $ashington's 3nept 2olice Force, >ALL ST. J., No:. B, 166B, at A16.
25B
.S. CONST. a/en*. III F1No Sol*ie& s.all, in ti/e o( 0ea$e +e Hua&te&e* in an, .ouse, %it.out t.e
$onsent o( t.e O%ne&, no& in ti/e o( %a&, +ut in a /anne& to +e 0&es$&i+e* +, la%1G.
25C
!ee ?o&ton J. Ho&%it), 3s the Third (mendment 'soleteF, 26 =ALPARAISO . L. RE=. 206, 21C
F1661G Fstatin3 t.e T.i&* A/en*/ent /i3.t .a:e 0&o*u$e* a $onstitutional +a& to stan*in3 a&/ies in
0ea$eti/e i( 0u+li$ anti0at., to%a&* stan*in3 a&/ies .a* &e/aine* intense o:e& ti/eG.
255
!ee id.
256
B JOSEPH STOR4, CO??ENTARIES ON THE CONSTITTION O9 THE NITE; STATES
5C57C8 F18BBG Fe/0.asis a**e*G.
255
9o& a %ell7%&itten lo$al .isto&, o( t.is $on(li$t, see HENR4 #LAC@?AN PL?#, HISTOR4 O9
HANO=ER TO>NSHIP 12171C0 F1885G.
258
!ee id.
256
!ee id. at 125726.
280
!ee id. at 1B0.
281
!ee id. at 1B8 Fa**in3 t.at t.ose $on:i$te* 1%e&e allo%e* easil, to es$a0e, an* no (ines %e&e e:e&
atte/0te* to +e $olle$te*1G.
282
!ee4 e.g., JA?ES #O=AR;, 9REE;O? IN CHAINSD THE RISE O9 THE STATE AN; THE
;E?ISE O9 THE CITIQEN F1666G F0&esentin3 a t.esis in line %it. t.e titleGL JA?ES #O=AR;,
LOST RIAHTSD THE ;ESTRCTION O9 A?ERICAN LI#ERT4 F166CG F*etailin3 A/e&i$a8s loss o(
(&ee*o/G.
28B
!ee Ol/stea* :. nite* States, 255 .S. CB8, C58 F1628G F#&an*eis, J., *issentin3G Fsa,in3 t.e &i3.t
to +e let alone is 1t.e /ost $o/0&e.ensi:e o( &i3.ts an* t.e &i3.t /ost :alue* +, $i:ili)e* /an.1G.
28C
%.f. Ste0.en ;. ?ast&o(s'i, et al., The 7elping 7and of the "aw6 2olice %ontrol of %itizens on
Request, B8 CRI?INOLOA4 B05 F2000G F*etailin3 stu*, (in*in3 o((i$e&s a&e li'el, to use t.ei& 0o%e&
to $ont&ol $iti)ens at /e&e &eHuest o( ot.e& $iti)ensG.
285
.S. CONST. a/en*. I=.
286
!ee4 e.g., ?a&,lan* ?ino&it,, (ddress to the 2eople of Maryland, ?a&,lan* Aa)ette, ?a, 6, 1588,
reprinted in THE ORIAIN O9 THE SECON; A?EN;?ENT, supra note 86, at B56, B58 Fstatin3 t.at
an a/en*/ent 0&ote$tin3 0eo0le (&o/ un&easona+le sea&$. an* sei)u&e %as $onsi*e&e* in*is0ensa+le
+, /an, %.o o00ose* t.e ConstitutionG.
285
!ee4 e.g., A@HIL R. A?AR, THE CONSTITTION AN; CRI?INAL PROCE;RED 9IRST
PRINCIPLES 17C5 F1665G. A/a& a&3ues t.at t.e A/en*/ent la,s *o%n onl, a (e% 1(i&st 0&in$i0les1 E
na/el, 1t.at all sea&$.es an* sei)u&es /ust +e &easona+le, t.at %a&&ants Fan* onl, %a&&antsG al%a,s
&eHui&e 0&o+a+le $ause, an* t.at t.e o((i$ial*o/ s.oul* +e .el* lia+le (o& un&easona+le sea&$.es an*
sei)u&es.1 3d. at 1.
288
!ee4 e.g., Ri$.a&* A. Posne&, Rethin+ing the Fourth (mendment, 1681 SP. CT. RE=. C6 Fa&3uin3
t.at t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent s.oul* not 0&o:i*e a 3uilt, $&i/inal %it. an, &i3.t to a:oi* 0unis./entG.
286
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at B715 Fa&3uin3 t.e 9&a/e&s inten*e* no %a&&ant &eHui&e/entG.
260
!ee id.
261
!ee Cali(o&nia :. A$e:e*o, 500 .S. 565, 581 F1661G FS$alia, J., $on$u&&in3G F&e(e&en$in3 A/a&8s
$lai/s (o& su00o&tG. Ten ,ea&s ea&lie&, in Roins v. %alifornia, C5B .S. C20 F1681G, Justi$e Re.nHuist
$ite* a 1666 +oo' +, P&o(esso& Tel(&e* Ta,lo& E A/a&8s 0&e*e$esso& in t.e a&3u/ent t.at t.e 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent8s te2t &eHui&es onl, an a* .o$ test o( &easona+leness E (o& t.e sa/e 0&o0osition. 3d. at CB5
FRe.nHuist, J., *issentin3G.
262
!ee4 e.g., Hulit :. State, 682 S.>.2* CB1, CB6 FTe2. C&i/. A00. 1668G F$itin3 A/a& (o& 0&o0osition
t.at 9ou&t. A/en*/ent &eHui&es no %a&&antsG.
26B
!ee4 e.g., ?a2 #oot, Out o( O&*e&D A&&o3an$e, Co&&u0tion, an* In$o/0eten$e on t.e #en$. 66
F1668G F&e$itin3 t.e A/a&NTa,lo& t.esis %it.out &ese&:ationG.
26C
Sin$e t.e a**ition o( Justi$e Re.nHuist to t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t, t.e Cou&t .as t&a:ele* (a& *o%n t.e
&oa* to%a&* e-e$tin3 t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent. !ee generally >asse&st&o/, supra note 50. T.e Cou&t .as
in$&easin3l, ten*e* to a*o0t a /e&e +alan$in3 test, 0ittin3 t.e $iti)en8s 19ou&t. A/en*/ent inte&ests1
F&at.e& t.an .is 1&i3.ts1G a3ainst 1le3iti/ate 3o:e&n/ental inte&ests.1 !ee4 e.g., ;ela%a&e :. P&ouse, CC0
.S. 6C8, 65C F1656G.
265
In nite* States :. C.a*%i$', CBB .S. 1, 6 F1655G, t.e nite* States Justi$e ;e0a&t/ent /ounte* a
1(&ontal atta$'1 on t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent an* a&3ue* t.at t.e %a&&ant $lause o( t.e 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent 0&ote$te* onl, 1inte&ests t&a*itionall, i*enti(ie* %it. t.e .o/e.1 A$$o&*in3l,, t.e Justi$e
;e0a&t/ent %oul* .a:e eli/inate* %a&&ants in e:e&, ot.e& settin3.
266
%ompare Ho%a&* :. L,on, 1 Root 105 FConn. 1585G Fin:ol:in3 $onsta+le %.o o+taine* 1es$a0e
%a&&ant1 to &e$a0tu&e an es$a0e* 0&isone& an* e:en .a* t.e %a&&ant 1&ene%e*1 in R.o*e Islan* %.e&e
0&isone& (le*G, and #&o/le, :. Hut$.ins, 8 =t. 68 F18B6G Fu0.ol*in3 *a/a3es a3ainst a *e0ut, s.e&i((
%.o a&&este* an es$a0ee %it.out %a&&ant outsi*e t.e *e0ut,8s -u&is*i$tionG, with nite* States :.
>atson, C2B .S. C11 F1656G Fallo%in3 %a&&antless a&&est o( /ost sus0e$ts in 0u+li$ so lon3 as
0&o+a+le $ause e2istsG.
265
!ee ?o&3an Clou*, !earching through 7istoryG !earching for 7istory, 6B . CHI. L. RE=. 1505,
151B F1666G F$itin3 t.e e2.austi:e &esea&$. o( >illia/ Cu**i., (o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at s0e$i(i$
%a&&ants %e&e &eHui&e* at 9oun*in3G.
268
A?AR, supra note 285, at 5.
266
1 Conn. C0 F181CG.
B00
!ee id. at CC.
B01
B ;a, 1, B FConn. 1805G.
B02
156171552 Tuin$, ?ass. Re0o&ts F156BG. Pe&.a0s A/a&8s state/ent $an +e &ea* as a $o//enta&,
on t.e *ea&t. o( o&i3inalist s$.ola&s.i0 a/on3 t.ose %.o su00o&t st&on3 0&ote$tions (o& $&i/inal
sus0e$ts an* *e(en*ants. 1O&i3inalis/1 as a /eans o( $onstitutional inte&0&etation is not al%a,s
*e(ina+le in a sin3le %a,, an* 1o&i3inalists1 /a, o(ten $ont&a*i$t ea$. ot.e& as to t.ei& inte&0&etation o(
3i:en $ases. !ee Ri$.a&* S. @a,, 9'riginalist9 :alues and %onstitutional 3nterpretation, 16 HAR=. J.L.
S P#. POL84 BB5 F1665G. P&o(esso& @a, .as i*enti(ie* (ou& *istin$t inte&0&eti:e /et.o*s as +ein3
1o&i3inalist1 E an, t%o o( %.i$. /i3.t 0&o*u$e *i((e&in3 $on$lusionsD 1G o&i3inal te2t, 2G o&i3inal
intentions, BG o&i3inal un*e&stan*in3, an* CG o&i3inal :alues. !ee id. at BB6. T.is +ein3 $on$e*e*,
o&i3inalis/ .as 3ene&all, +een t.e *o/ain o( 1$onse&:ati:e1 -u&ists (o& t.e 0ast 3ene&ation, (uele* +,
&ea$tions to t.e /et.o*s o( a*-u*i$ation e/0lo,e* +, t.e >a&&en Cou&t. !ee id. at BB5.
B0B
6 N.H. 2B6 F18B8G.
B0C
B #in. B8, CB FPa. 1810G.
B05
A*/itte*l,, t%o o( A/a&8s $ite* $ases 0&esent t&ou+lin3 state/ents o( t.e la%. T.e &ule o( A/a&8s
(i&st $ase, 8ones v. Root, 52 ?ass. CB5 F1856G, is so/e%.at *i((i$ult to *is$e&n. Alt.ou3. t.e $ase /a,
+e &ea* as a total &e-e$tion o( &eHui&e* %a&&ants Fas A/a& $onten*s, supra note 285, at C75 n.10G, it /a,
also +e &ea* as an a*o0tion o( t.e 1in t.e 0&esen$e1 e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent 'no%n to t.e
$o//on la%. T.e $ou&t8s o0inion is no /o&e t.an a 0a&a3&a0. lon3 an* /e&el, u0.ol*s t.e inst&u$tion
o( a lo%e& $ou&t t.at a statute allo%in3 %a&&antless sei)u&e o( liHuo&s %as $onstitutional. 8ones, 52
?ass. at CB6. T.e o0inion also u0.el* t.e use o( an illust&ation +, t.e t&ial -u*3e t.at su33este* t.e
sei)u&e %as si/ila& to a sei)u&e o( stolen 3oo*s o+se&:e* in the presence o( an o((i$e&. !ee id. at CB5.
A se$on* $ase /a, also +e &ea* to /ean t.at t.e 3o:e&n/ent /a, sea&$. an* sei)e %it.out %a&&ant, +ut
/i3.t also +e &ea* as enun$iatin3 t.e 1+&ea$. o( 0ea$e1 e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent. Mayo v.
$ilson, 1 N.H. 5B F1815G in:ol:e* a to%n t,t.in3/an %.o sei)e* a %a3on an* .o&ses o( an a00a&ent
tea/ste& en3a3e* in $o//e&$ial *eli:e&, on t.e Sa++at., in :iolation o( a Ne% Ha/0s.i&e statute.
A/a& Huotes Mayo's 0&onoun$e/ent t.at t.e Ne% Ha/0s.i&e 9ou&t.7A/en*/ent eHui:alent 1*oes not
see/ inten*e* to &est&ain t.e le3islatu&e ...1 #ut else%.e&e in t.e o0inion, t.e Ne% Ha/0s.i&e Su0&e/e
Cou&t state* t.at an a&&est required a 1%a&&ant in la%1 E eit.e& a /a3ist&ate8s %a&&ant, o& e2$usal +, t.e
$o//ission o( a (elon, o& +&ea$. o( 0ea$e. Mayo, 1 N.H. at 56. 1I#Jut i( t.e a((&a, +e o:e&, t.e&e must
e an express warrant.9 3d. Fe/0.asis a**e*G. Not /u$. su00o&t (o& A/a&8s t.esis t.e&e.
Mayo %as *e$i*e* onl, (ou&teen ,ea&s a(te& t.e *a%n o( -u*i$ial &e:ie% in Marury v. Madison4 A .S.
1B5 F180BG, *u&in3 an e&a %.en t.e $onstitutional inte&0&etations o( le3islatu&es %e&e t.ou3.t to .a:e
eHual %ei3.t to t.e inte&0&etations o( t.e -u*i$ia&,. %f. HENR4 J. A#RAHA?, THE J;ICIAL
PROCESS BB57C0 F5
t.
e*. 1668G F*es$&i+in3 t.e slo% a*:ent o( t.e $on$e0t o( -u*i$ial &e:ie%G. In*ee*,
t.e (i&st a$t o( a state le3islatu&e to +e *e$la&e* un$onstitutional $a/e onl, se:en ,ea&s ea&lie&, see
9let$.e& :. Pe$', 10 .S. 85 F1810G, an* t.e (i&st state $ou&t *e$ision in:ali*ate* +, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t
.a* $o/e onl, one ,ea& ea&lie&. !ee ?a&tin :. Hunte&8s Lessee, 1C .S. B0C F1816G. T.e :e&, .ea&t o(
t.e Mayo *e$ision t.at A/a& &elies on Ft.e 0&o0osition t.at state le3islatu&es .a:e $on$u&&ent 0o%e& o(
$onstitutional &e:ie% %it. t.e -u*i$ia&,G %as so t.o&ou3.l, *is$&e*ite* soon a(te&%a&* t.at A/a&8s
e2t&a0olation t.at 9oun*in3 e&a $ou&ts *i* not &eHui&e %a&&ants see/s e2$ee*in3l, (a&7(et$.e*.
As -u*i$ial &e:ie% 3at.e&e* san$tion, t.e *o$t&ine a00a&entl, enun$iate* in Mayo +e$a/e in$&easin3l,
*is$&e*ite*. !ee E2 Pa&te R.o*es, 56 So. C62 FAla. 1618G Fsa,in3 1ItJ.e&e is not to +e (oun* a sin3le
aut.o&it,, *e$ision, o& te2t+oo', in t.e li+&a&, o( t.is $ou&t, t.at san$tions t.e *o$t&ine t.at t.e
le3islatu&e, a /uni$i0alit,, o& Con3&ess $an *ete&/ine %.at is a 8&easona+le8 a&&est1G.
B06
A/a& $ites si2 $ases Fall &e(e&&e* to in ,nited !tates v. $atson, C2B .S. C11 F1656GG, as stan*in3
(o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at state 9ou&t. A/en*/ent eHui:alents *i* not 0&esu/e a %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent.
A?AR, supra note 285, at 5 n. l1. T.e (i&st $ase, !tate v. #rown, 5 ;el. F5 Ha&&.G 505 FCt. Aen. Sess.
185BG, is *i((i$ult to &e$on$ile %it. A/a&8s t.esis t.at ante+ellu/ $ou&ts &e$o3ni)e* no %a&&ant
&eHui&e/ent. #rown u0.el* a criminal :e&*i$t a3ainst a ni3.t %at$./an %.o ente&e* a &esi*en$e in
0u&suit o( a (leein3 $.i$'en t.ie( an* instea* (alsel, a&&este* E %it.out %a&&ant E t.e 0&o0&ieto&. T.e
se$on* $ase $ite* +, A/a&, 8ohnson v. !tate, B0 Aa. C26 F1860G, si/0l, u0.el* a 3uilt, :e&*i$t a3ainst
a /an %.o s.ot a 0oli$e/an *u&in3 a %a&&antless a&&est (o& +ein3 an a$$o/0li$e to a (elon,. T.e
Aeo&3ia Su0&e/e Cou&t &e0eate* t.e $o//on la% e2$e0tion allo%in3 t.at an o((i$e& /a, a&&est (elons
%it.out %a&&ant. T.e t.i&* $ase, #altimore H '. R.R. %o. v. %ain, 81 ?*. 85, B1 A. 801 F1865G, /e&el,
&e:e&se* a $i:il -u&, :e&*i$t (o& an a&&estee on 3&oun*s t.at t.e a00ellant &ail&oa* $o/0an, %as entitle*
to a -u&, inst&u$tion allo%in3 (o& a +&ea$.7o(70ea$e e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent. T.e (ou&t.
$ase, Reuc+ v. McGregor, B2 N.J.L. 50 FSu0. Ct. 1866G, &e:e&se* a $i:il :e&*i$t on 3&oun*s o( e2$essi:e
*a/a3es E %.ile upholding civil liaility (o& $ausin3 %a&&antless a&&est o( an a00a&entl, %&on3l,7
a$$use* t.ie(. 7olley v. Mix, B >en*. B50 FN.4. Su0. Ct. 1826G, A/a&8s (i(t. $ase, o((e&s little su00o&t
(o& A/a&8s t.esis. 7olley u0.el* a $i:il -u*3/ent a3ainst a 0&i:ate 0e&son an* an o((i$e& %.o a&&este* a
sus0e$t 0u&suant to an in:ali* %a&&ant. 9inall,, $ade v. %haffee, 8 R.I. 22C F1865G, si/0l, .el* t.at a
$onsta+le %as not +oun* to 0&o$u&e a %a&&ant %.e&e .e .a* 0&o+a+le $ause to +elie:e an a&&estee %as
3uilt, o( a (elon,, e:en t.ou3. no (ea& o( es$a0e %as 0&esent.
B05
A/a& $ites (ou& $ases as stan*in3 (o& t.e 0&o0osition t.at state $ou&ts inte&0&ete* t.ei& state
$onstitutional 0&e*e$esso&s o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent8s te2t as &eHui&in3 no %a&&ants (o& sea&$.es o&
sei)u&es. A?AR, su0&a note 285, at 5 n.10. 8ones v. Root, 52 ?ass. F6 A&a,G CB5 F1856G, u0.el* a
?assa$.usetts 1no7%a&&ant1 statute in a one70a&a3&a0. o0inion e20laine* supra note B06. In Rohan v.
!awin, 56 ?ass. F5 Cus..G 281 F1850G, ?assa$.usetts8 .i3.est $ou&t (oun* t.at a %a&&antless a&&est
Huali(ie* un*e& t.e 1(elon1 e2$e0tion to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent. Mayo v. $ilson, 1 N.H. 5B F1815G, is
*es$&i+e* supra note B06.
9inall,, t.e 181C Penns,l:ania $ase o( $a+ely v. 7art4 D #inn. B16 FPa. 181CG, &esol:e* a $i:il suit
+&ou3.t +, an a$$use* t.ie( F>a'el,G a3ainst .is a&&este&s u0on 3&oun*s t.at t.e a&&est .a* +een
%a&&antless an* >a'el, .a* +een 3uilt, onl, o( a /is*e/eano&. T.e Penns,l:ania Su0&e/e Cou&t
u0.el* a -u&,8s :e&*i$t (o& t.e a&&este&s, u0on t.e &at.e&7(u*3e* (in*in3 t.at >a'el, .a* (le* (&o/ t.e
$.a&3es a3ainst .i/ an* .a* +een 3uilt, o( at least 1an o((en$e %.i$. a00&oa$.es :e&, nea& to a
(elon,,1 i( not an a$tual (elon,. $a+ely, 6 #inn. at B16720.
B08
!ee E&i$ S$.na00e&, ,nreasonale !earches and !eizures of 2apers, 51 =A. L. RE=. 866, 85C
F1685G Fsa,in3 t.e sea&$. an* sei)u&e $lause o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent 1e/+o*ies &eHui&e/ents
in*e0en*ent o( t.e %a&&ant $lause1 +ut %.i$. %e&e /o&e st&i$t at 9oun*in3 t.an %a&&ant &eHui&e/entG.
B06
!ee >il'es :. >oo*, 16 Ho%ell8s State T&ials 115B, 1165 F$.0. 156BG Fstatin3 1a -u&, .a:e it in t.ei&
0o%e& to 3i:e *a/a3es (o& /o&e t.an t.e in-u&, &e$ei:e*1G.
B10
!ee S$.na00e&, supra note B08, at 615 F&e(e&&in3 to #oyd v. ,nited !tates, 116 .S. 616 F1886GG.
#oyd's 0&o0osition %as slo%l, %ate&e* *o%n an* *istin3uis.e* until t.e $ase o( (ndresen v. Maryland
(inis.e* it o((. An*&esen :. ?a&,lan*, C25 .S. C6B F1656G F.ol*in3 t.at +usiness *o$u/ents
e:i*en$in3 (&au*ulent &eal estate *ealin3s $oul* +e $onstitutionall, sei)e* +, %a&&antG.
B11
!ee Aoule* :. nite* States, 255 .S. 268 F1621G F0&onoun$in3 1/e&e e:i*en$e1 &ule, %.i$. stoo*
(o& /o&e t.an C5 ,ea&sG.
B12
!ee S$.na00e&, supra note B08, at 62B726.
B1B
!ee >a&*en :. Ha,*en, B85 .S. 26C F1665G F.ol*in3 t.at 0oli$e $an o+tain e:en in*i&e$t e:i*en$e
+, use o( sea&$. %a&&antsG. 7ayden o:e&tu&ne* at least (i:e 0&e:ious Su0&e/e Cou&t *e$isions +,
*e$la&in3 t.at 10&i:a$,1 &at.e& t.an 0&o0e&t, %as t.e 10&in$i0le o+-e$t o( t.e 9ou&t. A/en*/ent.1 3d. at
266 n.l, B0C.
B1C
!ee 9&is+ie :. #utle&, 1 @i&+, 21B FConn. 1585G.
B15
!ee4 e.g., Ste:ens :. 9assett, 25 ?e. 266 F18C5G Fin:ol:in3 *e(en*ant %.o .a* o+taine* t%o a&&est
%a&&ants a3ainst 0lainti(( %it.out o((i$e& assistan$eGL State :. ?$Alliste&, 25 ?e. C60 F18C5G Fin:ol:in3
$&i/e :i$ti/ %.o s%o&e out %a&&ant a((i*a:it a3ainst alle3e* assailantGL State :. J.H., 1 T,l. CCC F=t.
1802G FHuas.in3 $&i/inal $.a&3e 3aine* +, uns%o&n $o/0laint o( 0&i:ate in*i:i*ualG.
B16
!ee Hu/es :. Ta+e&, 1 RI. C6C F1850G Fin:ol:in3 sea&$. +, s.e&i(( a$$o/0anie* +, 0&i:ate 0e&sonsG.
B15
!ee @i/+all :. ?unson, 2 @i&+, FConn.G B F1586G Fu0.ol*in3 $i:il *a/a3es a3ainst t%o /en %.o
a&&este* sus0e$t %it.out %a&&ant to o+tain &e%a&*G.
B18
!ee >asse&st&o/, supra note 50, at 286.
B16
T.e 9&a/e&s &e3a&*e* 0&i:ate 0e&sons a$tin3 un*e& $olo& o( 10u+li$ aut.o&it,1 to +e su+-e$t to
$onstitutional $onst&aints li'e t.e 0&os$&i0tion a3ainst *ou+le -eo0a&*,..!ee Ste:ens :. 9assett, 25 ?e.
266 F18C5G F.ol*in3 0&i:ate 0&ose$uto&s %e&e 0&o.i+ite* (&o/ t%i$e 0uttin3 a *e(en*ant in -eo0a&*, (o&
t.e sa/e o((enseG.
B20
256 .S. C65 F1621G.
B21
#urdeau v. Mc&owell in:ol:e* a $o&0o&ate o((i$ial F?$;o%ellG %.o %as (i&e* +, .is e/0lo,e& (o&
(inan$ial /al(easan$e at %o&'. A(te& ?$;o%ell8s te&/ination, $o/0an, &e0&esentati:es &ai*e* .is
o((i$e, o0ene* .is sa(e, an* &i(le* t.&ou3. .is 0a0e&s. !ee id. at C5B. 0on (in*in3 in$&i/inatin3
e:i*en$e a3ainst ?$;o%ell, $o/0an, &e0&esentati:es ale&te* t.e nite* States Justi$e ;e0a&t/ent an*
tu&ne* o:e& $e&tain 0a0e&s to t.e 3o:e&n/ent. A *ist&i$t -u*3e o&*e&e* t.e stolen 0a0e&s &etu&ne* to
?$;o%ell +e(o&e t.e, $oul* +e seen +, a 3&an* -u&,. T.e Su0&e/e Cou&t &e:e&se*, statin3 t.e 9ou&t.
A/en*/ent 1%as inten*e* as a &est&aint u0on t.e a$ti:ities o( so:e&ei3n aut.o&it,, an* %as not
inten*e* to +e a li/itation u0on ot.e& t.an 3o:e&n/ental a3en$ies.1 3d. at C55.
B22
!ee Clou*, supra note 265, at 1516 F*is$ussin3 t&ansition *u&in3 ea&l, 1500s (&o/ $on$e0t t.at 8a
/an8s .ouse is .is $astle Fe2$e0t a3ainst t.e 3o:e&n/entG8 to t.e le3al a*a3e t.at 8a /an8s .ouse is .is
$astle Fes0e$iall, a3ainst t.e 3o:e&n/entG8G.
B2B
?assa$.usetts an* =e&/ont a00a&entl, &eHui&e* t.at onl, 0u+li$ o((i$e&s e2e$ute sea&$. %a&&ants in
t.e ea&l, nineteent. $entu&,. !ee Co//on%ealt. :. 9oste&, 1 ?ass. C88 F1805G F.ol*in3 -usti$e o(
0ea$e .a* no aut.o&it, to issue a %a&&ant to a 0&i:ate 0e&son to a&&est a $&i/inal sus0e$tGL State :. J.H.,
1 T,l. CCC F=t. 1802G.
B2C
!ee #issell :. #issell, B N.H. 520 F1826G.
B25
See ;imall v. Munson, %.i$. u0.el* $i:il *a/a3es a3ainst t%o /en %.o a&&este* an alle3e* .o&se
t.ie( %it.out %a&&ant in &es0onse to a $onsta+le8s &e%a&* o((e&. 2 @i&+, B FConn. 1586G. @i/+all
su33este* t.e t%o 0&i:ate 0e&sons %oul* .a:e +een 0&ote$te* (&o/ lia+ilit, .a* t.e, se$u&e* a %a&&ant
soon a(te& t.ei& a&&est o( t.e sus0e$t. !ee also 9&is+ie :. #utle&, 1 @i&+, 21B FConn. 1585G Fa00l,in3
s0e$i(i$it, &eHui&e/ent to sea&$. %a&&ant issue* to 0&i:ate 0e&sonG.
B26
!ee ;el Col :. A&nol*, B .S. FB ;all.G BBB F1566G F.ol*in3 t.at 10&i:atee&s1 on t.e o0en seas %.o
$a0tu&e ille3al :essels un*e& t.e aus0i$es o( 3o:e&n/ent aut.o&it, a$t at t.ei& o%n 0e&il an* /a, +e
.el* lia+le (o& all *a/a3es to t.e $a0tu&e* :essels E e:en %.e&e t.e $a0tu&e* :essels a&e en3a3e* in
$&i/es on t.e .i3. seasG.
B25
!ee Hu/es :. Ta+e&, 1 R.I. C6C F1850G
B28
!ee ?el:in :. 9is.e&, 8 N.H. C06, C05 F18B6G Fsa,in3 1.e %.o $auses anot.e& to +e a&&este* +, a
%&on3 na/e is a t&es0asse&, e:en i( t.e 0&o$ess %as inten*e* to +e a3ainst t.e 0e&son a$tuall, a&&este*G.
B26
!ee Holle, :. ?i2, B >en*. B50 FN.4. 1826G.
BB0
!ee @i/+all :. ?unson, 2 @i&+, B FConn. 1586G F(aultin3 t%o a&&esto&s (o& (ailin3 to o+tain a 0&o0e&
%a&&ant i//e*iatel, a(te& t.ei& %a&&antless a&&est o( a sus0e$te* (elonGL @not :. Aa,, 1 Root 66, 65
FConn. 155CG Fstatin3 %a&&antless a&&est is 0e&/itte* 1%.e&e an .i3..an*e* o((ense .a* +een
$o//itte*, an* an i//e*iate a&&est +e$a/e ne$essa&,, to 0&e:ent an es$a0e1G.
BB1
!ee >a*e :. C.a((ee, 8 R.I. 22C FR.I. 1865G F.ol*in3 a $onsta+le is not +oun* to 0&o$u&e a %a&&ant
+e(o&e a&&estin3 a (elon e:en t.ou3. t.e&e /a, +e no &eason to (ea& t.e es$a0e o( t.e (elonG.
BB2
!ee4 e.g., Oleson :. Pin$o$', 251 P. 2B, 25 Fta. 1626GL #u&&ou3.s :. East/an, 56 N.>. 815 F?i$..
186CGL ?innesota :. Cantien,, 2C N.>. C58 F?inn. 1885GL >illia/ A. S$.&oe*e&, $arrantless
Misdemeanor (rrests and the Fourth (mendment, 58 ?o. L. RE=. 560761 F166BG.
BBB
!ee S$.&oe*e&, supra note 101, at 58C n.1C716 Flistin3 ei3.t -u&is*i$tions allo%in3 su$. a&&estsG.
BBC
#ut see id. at 561 n.B6 Flistin3 (ou& $ases t.at .a:e .el* %a&&antless a&&ests (o& $&i/es $o//itte*
outsi*e an o((i$e&8s 0&esen$e un$onstitutionalG.
BB5
!ee id. at 556781 n.1B F0&o:i*in3 t%o 0a3es o( statuto&, 0&o:isions allo%in3 %a&&antless a&&est (o&
*o/esti$ :iolen$e an* ot.e& s0e$i(i$ /is*e/eano&sG.
BB6
!ee >els. :. >is$onsin, C66 .S. 5C0 F168CG F&eHui&in3 %a&&ant to (o&$i+l, ente& a .o/e to a&&est
so/eone insi*e (o& a /is*e/eano& t&a((i$ o((enseGL Pa,ton :. Ne% 4o&', CC5 .S. 55B, 586 F1680G
F&eHui&in3 %a&&ant to (o&$i+l, ente& a .o/e to a&&est a sus0e$te* (elon unless e2i3ent $i&$u/stan$es
0&e:ailG.
BB5
!ee nite* States :. >atson, C2B .S. C11, C12 F1656G. $atson &e0&esents one o( t.e sta&'est
&e*&a%in3s o( sea&$. an* sei)u&e la% e:e& 0&onoun$e* +, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t. Essentiall,, t.e Cou&t
*e$la&e* t.at o((i$e&s /a, a&&est %it.out %a&&ant %.e&e:e& t.e, .a:e 0&o+a+le $ause. Justi$e T.u&3oo*
?a&s.all &elease* a +liste&in3 *issent a$$usin3 t.e /a-o&it, o( +et&a,in3 t.e 1t.e onl, $lea& lesson o(
.isto&,1 t.at t.e $o//on la% 1$onsi*e&e* t.e a&&est %a&&ant (a& /o&e i/0o&tant t.an to*a,8s *e$ision
lea:es it.1 3d. at CC2 F?a&s.all, J., *issentin3G.
BB8
nite* States :. Hensle,, C66 .S. 221, 226 F1685G.
BB6
!ee Conne& :. Co//on%ealt., B #in. B8, C27CB FPa. 1810G Finsistin3 t.at 0u+li$ sa(et, alone
-usti(ies e2$e0tions to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/entG.
BC0
!ee Tennessee :. Aa&ne&, C51 .S. 1, 1C F1685G. T.e nu/+e& o( $&i/es $onsi*e&e* (elonies :a&ie*
3&eatl, a$$o&*in3 to lo$ation an* 0e&io*. Pl,/out. Colon, 'ne% onl, se:en in 16B6D t&eason, %ill(ul
/u&*e&, %ill(ul a&son, $on:e&sin3 %it. t.e *e:il, &a0e, a*ulte&,, an* so*o/,. !ee Julius Aoe+el, J&.,
;ing's "aw and "ocal %ustom in !eventeenth %entury *ew 5ngland, B1 COL?. L. RE=. C16, n.CB
F16B1G. In 3ene&al, t.e A/e&i$an $olonists $onsi*e&e* (a& (e%e& $&i/es to +e (elonies t.an *i* t.e
0eo0le o( En3lan*. %.f. T.o&0 L. >ol(o&*, The "aws and "ierties of -D=?4 reprinted in ESSA4S IN
THE HISTOR4 O9 EARL4 A?ERICAN LA> 1C5, 182 F;a:i* H. 9la.e&t,, e*. 1666G Fsa,in3 t.e&e
%e&e (a& /o&e (elonies in En3lis. t.an in ?assa$.usetts la%G.
BC1
JOSHA ;RESSLER, N;ERSTAN;INA CRI?INAL LA> 25B F2* e*. 1665G.
BC2
nite* States :. Ra+ino%it), BB6 .S. 56, 50 F1650G F9&an'(u&te&, J. *issentin3G.
BCB
!ee nite* States :. >atson, C2B .S. C11, CB67CC0 F1656G.
BCC
#ut see id. at CB8 F?a&s.all, J., *issentin3G F1ITJ.e (a$t is t.at a (elon, at $o//on la% an* a (elon,
to*a, +ea& onl, sli3.t &ese/+lan$e, %it. t.e &esult t.at t.e &ele:an$e o( t.e $o//on7la% &ule o( a&&est
to t.e /o*e&n inte&0&etation o( ou& Constitution is /ini/al1G.
BC5
!ee >A4NE R. LA9A=E S JEROL; H. ISRAEL, CRI?INAL PROCE;RE 20 F2* e*. 1662G.
BC6
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at CC. T.e &e/e*ial su33estions 0&o0ose* +, A/a& Fst&i$t lia+ilit, to&t
&e/e*ies, $lass a$tions, atto&ne,s8 (ees, statuto&il,73ene&ate* 0uniti:e *a/a3es, an* in-un$ti:e &elie(G
a&e, i( an,t.in3, less lo,al to o&i3inalist i*eals t.an t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent .e $&iti$i)es. !ee Ca&ol S.
Stei'e&, !econd Thoughts (out First 2rinciples, 105 HAR=. L. RE=. 820, 828 F166CG Fsu33estin3
A/a&8s *e0a&tu&es (&o/ t.e 9&a/e&8s intent &e3a&*in3 &e/e*ies +elie .is 0&o$lai/e* a*.e&en$e to t.e
9&a/e&s8 1:ision1 &e3a&*in3 %a&&ants, 0&o+a+le $ause an* t.e e2$lusiona&, &uleG.
BC5
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at CC n. 226 Fsa,in3 t.e 13o:e&n/ent s.oul* 3ene&all, not 0&e:ail1 in
A/a&8s t,0e o( i*eal to&t a$tionsG.
BC8
!ee A?AR supra note 285, at 12.
BC6
!ee >asse&st&o/, supra note 50, at 286 Fsa,in3 (alse a&&est %as su+-e$t to st&i$t lia+ilit, in $olonial
ti/esG.
B50
!ee Holle, :. ?i2, B >en*. B50, B5C FN.4. 1826G Fstatin3 i( an, 0e&son $.a&3e anot.e& %it. (elon,,
t.e $.a&3e %ill -usti(, an o((i$e& ta'in3 t.e sus0e$t in $usto*,, +ut t.e 0e&son /a'in3 t.e $.a&3e %ill +e
lia+le (o& (alse a&&est i( no (elon, %as $o//itte*G.
B51
!ee Cla&'e :. Little, 1 S/it. 100, 101 FN.H. 1805G Fa**&essin3 lia+ilities o( *e0ut, to *e+to&8s
$&e*ito&sG.
B52
Hall :. #&oo's 8 =t. C85 F18B6G F.ol*in3 $onsta+le lia+le (o& &e(usin3 to se&:e $ou&t 0&o$essG.
B5B
!ee S.e%el :. 9ell, B 4eates 15, 22 FPa. 1800G F.ol*in3 s.e&i(( lia+le to 0&isone&8s $&e*ito& (o& enti&e
*e+t o( 0&ison es$a0eeG.
B5C
!ee C.a0/an :. #ello%s, 1 S/it. 125 FN.H. 1805G.
B55
!ee ?o&se :. #etton, 2 N.H. 18C, 185 F1820G.
B56
!ee La/+ :. ;a,, 8 =t. C05 F18B6G F.ol*in3 $onsta+le lia+le (o& allo%in3 /a&e in .is $usto*, to +e
use*GL #issell :. Huntin3ton, 2 N.H. 1C2. 1C67C5 F1816G.
B55
!ee >e+ste& :. Tui/+,, 8 N.H. B82, B86 F18B6G.
B58
!ee A*/inist&ato& o( Janes :. ?a&tin, 5 =t. 62 F=t. 18B5G.
B56
!ee @itt&e*3e :. #ello%s, 5 N.H. B66 F18B5G.
B60
!ee He&&i$' :. ?anl,, 1 Cai. R. 25B FN.4. Su0. Ct. 180BG.
B61
!ee #&o/le, :. Hut$.ins, 8 =t. 16C, 166 F=t. 18B6G.
B62
!ee Ha)a&* :. Is&ael, 1 #inn. 2C0 FPa. 1808G.
B6B
!ee 9ulle&ton :. ?a$', 2 Ai'. C15 F1828G.
B6C
!ee Re2 :. Aa,, Tuin$,, ?ass. Re0. 156171552 F156BG Fa$Huittin3 *e(en*ant %.o +atte&e* s.e&i((
%.en s.e&i(( atte/0te* a&&est %it. %a&&ant i&&e3ula& on its (a$eG.
B65
!ee Pe&$i:al :. Jones, 2 Jo.ns. Cas. C6, 51 FN.4. 1800G F.ol*in3 -usti$e o( 0ea$e lia+le (o& issuin3
a&&est e2e$ution a3ainst 0e&son 0&i:ile3e* (&o/ i/0&ison/entG.
B66
!ee id.
B65
!ee P&eston :. 4ates, 2C N.4. 5BC F1881G Fin:ol:in3 s.e&i(( %.o o+taine* in*e/nit, +on* (&o/
0&i:ate 0a&t,G.
B68
!ee A&innell :. P.illi0s, 1 ?ass. 5B0, 5B5 F1805G Fin:ol:in3 ?assa$.usetts statute &eHui&in3 o((i$e&s
to +e +on*e*G.
B66
!ee Tille, :. Cott&ell, CB A. B66 FR.I. 1866G F.ol*in3 $onsta+le lia+le (o& *a/a3es a3ainst .i/ (o&
%.i$. .is in*e/nit, +on* *i* not $o:e&G.
B50
%.f. >.ite :. 9&en$., 81 ?ass. BB6 F1860G Fin:ol:in3 o((i$e& a&&este* %.en .is o+li3o& (aile* to 0a,
(o& o((i$e&8s lia+ilit,GL T&easu&e& o( t.e State :. Hol/es, 2 Ai'. C8 F=t. 1826G Fin:ol:in3 s.e&i(( -aile* (o&
*e+t in 9&an'lin Count,, =e&/ontG.
B51
At t.e ti/e o( 9oun*in3, -u&ies &e/e*ie* i/0&o0e& sea&$.es an* sei)u&es +, le:,in3 .ea:, *a/a3es
(&o/ o((i$e&s %.o $on*u$te* t.e/. !ee A?AR, supra note 285, at 12. T.e &ati(i$ation *e+ates /a*e it
$lea& t.at no /et.o* o( $u&+in3 1t.e insolen$e o( o((i$e1 %o&'e* as %ell as -u&ies 3i:in3 1&uinous
*a/a3es %.ene:e& an o((i$e& .as *e:iate* (&o/ t.e &i3i* lette& o( t.e la%, o& +een 3uilt, o( an,
unne$essa&, a$t o( insolen$e o& o00&ession.1 ?a&,lan* 9a&/e&, 5ssays y a Farmer F1G, reprinted in
THE CO?PLETE ANTI79E;ERALIST 5, 1C FHe&+e&t J. Sto&in3 e*., 1681G. Puniti:e *a/a3es %e&e
a00a&entl, $o//on in sea&$. an* sei)u&e t&es0ass $ases, an* 0&o:i*e* 1an in:alua+le /a2i/1 (o&
se$u&in3 0&o0e& an* &easona+le $on*u$t +, 0u+li$ o((i$e&s. To*a,, .o%e:e&, /uni$i0alities ne:e& .a:e
to 0a, out 0uniti:e *a/a3es. !ee Ne%0o&t :. 9a$t Con$e&ts, In$., C5B .S. 2C5, 251 F1681G.
B52
!ee Jo.nson :. Aeo&3ia, B0 Aa. C26 F1860G F.ol*in3 t.at a 0oli$e/an is as /u$. un*e& 0&ote$tion o(
t.e la% as an, 0u+li$ o((i$e&G.
B5B
?an, 9oun*in37E&a $onstitutions $ontaine* state/ents *e$la&in3 a &i3.t o( &e/e*, (o& e:e&,
0e&son. !ee4 e.g., ;EL. CONST. o( 1556, R 12 F0&o:i*in3 t.at 1e:e&, (&ee/an (o& e:e&, in-u&, *one
.i/ in .is 3oo*s, lan*s o& 0e&son, +, an, ot.e& 0e&son, ou3.t to .a:e &e/e*, +, t.e $ou&se o( t.e la%
o( t.e lan*1GL ?ASS. CONST. o( 1580, a&t. I, R <I F0&o:i*in3 1E:e&, su+-e$t o( t.e $o//on%ealt.
ou3.t to (in* a $e&tain &e/e*,, +, .a:in3 &e$ou&se to t.e la%s, (o& all in-u&ies o& %&on3s1GL N.H.
CONST. o( 158C, 0a&t I, R <I= Fstatin3 1E:e&, su+-e$t o( t.is state is entitle* to a $e&tain &e/e*,1G.
So/e ea&l, 0&o0osals (o& t.e national #ill o( Ri3.ts also in$lu*e* su$. &e/e*, 0&o:isions. !ee4 e.g.,
P&o0ose* A/en*e* 9e*e&al Constitution, A0&il B0, 1588, reprinted in THE ORIAIN O9 THE
SECON; A?EN;?ENTD A ;OC?ENTAR4 HISTOR4 O9 THE #ILL O9 RIAHTS 158571562
560, 561 F;a:i* E. 4oun3, e*.G F2* e*. 1665G F0&o:i*in3 t.at 1e:e&, in*i:i*ual... ou3.t to (in* a $e&tain
&e/e*, a3ainst all in-u&ies, o& %&on3s1G.
B5C
%.f. THE ;ECLARATION O9 IN;EPEN;ENCE 0a&a. 11 F.S. 1556G F1He .as e&e$te* a
/ultitu*e o( Ne% O((i$es, an* sent .it.e& s%a&/s o( O((i$e&s to .a&ass ou& 0eo0le, an* eat out t.ei&
su+stan$e1G.
B55
A s/all .isto&, lesson &e3a&*in3 t.e ea&l, *e:elo0/ent o( o((i$e& i//unit, is 0&o:i*e* in !eaman
v. 2atten, 2 Cai. R. B12 FN.4. Su0. Ct. 1805G. Ea&l, ta2 an* $usto/ en(o&$e/ent a3ents %e&e uns%o&n
:oluntee&s, .a:in3 13ene&all, &e$ei:e* a 0o&tion o( t.e s0oil.1 3d. at B15. Co&&es0on*in3 to t.is s,ste/,
su$. a3ents a$te* at t.ei& o%n 0e&il an* %e&e $i:ill, lia+le (o& t.ei& e:e&, i/0&o0&iet,. T.is 1.a&* &ule1
o( .i3. o((i$e& lia+ilit, %as still in (o&$e a 3ene&ation a(te& t.e Constitution %as &ati(ie*, alt.ou3.
$ou&ts +e3an to .ol* o((i$e&s less a$$ounta+le (o& t.ei& /ista'es %.en o((i$e&s +e$a/e s%o&n to
0e&(o&/ $e&tain e:e&7/o&e7*i((i$ult *uties. !ee id.
B56
!ee !eaman, 2 Cai. R. at B15L #issell :. Huntin3ton, 2 N.H. 1C2, 1C5 F1816G F*e$la&in3 t.at s.e&i((s
3oo* (ait. a$ts s.oul* &e$ei:e 1/ost (a:ou&a+le $onst&u$tion.1G. 1INJeit.e& t.e $ou&t, t.e +a&, no& t.e
0u+li$ s.oul* (a:o& 0&ose$utions a3ainst t.e/ (o& 0ett, /ista'es.1 3d. at 1C5.
B55
!ee ;iana Hassel, "iving a "ieG The %ost of <ualified 3mmunity, 6C ?o. L. RE=. 12B, 151 n. 122.
B58
State :. ;unnin3, 68 S.E. 5B0, 5B1 FN.C. 1616G.
B56
!ee4 e.g., Stinnett :. Co//on%ealt., 55 9.2* 6CC, 6C5 FC
t.
Ci&. 16B2G F&e:e&sin3 -u&, :e&*i$t a3ainst
o((i$e& on 3&oun*s t.at 1$ou&ts s.oul* not la, *o%n &ules %.i$. %ill /a'e it so *an3e&ous (o& o((i$e&s
to 0e&(o&/ t.ei& *uties t.at t.e, %ill s.&in' an* .esitate (&o/ a$tion1GL State :. ;unnin3, 68 S.E. 5B0
FN.C. 1616G F&e:e&sin3 $&i/inal :e&*i$t a3ainst o((i$e& %.o s.ot a00&oa$.in3 /an on 3&oun*s t.at t.e
o((i$e& en-o,e* a 0&i:ile3e to use *ea*l, (o&$e instea* o( &et&eatin3G.
B80
T.e Su0&e/e Cou&t8s &e$ent -u&is0&u*en$e .as o((e&e* a /o&e &ela2e* *e(inition o( 10&o+a+le $ause1
as a 1(lui* $on$e0t1 o( 1sus0i$ion1 &at.e& t.an a (i2e* stan*a&* o( 0&o+a+ilit,. !ee >asse&st&o/, supra
note 50, at BB5 Fanal,)in3 Justi$e Re.nHuist8s o0inion in 3llinois v. Gates).
B81
!ee A&au :. nite* States, 285 .S. 12C, 128 F16B2G, overturned y #&ine3a& :. nite* States, BB8
.S. 160 F16C6G.
B82
>asse&st&o/, supra note 50, at 25C.
B8B
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at 20. Ju*3es o( t.e 9oun*in3 e&a a00ea& to .a:e +een so/e%.at /o&e
&elu$tant t.an /o*e&n -u*3es to issue sea&$. an* sei)u&e %a&&ants. 9o& an ea&l, e2a/0le o( -u*i$ial
s$&utin, o( %a&&ant a00li$ations, see ,nited !tates v. "awrence, B .S. C2 F1565G Fu0.ol*in3 &e(usal o(
*ist&i$t -u*3e to issue %a&&ant (o& a&&est o( 9&en$. *ese&te& in t.e (a$e o( %.at 3o:e&n/ent $lai/e* %as
0&o+a+le $auseG. To*a,, sea&$. %a&&ant a00li$ations a&e &a&el, *enie*. T.e 1se$&et %i&eta0 $ou&t1
esta+lis.e* +, Con3&ess to 0&o$ess %i&eta0 a00li$ations in 1658, .as &e-e$te* onl, one %i&eta0 &eHuest
in its 227,ea& li(e. !ee Ri$.a&* >illin3, $iretaps sought in record numers, SA TO;A4, June 5,
2000, at A1 Fsa,in3 t.e $ou&t a00&o:e* 1B,600 %i&eta0 &eHuests in t.e sa/e 0e&io*G.
B8C
P&i:ate 0e&sons %e&e lia+le i(, (o& e2a/0le, t.ei& $o/0laint %as too :a3ue as to t.e a**&ess to +e
sea&$.e*, see Hu/es :. Ta+e&, 1 R.I. C6C F1850GL /iss0elle* t.e na/e o( t.e a$$use*, see ?el:in :.
9is.e&, 8 N.H. C06, C05 F18B6G Fsa,in3 1.e %.o $auses anot.e& to +e a&&este* +, a %&on3 na/e is a
t&es0asse&, e:en i( t.e 0&o$ess %as inten*e* to +e a3ainst t.e 0e&son a$tuall, a&&este*GL o& $alle* (o& t.e
e2e$ution o( a %a&&ant na/in3 a 1Jo.n ;oe1 as a ta&3et, see Holle, :. ?i2, B >en*. B50 FN.4. 1826G.
B85
!ee He&:e, :. Estes, 65 9.B* 58C F6
t.
Ci&. 1665G Fin:ol:in3 $.allen3e to sea&$. %a&&ant %&on3(ull,
o+taine* t.&ou3. (alse &e(e&en$es to anon,/ous sou&$esG.
B86
!ee Hu//el7Jones :. St&o0e, 25 9.B* 6C5 F8
t.
Ci&. 166CG Fin:ol:in3 0oli$e o((i$e&8s (ailu&e to
*is$lose to -u*3e t.at an un*e&$o:e& *e0ut, s.e&i(( %as t.e 1$on(i*ential in(o&/ant1 &e(e&&e* to in a
sea&$. %a&&ant a00li$ationG.
B85
!ee ;a:i* #. @o0el S Paul H. #la$'/an, The ,nwarranted $arrant6 The $aco !earch $arrant
and the &ecline of the Fourth (mendment, 18 HA?LINE J. P#. L S POL84 1, 1B Fsa,in3 >a$o
%a&&ant %as (ille* %it. state/ents i&&ele:ant to @o&es.8s alle3e* (i&ea&/ :iolationsG.
B88
!ee id. at 21 Fnotin3 AT9 a3ent8s (alse $lai/s t.at :a&ious s0a&e 0a&ts %e&e /a$.ine 3un $on:e&sion
'itsG.
B86
!ee ALAN ?. ;ERSHO>ITQ, THE A#SE E<CSE AN; OTHER COP7OTS, SO#
STORIES, AN; E=ASIONS O9 RESPONSI#ILIT4 2B5 F166CG.
B60
3d. at 2BB.
B61
T.e 16208s sa% an e20losion o( 0oli$e 0&i:ile3e to o:e&see t%o se0a&ate E +ut o(ten inte&&elate* E
ele/ents o( A/e&i$an li(eD P&o.i+ition an* t.e auto/o+ile. !ee 9RIE;?AN, supra note58, at B00
Fsa,in3 sea&$. an* sei)u&e +e$a/e a 0a&ti$ula&l, salient issue *u&in3 P&o.i+itionG. In 1625, t.e Su0&e/e
Cou&t, +, s0lit *e$ision, &elease* an o0inion t.at %oul* 3&o% %it.in t.e ne2t 55 ,ea&s into an i//ense
e20ansion o( 0oli$e 0&e&o3ati:es %.ile at t.e sa/e ti/e &e0&esentin3 an eno&/ous loss o( 0e&sonal
se$u&it, (o& A/e&i$an auto/o+ile t&a:ele&s. %arroll v. ,nited !tates u0.el* a %a&&antless sea&$. o( an
auto/o+ile (o& liHuo& as :ali* un*e& t.e in(a/ous =olsta* A$t, ena$te* to +&eat.e li(e into t.e
Ei3.teent. A/en*/ent. 265 .S. 1B5 F1625G. T.e Ca&&oll o0inion le* lo%e& $ou&ts to /o&e t.an one
inte&0&etation, see 9&an$is H. #o.len S Ha&&, S.ul/an, (rrest $ith and $ithout a $arrant, 55 . Pa.
L. Re:. C85, C88786 F1625G , +ut slo%l, +e$a/e &e$o3ni)e* as a 0&onoun$e/ent o( an 1auto/o+ile
e2$e0tion1 to t.e %a&&ant &eHui&e/ent. !ee nite* States :. Ross, C56 .S. 568, 822 F1682G.
T%o *e$a*es a(te& %arroll, Justi$e Ro+e&t H. Ja$'son t&ie* in ea&nest to (o&$e t.e 3enie +a$' into t.e
+ottle +, na&&o%in3 t.e auto/o+ile e2$e0tion to $ases o( se&ious $&i/es, +ut a 572 /a-o&it,
outnu/+e&e* .i/. !ee #&ine3a& :. nite* States, BB8 .S. 160, 180781 F16C6G FJa$'son, J., *issentin3G.
Sin$e #rinegar, t.e 1auto/o+ile e2$e0tion1 .as +een a (i2tu&e o( 9ou&t. A/en*/ent -u&is0&u*en$e,
an* .as 3&eatl, e20an*e*. T.e auto/o+ile e2$e0tion no% a$$ounts (o& t.e +&oa*est u/+&ella o( %a&&ant
e2$e0tions. !ee4 e.g., Cali(o&nia :. A$e:e*o, 500 .S. 565 F1661G Fallo%in3 %a&&antless sea&$. o(
$ontaine&s in auto/o+iles e:en %it.out 0&o+a+le $ause to sea&$. t.e :e.i$le as a %.oleG. In*ee*, t.e
auto/o+ile e2$e0tion .as e20an*e* so (a& t.at it .as /a*e a /o$'e&, o( 9ou&t. A/en*/ent *o$t&ine.
As Justi$e S$alia 0ointe* out in .is (cevedo $on$u&&en$e, an ano/al, no% e2ists 0&ote$tin3 a +&ie($ase
$a&&ie* on t.e si*e%al' (&o/ %a&&antless sea&$. +ut allo%in3 t.e sa/e +&ie($ase to +e sea&$.e* %it.out
%a&&ant i( ta'en into a $a&. (cevedo at 581 FS$alia, J., $on$u&&in3G.
B62
Poli$e su&:eillan$e o( A/e&i$an &oa*%a,s .as +&ou3.t t.e +a& o( -usti$e (a& $lose& to /ost
A/e&i$ans t.an e:e& +e(o&e. 9e% a$$ounts o( t.e s.ee& s$ale o( t&a((i$ sto0s a&e a:aila+le, +ut ane$*otal
e:i*en$e su33ests t&a((i$ en$ounte&s %it. 0oli$e nu/+e& in t.e .un*&e*s o( /illions annuall,. In No&t.
Ca&olina alone, /o&e t.an 1.2 /illion t&a((i$ in(&a$tions %e&e &e$o&*e* in a sin3le ,ea&. !ee
9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at 256. O( a$tual t&a((i$ sto0s, no &elia+le esti/ate $an +e /a*e.
B6B
!ee S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 66.
B6C
In &elaware v. 2rouse, CC0 .S. 6C8 F1656G, t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t a$tuall, $onsi*e&e*, +ut sto00e*
s.o&t o(, allo%in3 $o0s to &an*o/l, sto0 an, t&a:ele& %it.out an, 0a&ti$ula&i)e* &eason E %it. one
-usti$e FRe.nHuistG a&3uin3 t.at $o0s /a, *o so. 2rouse, CC0 .S. at 66C FRe.nHuist, J., *issentin3G.
B65
!ee 9lan*e&s :. He&+e&t, 1 S/it. FN.H.G 205 F1808G F(in*in3 $onsta+le %.o sto00e* a *&i:e& an*
.o&se tea/ 0u&suant to an in:ali* %&it o( atta$./ent lia+le (o& t&es0assG. P&i:ate to&t 0&in$i0les &at.e&
t.an state li$ensin3 0&o3&a/s 3o:e&ne* .i3.%a, t&a:el at t.e ti/e o( t.e 9&a/e&s. !ee @enna&* :.
#u&ton, 25 ?e. B6 F18C5G.
B66
!ee ;a:i* Ru*o:s',, The %riminal 8ustice !ystem and the Role of the 2olice4 in THE POLITICS
O9 LA>D A PROARESSI=E CRITITE, 2C2, 2C5 F;a:i* @ai&,s, e*. 1682G.
B65
3d.
B68
P&io& to t.e i/0osition o( t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule in Mapp v. 'hio, B65 .S. 6CB F1661G, t.e
Cin$innati 0oli$e (o&$e &a&el, a00lie* (o& sea&$. %a&&ants. In 1658, t.e 0oli$e o+taine* t.&ee %a&&ants.
In 1656 t.e 0oli$e o+taine* none. !ee #&a*le, C. Canon, 3s the 5xclusionary Rule in Failing 7ealthF6
!ome *ew &ata and a 2lea (gainst a 2recipitous %onclusion4 D0 @ENTC@4 L. J. 681, 506 F165CG.
Si/ila&l,, t.e use o( sea&$. %a&&ants +, t.e Ne% 4o&' Cit, Poli$e ;e0a&t/ent 0&io& to Mapp %as
ne3li3i+le, +ut a(te&%a&*, o:e& 5000 %a&&ants %e&e issue*. !ee >asse&st&o/, supra note 50, at 265 n.
20B.
B66
#&ine3a& :. nite* States, BB8 .S. 160, 181 F16C6G FJa$'son, J., *issentin3G Fe20&essin3 +elie( t.at
/an, unla%(ul sea&$.es a&e ne:e& &e:eale* +e$ause no e:i*en$e is &e$o:e&e*G.
C00
!ee >ee's :. nite* States, 2B2 .S. B8B F161CG.
C01
B65 .S. 6CB F1661G.
C02
B8C .S. CB6 F1666G.
C0B
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at 21 F$lai/in3 1IsJu00o&te&s o( t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule $annot 0oint to a
sin3le /a-o& state/ent (&o/ t.e 9oun*in3 E o& e:en t.e ante+ellu/ o& Re$onst&u$tion e&as E
su00o&tin3 9ou&t. A/en*/ent e2$lusion o( e:i*en$e in a $&i/inal t&ial1G.
C0C
!ee #RTON S. @ATQ, JSTICE O=ERRLE;D N?AS@INA THE CRI?INAL JSTICE
S4STE? CB F1665G Fsa,in3 in t%o $onse$uti:e senten$es t.at 1ItJ.e e2$lusiona&, &ule .as (aile* in its
onl, 3oal1 +ut t.at 1ItJ.e $ost... is al/ost un+elie:a+l, .i3.1G.
C05
!ee4 e.g.4 id. at CB Fsa,in3 Mapp %as t.e 1$ul/ination o( an a$ti:ist -u*i$ial t&en*1G.
C06
9&e* E. In+au, 2ulic !afety v. 3ndividual %ivil "ierties6 The 2rosecutor's !tand, 5B J. CRI?. L.,
CRI?INOLOA4 S P. S. 85 F1662G, reprinted in 86 J. CRI?. L. S CRI?INOLOA4 1C1B, 1C1B
F1666G Fe/0.asis a**e*G.
C05
?i&an*a :. State o( A&i)ona, B8C .S. CB6, 516 F1666G FHa&lan, J., *issentin3G Fsa,in3 1t.e Cou&t is
ta'in3 a &eal &is' %it. so$iet,8s %el(a&e in i/0osin3 its ne% &e3i/e on t.e $ount&,. T.e so$ial $osts o(
$&i/e a&e too 3&eat to $all t.e ne% &ules an,t.in3 +ut a .a)a&*ous e20e&i/entation.1G.
C08
3d. at 5C2 F>.ite, J., *issentin3G.
C06
!ee J. Ri$.a&* Jo.nston, 2lea #argaining in 5xchange for Testimony6 7as Sin3leton Really
Resolved the 3ssuesF, CRI?INAL JSTICE, 9all 1666, at B2 FHuotin3 (&o/ E* C&a,8s +io3&a0., o(
Ea&l >a&&en, %hief 8usticeG.
C10
!ee id.
C11
;a:i* Ru*o:s',, The %riminal 8ustice !ystem and the Role of the 2olice4 in THE POLITICS O9
LA>D A PROARESSI=E CRITITE 2C6 F;a:i* @ai&,s, e*. 1682G.
C12
Si2 ,ea&s 0&io& to t.e Mapp *e$ision, t.e in(luential Cali(o&nia Su0&e/e Cou&t -usti$e Ro3e&
T&a,no& $on$lu*e* t.at e2$lusion %as ne$essa&, to le:el t.e 0la,in3 (iel* +et%een state an* $iti)en. 1It
is /o&all, in$on3&uous,1 %&ote T&a,no&, 1(o& t.e state to (lout $onstitutional &i3.ts an* at t.e sa/e ti/e
*e/an* t.at its $iti)ens o+se&:e t.e la%.1 Peo0le :. Ca.an, 282 P.2* 605, 611 FCal. 1655G.
C1B
!ee #i:ens :. Si2 n'no%n 9e*. Na&$oti$s A3ents, C0B .S. B88, B62 F1651G.
C1C
!ee Illinois :. @&ull, C80 .S. BC0, B62 F1685G FO8Conno&, J., *issentin3G Fsa,in3 t.e e2$lusiona&,
&ule is /u$. /o&e soun*l, +ase* in .isto&, t.an is 0o0ula&l, t.ou3.tG.
C15
2B2 .S. B8B F161CG.
C16
!ee4 e.g., @at), supra note 21C, at CB Fsa,in3 t.e&e %as no e2$lusiona&, &ule (o& 12B ,ea&s an*
1ItJ.e&e is a 3oo* &eason (o& t.at.1G.
C15
116 .S. 616 F1886G.
C18
!ee A?AR, supra note 285, at 1C6 Fe20lainin3 t.at t.e Su0&e/e Cou&t &e0o&te* :e&, (e% $&i/inal
$ases o( an, 'in* until t.e en* o( t.e 18008sG.
C16
In t.e $ou&se o( &esea&$.in3 ot.e& /atte&s (o& t.is a&ti$le, I stu/+le* a$&oss a s/all nu/+e& o( pre/
#oyd $ases a00ea&in3 to stan* (o& :a&iations o( t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule. !ee In &e ?a,, 1 N.>. 1021
F?i$.. 1856G Fo&*e&in3 &elease o( 0&ostitute a&&este* %it.out %a&&antGL Peo0le :. C&o$'e&, 1 ?i$.. B1
F1866G Fo&*e&in3 *is$.a&3e o( *e(en*ant a&&este* +, unsi3ne* %a&&antGL Co//on%ealt. :. 9oste&, 1
?ass. C88 F1805G Fo:e&tu&nin3 -u&,8s 3uilt, :e&*i$t %.e&e *e(en*ants %e&e a&&este* 0u&suant to (ault,
a&&est %a&&antGL State :. J.H., 1 T,l. CCC F=t. 1802G Fo&*e&in3 *is$.a&3e o( 0e&son a&&este* u0on %a&&ant
%.e&e no $lea& e:i*en$e o( $o/0lainant8s oat. a00ea&e*G.
T.e ea&liest $ase I *is$o:e&e* to /ention t.e Huestion o( e2$lusion %as Frisie v. #utler, 1 @i&+, 21B
FConn. 1585G, a $ase t.at 0&e$e*e* t.e #ill o( Ri3.ts +, (ou& ,ea&s. Frisie (oun* a %a&&ant 0lainl,
ille3al, +ut state* 1,et, .o% (a& t.is :itiates t.e 0&o$ee*in3s u0on t.e a&&ai3n/ent, /a, +e a Huestion,
%.i$. is not ne$essa&, no% to *ete&/ine.1 3d. at 215. >.ile t.is $ase +, no /eans a00lie* t.e &ule o(
e2$lusion, it Huite $lea&l, esta+lis.es t.at e2$lusion %as a $onsi*e&ation in t.e /in*s o( 9oun*in37e&a
-u*3es.
An* %.ile t.e &ules o( t.e a+o:e $ases a&e su+-e$t to inte&0&etation, t.e, at least stan* (o& t.e
0&o0osition t.at an unla%(ul sei)u&e, +, itsel(, .as an i/0a$t on a su+seHuent $&i/inal 0&ose$ution. T.is
&ule is a$tuall, (a& /o&e (a:o&a+le to $&i/inal *e(en*ants t.an /o*e&n Su0&e/e Cou&t allo%s. See Ne%
4o&' :. Ha&&is, C65 .S. 1C F1660G F.ol*in3 t.at 0oli$e /a, *etain a sus0e$t e:en t.ou3. t.e,
i/0&o0e&l, a&&este* .i/GL 9&is+ie :. Collins, BC2 .S. 516 F1652G F.ol*in3 an in:ali* a&&est is not a
*e(ense to t.e o((ense $.a&3e*G.
I $annot +elie:e t.at /, list o( $ases is in an, %a, e2.austi:e. >.ile I .a:e not un*e&ta'en an,
s,ste/ati$ stu*, o( t.is /atte&, t.e $ases I $ite su33est to /e t.at t.e e2$lusiona&, &ule Fo& so/e
&e/e*ial &ule Huite si/ila& to t.e e2$lusiona&, &uleG /a, .a:e (a& st&on3e& .isto&i$al &oots t.an it is
$&e*ite* %it..
C20
!ee Ro3e& Roots, 3f 3t's *ot a Runaway4 3t's *ot a Real Grand 8ury, BB CREIAHTON L. RE=. 821
F2000G.
C21
!ee id.
C22
!ee .S. CONST. a/en*. = F0&o:i*in3 no 0e&son 1s.all +e $o/0elle* in an, $&i/inal $ase to +e a
%itness a3ainst .i/sel(G.
C2B
!ee ?i&an*a :. A&i)ona, B8C .S. CB6 F1666G.
C2C
!ee S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 61.
C25
!ee ;i$'e&son :. nite* States, 5B0 .S. C28 F2000G.
C26
3d. at CB5 n. l.
C25
!ee id. at CB5.
C28
3d. at CBC FS$alia, J., *issentin3G.
C26
%.f. Ha,es :. ?issou&i, 120 .S. 68, 50 F1885G F&e$o3ni)in3 t.at i/0a&tialit, in $&i/inal $ases
&eHui&es t.at 1I+Jet%een It.e a$$use*J an* t.e state t.e s$ales a&e to +e e:enl, .el*1GL nites States :.
Sin3leton, 165 9.B* 1265, 1B1C F10
t.
Ci&. 1666G F@ell,, J., *issentin3G Fs0ea'in3 o( 1t.e 0oli$, o(
ensu&in3 a le:el 0la,in3 (iel* +et%een t.e 3o:e&n/ent an* *e(en*ant in a $&i/inal $ase1G.
CB0
!ee #OOQHIE, supra note 10, at 2B8.
CB1
!ee id.
CB2
A. Ao&*on Li**, 0oints out in .is 1680 auto+io3&a0., $ill t.at %.en t.e $ou&ts +e3an &eHui&in3
t.at t.e 9#I 0&o:i*e *e(ense atto&ne,s %it. 9#I &e0o&ts on *e(en*ants, t.e 9#I $i&$u/:ente* su$.
o&*e&s +, &e$o&*in3 in:esti3ation notes on uno((i$ial atta$./ents %.i$. %e&e ne:e& 0&o:i*e* to t.e
*e(ense. !ee A. AOR;ON LI;;4, >ILL B5C F1680G.
CBB
!ee4 e.g.4 id. at 216 F&e0o&tin3 1666 St. Louis $ase in %.i$. 0oli$e &elease* a&&est &e$o&* o( *ea*
0e&son %.o/ 0oli$e .a* 'ille* to *a/a3e .is &e0utationGL id. at 2B8 F&e0o&tin3 1668 Ne% 4o&' $ase in
%.i$. 0oli$e &elease* &a0 s.eet o( t.ei& :i$ti/ +ut %it..el* i*entit, o( in:ol:e* o((i$e&sGL id. at 2C0
F&e0o&tin3 $ase in %.i$. 0oli$e &e:eale* *ea* sus0e$t %as on 0a&ole an* use* .is $ase to $all (o&
a+olis.in3 0a&oleG.
CBC
Pe&.a0s t.e /ost e2t&e/e e2a/0le o( lo0si*e* in:esti3ati:e &esou&$es o$$u&&e* in t.e O'la.o/a
Cit, +o/+in3 $ase in 1665. ;e(ense atto&ne,s $o/0laine* t.at 1t.e &esou&$es o( e:e&, (e*e&al, state,
an* lo$al a3en$, in t.e nite* States1 %e&e at t.e 3o:e&n/ent8s *is0osal E in$lu*in3 a 2C7.ou& 9#I
$o//an* $ente& %it. C00 tele0.ones to $oo&*inate e:i*en$e73at.e&in3 (o& t.e 0&ose$ution. !ee Petition
9o& >&it o( ?an*a/us o( Petitione&7;e(en*ant, Ti/ot., Ja/es ?$=ei3. at 1B, ?$=ei3. :. ?ats$.
FNo. 667CR7687?G F10
t.
Ci&. ?a&. 25, 1665G. In $ont&ast, t.e *e(ense $o/0laine* t.at 1%it.out
su+0oena 0o%e&, %it.out t.e &i3.t to ta'e *e0ositions, an* %it.out a$$ess to national intelli3en$e
in(o&/ation, t.e ?$=ei3. *e(ense $an 3o no (u&t.e&.1 3d. at C.
CB5
!ee #&a*, :. ?a&,lan*, B5B .S. 8B F166BG F(in*in3 t.at su00&ession o( e:i*en$e (a:o&a+le to
*e(ense :iolates *ue 0&o$essG. P&ose$uto&s a&e &eHui&e* +, t.e #rady *o$t&ine to &e:eal e2$ul0ato&,
e:i*en$e in t.ei& 0ossession o& in t.e 0ossession o( t.e in:esti3atin3 a3en$,. !ee nite* States :. Quno7
A&$e, CC 9B* 1C20 F6t. Ci&. 1665G. Onl, one (e*e&al $ou&t o( a00eals .as .el* t.at 0&ose$uto&s a&e
i/0ute* to .ol* 'no%le*3e o( in(o&/ation 1&ea*il, a:aila+le1 to t.e/ an* &eHui&e su$. 'no%le*3e to
+e t&ans(e&&e* to t.e *e(ense. !ee >illia/s :. >.itle,, 6C0 92* 1B2 F5t. Ci&. 1661G. Ho%e:e&, not.in3
in t.e la% /an*ates t.at 0oli$e loo' (o& e2$ul0ato&, e:i*en$e.
CB6
!ee4 e.g., STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at 2C8 F&e0o&tin3 1665 Ne% 4o&' Cit, $ase in %.i$.
o((i$e&s $lose* o(( s$ene o( s.ootin3 +, 0oli$e (o& a .al( an .ou& a(te& t.e s.ootin3G. 0on +ein3
allo%e* to ente& t.e s.ootin3 s$ene, o+se&:e&s noti$e* t.at 0oli$e .a* /o:e* la&3e 'it$.en ta+le to t.e
si*e o( &oo/ to /a'e 0oli$e $lai/ t.at :i$ti/ F%.o .a* a00a&entl, +een on ot.e& si*e o( t.e ta+le (&o/
o((i$e&sG .a* lun3e* at t.e/ /o&e 0lausi+le. !ee id.
CB5
!ee #OOQHIE, supra note 10, at 2B8.
CB8
#&e%e& :. >illia/s, CB0 .S. B85, C15 F1655G F #u&3e&, J., *issentin3G.
CB6
#OOQHIE, supra note 10, at 2B8.
CC0
!ee PAL ?ARCS, THE ENTRAP?ENT ;E9ENSE B F2* e*. 1665G.
CC1
!ee id. at B7C.
CC2
!ee #lai'ie :. Linton, 18 S$ot. La% Re0. 58B F1880G.
CCB
!ee Re3ina :. #i$'le,, 2 C&i/. A00. R. 5B, 5B J.P.R. 2B6 FC.A. 1606G.
CCC
#&annan :. Pee', 2 All E.R. 552, 55C FT.#. 16C5G.
CC5
3d.
CC6
22B 9. C12 F6t. Ci&. 1615G.
CC5
Ri:e&a :. State, 8C6 P.2* 1, 11 F>,o. 166BG.
CC8
S@OLNIC@ S 949E, supra note 6B, at 102 FHuotin3 Paul C.e:i3n,G.
CC6
!ee id. !ee also STOLEN LI=ES, supra note 12B, at B02. @e:in ?$Coullou3., %.o %as suin3 t.e
Cit, o( C.attanoo3a (o& un-ust i/0&ison/ent, %as s.ot *ea* +, 0oli$e at .is %o&'0la$e a(te& .e
alle3e*l, t.&e% o& &an at 0oli$e %it. a /etal o+-e$t. ?$Coullou3. .a* 0&e*i$te* .is o%n /u&*e& +,
0oli$e in state/ents to $o7%o&'e&s. !ee id.
C50
!ee id. F$itin3 P&esi*ent8s Co//ission on La% En(o&$e/ent an* A*/inist&ation o( Justi$e stu*,G.
C51
!ee 9RIE;?AN, supra note 58, at 15C F$itations o/itte*G.
C52
JE99RE4 REI?AN, THE RICH AET RICHER AN; THE POOR AET PRISOND I;EOLOA4,
CLASS, AN; CRI?INAL JSTICE 166 F5
t.
e*. 1665G.
C5B
!ee HER#ERT ?ITAANA, ;ANAEROS ;OSSIERS F1688G. T.e 9#I 'e0t a 20570a3e (ile on
$a&toonist #ill ?aul*in, a 15B70a3e (ile on +oo' 0u+lis.e& Al(&e* A. @no0(, an* a 2B70a3e (ile on
Lin$oln +io3&a0.e& Ca&l San*+u&3, (o& e2a/0le. !ee id. at 2C6, 165, an* 81.
C5C
T.e 9&ate&nal O&*e& o( Poli$e F9OPG, t.e la&3est 0oli$e o&3ani)ation in t.e nite* States, .as o:e&
250,000 /e/+e&s an* .as +een na/e* one o( t.e /ost 0o%e&(ul lo++,in3 3&ou0s in >as.in3ton. !ee
National 9&ate&nal O&*e& o( Poli$e, 2ress Release, Se0t. 15, 1665, availale at
M.tt0DNN%%%./o(o0.o&3N0o%e&O.
C55
An e2a/0le o( t.e 0oli$e lo++,8s 0o%e& is its a+ilit, to s$uttle asset (o&(eitu&e &e(o&/. T.e
Inte&national Asso$iation o( C.ie(s o( Poli$e FIACPG /ana3e* to 'ee0 $on3&essional lea*e&s (&o/
atta$.in3 (o&(eitu&e &e(o&/ to +u*3et le3islation in 1666. !ee IACP, 5nd of !ession Report for the -
st

!ession of -1D
th
%ongress6 FI 0111 Funding 3ssues, Jan. 15, 2000. !ee also Pete& L. ;a:is, Rodney
;ing and the &ecriminalization of 2olice #rutality in (merica, 5B ?;. L. RE=. 251, 281 n.C0 F166CG.
Poli$e unions in /an, -u&is*i$tions su$$ess(ull, t.%a&t e((o&ts to esta+lis. $i:ilian &e:ie% +oa&*s. !ee
id. at 282.
C56
!ee Ri$.a&* >illin3, 7igh %ourt Restricts 2olice 2ower to Fris+, SA TO;A4, ?a&. 26, 2000, CA.