1

Fluid Properties

What is a fluid?
In a solid the atoms are tightly
bound by intermolecular forces.

In a liquid the intermolecular

forces keep the atoms close
together.
But, lack of long
range order with disruption
of molecular forces makes it
possible for groups of atoms to
slide past each other.

In a gas the molecules can move

independently of each other.

The nature of a fluid.

In a liquid there is only short range order. Groups of
atoms can slide past each other. In a gas, the atoms
are moving randomly.
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms
continuously under the action of a shear stress of any
magnitude. Solids deform under application of a
shear stress, but they deform a certain amount and
then deformation stops. Some substances (putty,
toothpaste) only flow when the shear stress reaches a
critical value (rheology).
Fluid properties can be characterized by variables
such as pressure, velocity, density, temperature.
These properties will be a continuous function of
position/time. Fluid will be treated as a continuum.

Units
There are 3 different sets of units
System International (SI).
British Gravitational (BG)
English Engineering (EE)
System International (SI)
Formally adopted by International Standards
Organization (ISO) in 1960. Quantities in different
units are easily related with no multiplying factors.
Newtons 3rd Law F = ma . Force in N , mass in kg
and acceleration in ms2 .
Weight force is W = mg where standard value of g
is 9.807 ms2
Temperature in Kelvin (K) related to temperature
in Celsius (o C) by TK = To C + 273.15 .

More on Units
British Gravitational (BG)
Unit of length is foot (ft) = 0.3048 m .
Unit of mass is slug (slug) = 14.59 kg .
Unit of force is the pound (lb) = 4.448 N .
So F = ma means 1 lb =

1slug 1ft
1s2

The weight force W = mg means

1 slug
1 lb = 32.174
1ft s2
A mass of 1 slug produces a force of 32.174 lb
Absolute temperature in Rankine (o R) related
to temperature in Fahrenheit (o F) by
To R = To F + 459.67 .
The unit of force is just the weight force acting on a
1.0 lb mass .

More on Units
English Engineering (EE)
These are largely defunct. Here

Unit of length is foot (ft) .

Unit of mass is the pound mass (lbm) = 0.4536
kg .
Unit of force is the pound (lb) .
Newtons 3rd law become F = ma/gc where
1 gc = 32.174 ft s2
Uses Rankine o R temperature scale

For this course

This course will largely use SI units. Note, if
expressions derived algebraically, questions of units
can be ignored until final substitutions. Back page of
text has table of conversion factors for BG SI .
Use of BG units is still widespread in the USA.

Dimensional Analysis.
The fundamental quantities mainly relevant to fluid
mechanics are Mass, Length and Time. All other
quantities can be expressed in terms of them (e.g.
velocity = length/time ). The unit schemes give a
way of measuring these quantities.
All equations must be dimensionally consistent
dim(X) = dim(Y )
The fundamental mass M , length L and time T
constituents that make up X and Y must be the
same. e.g.
1 2
s =
at
2
dim(s) = dim(a)dim(t2 )
L 2
L =
T =L
2
T
Since the LHS and RHS have the same dimensions it
is possible for the equation to be correct.

Dimensional Analysis. Continued

It is only possible to add or subtract two quantities if
they have the same dimension (e.g. you cant add
apples and oranges). The equation
X =A+B
can only be true if
dim(X) = dim(A) + dim(B)

10

Mass and Density

The fluid density () is one of the primary fluid
properties. For a fluid, the density is the mass m
per unit volume V , so
m
=
V
In SI units, unit of density is kg m3 . In BG units,
unit of density is slug ft3 .
The specific volume is the volume per unit mass and
is the reciprocal of the density,
1
v=

(mainly used in thermodynamics)

Temperature and pressure do not have much effect
on the density of liquids (they do on gases). The
density of water is 1000 kgm3 or 1.94 slugft3 .

11

Density: Specific Weight

The specific weight ( ) of a fluid is designated as
the weight force per unit volume. So
= g

Units are Nm3

(SI) and lb ft3

(BG).

The specific weight of water is 9.80 kNm3

lbft3

or 64.4

12

Density: Specific Gravity

1000

Density, kg/m3

990
@ 4C = 1000 kg/m3
980

970

960

950
0

20

40
60
Temperature, C

80

100

The specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the fluid

density to the density of water at a specific
temperature. The reference temperature is usually 4
o C since is largest here.
fluid
SG =
water
The specific density is a ratio of densities so it is
dimensionless. So the SG is the same in the
different unit systems.

13

Some densities
Material

T oC

kg m3

H2 O

15.6

999

Seawater

15.6

1,030

Gasoline

15.6

680

SAE 30 oil

15.6

912

ethyl alcohol

20

789

Glycerin

20

1,260

Hg

20

13,600

Air (STP)

15

1.23

CO2

20

1.83

CH4

20

0.667

14

What is pressure?
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The pressure force arises due to the continual

transfer of momentum from individual molecules
during collisions with the walls.
The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal Pa and as it
is a stress 1 Pa = 1 N/1 m2 .
The pressure force is an example of a stress, i.e. a
force that is applied over an area. The pressure force
acts in a direction perpendicular to the surface.
The atmospheric pressure at sea-level is 101, 000
Nm2
There are two pressures, absolute pressure and gauge
pressure. (note, gauge pressure is sometimes gage or
guage (711,000 Google entries)).

15

Pressure definitions
There are 3 different working definitions for pressure.
These are absolute, gauge or differential pressure.
The absolute pressure is
the force per unit area
that the molecules inside a chamber exert on
the chamber walls. Always positive.
The chamber is immersed in the atmosphere. The gauge pressure is the difference
between the absolute
pressure and the atmospheric pressure. Can
be negative if pressure
in chamber is less than
atmosphere.

16

Differential pressure and units

The differential pressure refers to the pressure
between two different chambers.

Pascal

is the SI unit

lbft2

is the BG unit (= 0.002089 Pa )

PSI = lbin2
)

is a BG derived unit (= 6895 Pa

millibar is a SI derived unit (= 100 Pa )

torr = mmHg is instrument based unit
(= 133.322 Pa )
Sea-level pressure is 760 torr or 14.696 lb in2

17

The ideal gas law

pV = nRT
where p is the absolute pressure
T is the absolute temperature
R is the gas constant 8.3141 JK1 mol1
n is the number of moles
The pressure is given in Pascal (Pa) which has
units of Nm2 . This can be rewritten as
p = R T
where R = R/Ma and Ma is the atomic mass of
the gas in kg .

18

The ideal gas: kinetic theory

The pressure of a gas can be related to the average
kinetic energy of the molecules in the gas.
p=

2N
K
3V

where K is the average kinetic energy in J ,

N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume
Equating this result with pV = nRT leads to
3
K = kB T
2
where kB = R/NA = 1.380662 1023 J K1
Boltzmanns constant.
The absolute temperature is a measure of the
random kinetic energy of individual atoms and
molecules.

is

19

Viscosity: Molecular view gases

For gases
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Molecules bounce between two surfaces.

During molecule-surface collisions momentum is
exchanged.
Momentum interchange results in a force that
tends to retard relative motion. This force is
called the viscosity force.
Higher temperatures leads to more frequent
collisions and more momentum exchange.
Therefore the viscosity force will increase in
magnitude as T increases.

20

Viscosity: Molecular view liquids

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Strong intermolecular forces give the liquid its

structure. Moving plate drags top layer of liquid
molecules.
Top layer of liquid molecules drags next layer,
but at slower speed. And so on, layer by layer.
The propagation of these forces from the top
plate to the bottom plate leads to the retarding
force on top plate.
These forces are disrupted by random thermal
motion and increased temperature disrupts the
short range cohesiveness of the liquid.
Therefore the viscosity force will decrease in
magnitude as temperature increases.

21

Shearing stress: Classical view

To deform a solid object, attach two plates to
material, and apply a force, P to the top plate.
a

P
B

B'

P
A

Fixed plate
(a )

(b)

The material adjacent to top plate has been

displaced a distance a from B B .
The vertical line from A B has been displaced an
angle to B . The shear strain, is just a
b .
The shear stress applied to the material is = P/A .
For an elastic solid the shear strain is
proportional to , i.e.
= S
and S would be the shear modulus.

22

Shearing stress: Liquids

When a force, P is applied to the plate on a liquid it
moves with a constant speed, U . The liquid deforms
continuously upon application of the shear stress.
a

P
B

B'

u
b

y
A

Fixed plate

The ability of one layer of fluid to move across

another leads to a velocity profile u = u(y) . In the
ideal case, u = U y/b , the gradient is linear and the
velocity gradient is
du
U
=
dy
b
The no-slip condition states that the fluid at the
solid boundaries does not move with respect to those
boundaries.

23

Shear stress liquids

a

P
B

B'

u
b

y
A

Fixed plate

In time t , line AB rotates through so

tan() =
=

a
b
U t
b

as a = U t

U
du
= lim
=
=
t0 t
b
dy
The rate of deformation (shearing strain), is
proportional to U and inversely proportional to b .

24

Shear stress and viscosity

Experimentation reveals that for many liquids the
shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
shearing strain, so
= =

du
U
=
dy
b

where the constant of proportionality is called the

absolute viscosity, the dynamic viscosity or the
viscosity. It has units Nsm2 = kg m1 s1 .

Fluids obeying this

relation are called
Newtonian fluids.

25

Non-newtonian fluids

Not all fluids are

Newtonian fluids.

Shearing stress,

Bingham plastic

Shear thinning
Newtonian

ap
1
Shear thickening
Rate of shearing strain,

du
dy

Shear-thinning The apparent viscosity decreases

with increasing shear rate.
Shear-thickening The apparent viscosity increases
with increasing shear rate.
Bingham plastics Neither a fluid or a solid. It can
withstand a finite (small) shear stress) without
motion. Once critical shear stress is exceeded, it
can flow (so not a liquid). Toothpaste and
mayonnaise are Bingham plastic materials.
increasing shear rate.

26

Variation of temperature and pressure

Pressure does not affect the viscosity of liquids that

much. The effects of changing temperature are quite
large.

27

The kinematic viscosity:

The ratio of the viscosity and the density often
occurs in fluid flow situation. This ratio,

is called the kinematic viscosity and has units m2 /s

. This gives a measure of the amount of viscosity per
unit mass.
It is a matter of taste whether the kinematic or
dynamic viscosity is the primary quantity.

28

Compressibility
The bulk modulus is the parameter that describes
how easy it is to compress an material. It is defined
Ev =

p
V /V

Negative since because increase in pressure leads to

decrease in volume.
Units are Nm2 = kg m1 s2 or Pa .
The bulk modulus is large for liquids e.g. 109 Nm2
. For a 1% change in volume
p
10
0.010
9

so a pressure of 107 Pa (100 times atmospheric) is

required to effect this change.
Most liquids are often called incompressible fluids.

29

Compression and expansion of gases

The behaviour of a gas upon compression/expansion
depends on the nature of the process.
In an isothermal process
p
= constant

and Ev = p .
In an isoentropic process (no heat transfer or friction
losses)
p
= constant
X

where X = cp /cv is the ratio of the heat capacities

at constant pressure and volume respectively. The
bulk modulus is Ev = pX .

30

Speed of Sound
Sound waves consist of regions of compression and
rarefaction that travel through the medium. They
are longitudinal waves.

The sound wave depends on

Inertial property,
Ability to compress fluid, Ev
Use dimensional analysis
c = ()x (Ev )y
dim(c) = [dim()]x [dim(Ev )]y
Mx My
L
=
T
L3x Ly T 2y

31

Speed of Sound
L
T

Mx My
L3x Ly T 2y

The equations
M:

x+y =0

L:

3x y = 1

T : 0x 2y = 1
have x = 1/2 and y = 1/2 as a solution. So
c=

Ev

The speed of sound decreases when the inertial

aspect of the medium (i.e. ) increases and it also
increases when the elastic property of the medium
(i.e. Ev ) increases.

32

Speed of Sound; Some values

The compression/rarefaction process is isentropic for
gases, so using the ideal gas law
c=

Xp
= kR T

For air at 16 o C , X = 1.40 and R = 286.9

c = 1.40 286.9 289.3 = 348 ms1

The speed of sound is lower at high altitudes.
For water at 16 o C , = 998.2 kgm3 ,
Ev = 2.19 109 Nm2 ,
c=

2.19 109
= 1481 ms1
998.2

Sound travels faster through water than air.

33

Vapour Pressure
Liquids tend to evaporate. Some molecules gain
enough kinetic energy to overcome the cohesive
forces that bind them to the surface.

In a closed container, the evacuated gap above

the liquid will contain a vapour.
Equilibrium reached when same number of
molecules evaporate and reabsorbed.
The vapour pressure is the wator vapour gas
pressure when equilibrium is reached.
The vapour pressure depends on the
temperature since this determines the available
kinetic energy of molecules.

34

Vapour Pressure and boiling

Liquids boil (i.e. form
vapour bubble within
the fluid mass) when the
absolute pressure in the
fluid is the same as the
vapour pressure.
The vapour pressure of water at 100 o C is 101, 300
Pa .
The vapour pressure of water at 90 o C is 70, 100 Pa
. So at high elevations, the boiling temperature
decreases. Atmospheric pressure is approximately
70, 000 Pa at 3000 m . You need to modify cooking
recipes in high mountain towns.
High speed fluid motion though narrow passages
leads to low pressure regions. Bubbles can form in
these regions and suddenly collapse when fluid
pressure increases. Called cavitation.

35

Surface Tension
Consider the attractive forces between an molecule
and its nearest neighbours.

In interior, no net force.

On surface, net force toward interior.
The surface of the liquid will rearrange until the
least number of molecules are present on the
surface (i.e. the surface area will be minimized).
The surface molecules will pack somewhat closer
together than the rest of the molecules in the
liquid. The surface molecules will be more
ordered and resistant to molecular disruptions,
like a skin.
Drop of water is like a balloon. The tensile force
along the surface gives a drop of water its shape

36

Surface Tension
Pressure
difference
between inside and
outside
Look at half bubble

p R2

No net force on half bubble

Surface tension force (from other half) pulls
bubble to left T = 2R .
Pressure imbalance (between inside/outside)
gives Fp = p R2 .
Can equate 2R = p R2 so
2
p =
R
The pressure inside the drop is larger than the
pressure outside.

37

Surface Tension: Definition

The surface tension, is the magnitude of Force F
exerted parallel to the surface divided by the length
L over which the force acts.

A typical way to measure surface tension is to form a

film on slide and measure the force (note there is a
surface tension on the top and bottom surfaces).
The surface tension has units of N/m

38

Surface Tension and Capillarity

The rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is due to
surface tension. Depends on interaction between
solid molecules and fluid molecules.

2 R

R2 h

2R
(a)

(b)

(c)

When the adhesion (force between fluid molecules

and wall) is greater than cohesion (force between
fluid molecules themselves) the fluid molecules will
be pulled up the wall, wetting the surface.
The height h , of the creep depends on surface
tension , tube radius R , density (or specific
weight) of the fluid g , the angle of contact
between the fluid and the tube.

39

Surface Tension and Capillarity

2 R

R2 h

2R
(a)

(b)

(c)

From the free body diagram, Surface tension

upwards is 2R cos() . Weight force of plug
R2 hg . Equating these two give
2 cos()
h=
gR
The angle of contact, depends on the molecular
properties of the liquid and tube. If the adhesion
force is weak then the fluid level in the capillary can
be depressed and the fluid does not wet the surface.
For water on clean glass 0o . For mercury on
clean glass < 0o .