Please cite this Article as : , : Indian Streams

Research Journal (June ; 2012)

C. Chandrappa Society and Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana
Volume 2, Issue. 6, July 2012
Indian Streams Research Journal
The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under who moved the capital to
Kalyana.1
For over a century, the two empires of southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the
of fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of . During these conflicts, the
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage
took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation. During the rule of , in the late
eleventh to early twelfth century, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and
reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan.2 Vast areas between the
in the north and in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other
major ruling families of the Deccan, the , the , the
and the Southern , were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence
only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the twelfth century.3
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an
architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most
of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known
examples are the at , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii, the Kallesvara
Temple at Bagali and the at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of
fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the
native language of , and .4
Somesvara I
Chola
dynasty Tanjore Vengi
Vikramaditya VI
Narmada
River Kaveri River
Hoysalas Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri Kakatiya dynasty
Kalachuri
Kasivisvesvara Temple Lakkundi
Mahadeva Temple
Kannada Sanskrit
Abstract:
The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the , , between the 10th
and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyana Chalukya after its
regal capital at Kalyana, today's in Bidar district of and
alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the sixth century
of . The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate
from the contemporaneous of , a separate dynasty. Prior to the
rise of these Chalukyas, the s of controlled most of Deccan and
central India for over two centuries.In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire
after a successful invasion of their capital by the of , a
feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from region defeated his overlords and made
Manyakheta his capital.
western Deccan South India
Basavakalyan Karnataka
Chalukya dynasty Badami
Eastern Chalukyas Vengi
Rashtrakuta Manyakheta
Paramara Malwa Tailapa II
Bijapur
ISSN:-2230-7850
Society and Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana
C. Chandrappa
Associate Professor Department of History. PG.Center,
Government Arts College Bangalore. Karanataka. 560 001.
SOCIETY
POSITION OF WOMEN
The rise of was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing which
retained royal support. The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of
education in this relatively liberal period. Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent
urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen
Chandala Devi's and queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirty
women poets included the work of the 12th century mystic Akka Mahadevi whose
devotion to the movement is well known. Contemporary records indicate some royal women were
involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who
fought and defeated rebellious feudals.6 Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood
indicating that (a custom in which a dead man's widow used to herself on her husband's
funeral ) though present was on a voluntary basis. Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among
the who preferred to fast to death ( ), while people of some other communities chose to
jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse.
Caste System
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, enjoyed a privileged position
as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that
revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs.
They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in
specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars
was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and
power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local
communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral
arbiters (Panchayat).
FOOD AND DRINKING HABITS
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the
partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat
from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge,
hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or
watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular
outdoor past time.10 In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and
entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
EDUCATION AND LEARNING
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces
served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main
function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing
in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu , Jain Palli and Buddhist . These
institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries
(Saraswati Bhandara). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher
learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of
Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects
taught varied from four to eighteen. The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics
(Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki), subjects that are
mentioned as early as .
EONOMY
AGRICULTURE AND LABOUR
Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the
people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of , , and in the dry areas and
sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with and being the chief cash crops. The living
Veerashaivaism Hindu caste system
Kalachuri
Vachana Virashaiva
bhakti 5
Sati immolate
pyre 7
Jains Sallekhana
Brahmins
8
9
11
Matha Vihara 12
13
KautilyasArthasastra
rice pulses cotton
areca betel
2 Society and Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana
conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts
by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate
in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of
revenue from their labor.
TAXATION SYSTEM
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use
of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial
fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and
agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax
assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya
records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in
determining taxation rates.
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or .
The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the
Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the
rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are
mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and
village council duties.
GUILDS OR ORGANISATION OF CORPORATE ENTERPRISES
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century. Almost all arts and crafts
were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis; records do not mention individual
artists, sculptors and craftsman. Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched
their names below their creations. Merchants organised themselves into powerful that
transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions.
Their only threat was the possibility of theft from when their ships and caravans traveled to distant
lands. Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the , the and the
. Local guilds were called nagaram, while the were traders from neighbouring
kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of
all South Indian merchant guilds was the self styled , also known as the 500 Svamis of
Ayyavolepura ( and of present day ),20 who conducted extensive land and sea
trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its
trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their
achievements in (Prasasti). Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions, with their own
flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business.
TRADE AND COMMERCE
Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The
edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as , , Maleya
( ), , , , , Kambhoja ( ), Lata ( ), Parasa
( ) and . Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones,
spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones
such as diamonds, , , , and . Commonly traded spices were
cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood, , musk,
and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns. The
Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established
extensive trade ties with the of , the empires of and the
in , and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports. Exports to
China included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and
camphor. The same products also reached ports in the west such as and . The final destinations
for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt. The thriving trade center of , a port on
the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the
Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the
Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them.23 In
addition to this, Siraf received wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive
14
15
16
Goudas
Prabhu
17
18
19 guilds
brigands
Manigramam Nagarattar
Anjuvannam Nanadesis
Ainnurruvar
Brahmins Mahajanas Aihole
inscriptions
Chera Pandya
Malayasia Magadh Kaushal Saurashtra Kurumba Cambodia Gujarat
Persia Nepal
lapis lazuli onyx topaz carbuncles emeralds
bdellium
civet 21
Tang Empire China Southeast Asia Abbasid
Caliphate Bhagdad
Song Dynasty
Dhofar Aden
22 Siraf
aloe
3 Society and Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana
imports to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local
Brahmin merchants. Thirteenth century traveler recorded that the breeding of horses never
succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions.
CONCLUSIONS.
The Western Chalukyas who ruled most of the , , between the 10th and 12th
centuriesare sometimes called the Kalyana Chalukya and the Later Chalukya also. During the Chalukyas of
kalyana, the social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education. The
Hindu caste system was conspicuously present and the enjoyed a privileged position in the
Society. Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different
kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Schools and hospitals were built in the vicinity of
temples, Hindu , Jain Palli and Buddhist , schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri
(or Ghatika or Agrahara).
Agriculture was the main source of income through, staple crops of , , and in the
dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with and being the chief cash crops
were cultivated. Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, tolls for the use of transportation
facilities, fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines, horses and salt were taxed as well as
commodities and import and export taxes. Gavundas (officials) or were key officials for collection
of taxes. The organisation of corporate enterprises were common and almost all arts and crafts were
organised into guilds. Merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty
items. The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast, they had established extensive
trade ties with the of , the empires of and the in
.
REFERENCES
1.Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present.
Bangalore: Jupiter books. pp10-12, p100, Sastry, Shama & Rao, N. Lakshminarayana. "Kannada inscriptions".
Archaeological survey of India, South Indian inscriptions, Saturday, November 18, 2006. What Is India Publishers (P)
Ltd..
http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_ 9/ chalukyas_of_kalyani.html.
Retrieved 2006-12-28.
2.Kamath, Suryanath U. Op.Cit 2001, p105.
3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire#History
4.Rao, Kishan. "Emperor of Temples crying for attention". The Hindu, June 10 2002. The Hindu.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/06/10/stories/2002061003760500.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
5.Thapar, Romila (2003), The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books., p392
6.Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New
Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press., p286
7.Kamath, Suryanath U. Op.Cit., pp 112113
8.Sastri 1955, p289.
9.Ibid, p288.
10.Ibid, p289.
11.Kamath Suryanath U, 2001, p112
12.Ibid., 115
13.Sastri (1955), p292.
14.Thapar (2002), p373.
15.Ibid., p378.
16.Sastri Op.Cit., p298
17.Thapar (2002), p379
18.Thapar, Romila (2003), The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books., p382
19.Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New
Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press., p299.
20.Sastri (1955), p300 and Thapar (2002), p384
21.Sastri (1955) Ibid, 301.
22.Thapar (2002) Op.Cit., 383.
23.Sastri (1955), p302.
24.Thapar (2002), 383
Marco Polo
24
western Deccan South India
Brahmins
Matha Vihara
rice pulses cotton
areca betel
Goudas
Tang Empire China Southeast Asia Abbasid Caliphate
Bhagdad
4 Society and Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana