CONTENTS

Sl
No
Title of the Experiments Pg.No
1
Exercise 1
a) To measure distance between two points using direct ranging
b) To set out perpendiculars at various points on given line using cross staf,
optical square and tape.
2
Exercise 2
Setting out of rectangle, hexagon using tape/chain and other accessories
3
Exercise 3
Measurement of bearing of the sides of a closed traverse ad!ustment of
closing error b" #owdich method and Transit method
4
Exercise 4.
To set out rectangles, pentagon, hexagon, using tape /chain and compass
5
Exercise 5
To determine the distance between two inaccessible points using chain/tape
compass.
6
Exercise 6
To locate points using radiation and intersection method of plane tabling
7
Exercise 7
To solve $%point problem in plane tabling using #essel&s graphical solution
8
Exercise 8
To determine diference in elevation between two points using '" leveling
technique to conduct '" bac( leveling. #oo(ing of levels using both )* and
+ise ,all methods.
9
Exercise 9
To determine diference in elevation between two points using reciprocal
leveling and to determine the collimation error
10
Exercise 10
To conduct pro-le leveling for water suppl" /sewage line and to draw the
longitudinal section to determine the depth of cut and depth of -lling for a
given formation level
Demonstration
Minor instruments . /linometer, /e"lon ghat tracer, )and level, #ox sextant,
0lanimeter and 0antagraph.
1
1.0 STUDY OF INSTRUENTS USED FOR C!"IN SUR#EY
Intro$%&tion'
Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance either with the help
of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct measurements !or
work of ordinar" precision# a chain can $e used# $ut for higher precision a tape or special
$ar can $e used %he distance determined $" chaining form the $asis of sur&e"ing 'o
matter how accuratel" angles ma" $e measured# the sur&e" can $e no more precise than
the chaining
%he &arious instruments used for the determination of the length of line $" chaining are
as follows(
1) Chain or %ape
2) *rrows
3) +egs
4) ,anging rods
5) -ffset rods
6) +laster.s laths and whites
7) +lum$ $o$
Ch(in'
Chains are formed of straight links of gal&ani/ed mild steel wire $ent into rings at
the ends and 0oined each other $" three small circular or o&al wire rings %hese rings offer
fle1i$ilit" to the chain %he ends of the chain are pro&ided with $rass handle at each end
with swi&el 0oint# so that the chain can $e turned without twisting %he length of a link is
the distance $etween the centers of two consecuti&e middle rings# while the length of the
chain is measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle
!ollowing are &arious t"pes of chains in common use(
i) 2etric chain
ii) 3unter.s chain or 4ur&e"or.s chain
iii) 5ngineer.s chain
i&) ,e&enue chain
&) 4teel $and or $and chain
etri& Ch(ins'
*fter the introduction of metric units in 6ndia# the metric chains are widel" used
2etric chains are generall" a&aila$le in lengths of 5# 10# 20 and 30 meters !igs 1 and 2
show the 5m and 10m chains respecti&el"# while !igs 3 and 4 show the 20m and 30m
chains respecti&el" !ig 5 shows the details of a metric chain
%o ena$le the reading of fractions of a chain without much difficult"# tallies are
fi1ed at e&er" meter length for chains of 5m and 10 m lengths *nd at e&er" 5 meter
length for chains of 20 m and 30 m lengths 6n the case of 20 m and 30 m chains# small
$rass rings are pro&ided at e&er" meter length# e1cept where tallies are attached %he
shapes of tallies are different at 1#2#3#4 meters %o facilitate holding of arrows in position
with the handle of the chain# a groo&e is cut on the outside surface of the handle %he
2
tallies used for marking distances in the metric chains are marked with the letters 7m. in
the order to distinguish them from non8metric chains %he length of
chain#5m#10m#20m#or 30m as the case ma" $e#are engra&ed on $oth the handles to
indicate the length and also to distinguish the chains from non8metric chains
!ig1582eter chain
!ig21082eter chain
!ig32082eter chain
3
!ig43082eter chain
!ig59etails of 2etric chain
)%nter*s &h(in or S%r+e,or*s &h(in'
* 3unter.s chain or 4ur&e"or.s chain is 66 ft long and consists of 100 links# each
link $eing 06 ftor 792 inches long %he length of 66 ftwas originall" adopted for
con&enience in land measurement since 10 s:uare chains are e:ual to 1 acrealso#when
linear measurements are re:uired in furlongs and miles# it is more con&enient since 10
3unter.s chains ;1 furlong and 80 3unter.s chains; 1 mile
Engineer*s &h(in((
%he engineer.s chain 6s 100 ftlong and consists of 100 links# each link $eing
1ftlong*t e&er" 10 links# $rass tags are fastened# with notches on the tags indicating the
num$er of 10 link segments $etween the tag and end of the chain %he distances
measured are recorded in feet and decimals
Re+en%e &h(in'
%he re&enue chain is 33 ftlong and consists of 16 links< each link $eing 2 1=16
ftlong%he chain is mainl" used for measuring fields in cadastral sur&e"
Steel -(n$ or -(n$ &h(in'
%he steel $and consists of a long narrow strip of $lue steel# of uniform width of 12
to 16 mm and thickness of 03 to 06 mm 2etric steel $ands are a&aila$le in lengths of
20 or 30 m6t is di&ided $" $rass studs at e&er" 20 cm and num$ered at e&er" metre%he
first and last links >20 cm length)are su$di&ided into cm and mm*lternati&el"#in the
place of putting $rass studs# a steel $and ma" ha&e graduations etched as
metres#decimeters and centimeters on one side and 02m#links on the other !or
con&enience in handling and carr"ing# steel $ands are almost in&aria$l" wound on special
steel crosses or metal reels from which the" can $e easil" unrolled
!or accurate work# the steel $and should alwa"s $e used in preference to the
chain# $ut it should onl" $e placed in the hands of careful chainmen * steel $and is
lighter than the chain and
4
%apes are used for more accurate measurements and are classed according to the
material of which the" are made# such as follows
1 Cloth or linen tape
2 2etallic tape
3 4teel tape and
4 6n&ar tape
Cloth or linen t(pe'
Cloth tapes of closel" wo&en linen# 12 to 15 mm wide &arnished to resist
moisture# are light and fle1i$le and ma" $e used for taking comparati&el" rough and
su$sidiar" measurements such as offsets * cloth tape is commonl" a&aila$le in lengths of
10 metres# 20 meters and 30 meters# and in 33 ft# 50ft# 66 ftand 100 ft%he end of the
tape is pro&ided with small $rass ring whose length is included in the total length of the
tape
* cloth tape is rarel" used for making accurate measurements# $ecause of the
following reasons(
1) 6t is easil" affected $" moisture or dampness and thus shrinks
2) 6ts length get altered $" stretching
3) 6t is likel" to twist and tangle
4) 6t is not strong ?efore winding up the tape in the case< it should $e cleaned
and dried
et(lli& t(pe'
* metallic tape is made of &arnished strip of waterproof linen interwo&en with
small $rass# copper or $ron/e wires and does not stretch as easil" as a cloth tape 4ince
metallic tapes are light and fle1i$le and are not easil" $riken# the" are particularl" useful
in cross8sectioning and in some methods of topograph" where small errors in length of
the tape are of no conse:uence 2etallic tapes are made in lengths of 2# 5#10#20#30 and
50 meters %he outer ends of these tapes are reinforced $" a strip of leather or suita$le
plastic material of the same width as the tape# for a length of at least 20 cmtapes of 10#
20# 30 and 50 meter lengths are supplied in a metal or leather case fitted with a winding
de&ice
!ig 6 2etallic %ape
Steel t(pe'
4teel tapes &ar" in :ualit" and accurac" of graduation# $ut e&en a poor steel tape
is generall" superior to a cloth or metallic tape for most of the linear measurements that
5
are made in sur&e"ing * steel tape consists of a light strip of width 6 to 10 mm and is
more accuratel" graduated 4teel tapes are a&aila$le in lengths of 1# 2#10#20#30 and 50
meters %he tapes of 10# 20#30 and 50 meter lengths are pro&ided with a $rass ring at the
outer end# fastened to it $" a metal strip of the same width as then tape %he length of the
tape includes the metal ring 6t is wound in a well sewn leather case or a corrosion
resisting metal case# ha&ing a suita$le winding de&ice %apes of longer length are wound
on metal reel
!ig 7 4teel %ape !ig 8 4teel %ape on reel
In+(r t(pe'
6n&ar tapes are used mainl" for linear measurements of a &er" high degree of
precision# such as measurements of $ase lines %he in&ar tape is made of allo" of nickel
>36 @) and steel# and has &er" low coefficient of thermal e1pansion8seldom more than
a$out one8tenth of that of steel# and often &er" much less %he other great ad&antage of
in&ar is that $ands and wires made of in&ar ena$le $ase lines to $e measured &er" much
more rapidl" and con&enientl" 6n&ar tapes and $ands are e1pensi&e# much softer and are
more easil" deformed than steel tapes *nother great dis&antage of in&ar tape is that it is
su$0ected to creep due to which it undergoes a small increase in length as time goes on
6ts coefficient of thermal e1pansion also goes on changing 6t is therefore# &er" essential
to determine its length and coefficient of e1pansion from time to time 6n&ar tapes are
normall" 6 mm wide and are a&aila$le in lengths of 20# 30 and 100m
%he difficult" with in&ar tapes is that the" are easil" $ent and damaged %he"
must# therefore# $e kept on reels of large diameter# as shown in !ig8
!ig86n&ar tape on reel
"RRO.S'
*rrows are making pins are made of stout steel wire# and generall"#10 arrows are
supplied with a chain *n arrow is inserted into the ground after e&er" chain length
6
measured on the ground *rrows are made of good :ualit" hardened and tempered steel
wire 4 mm >8 swg) in diameter# and are $lack enameled %he length of arrow ma" &ar"
from 25 cm to 50 cm# the most common length $eing 40 cm-ne end of the arrow is
made sharp and other end is $ent into a loop or circle for facilit" of carr"ing !ig 9shows
the details of a 40 cm long arrow as recommended $" the 6ndian 4tandard
!ig9*rrow
PE)S'
Aooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the stations or terminal points of a
sur&e" line %he" are made of stout tim$er# generall" 25 cm or 3 cm s:uare and 15 cm
ling# tapered at the end %he" are dri&en in the ground with the help of a wooden hammer
and kept a$out 4 cm pro0ecting a$o&e the surface
!ig10Aooden +eg
R"N)IN) RODS'
,anging rods ha&e a length of either 2 m or 3 m# the 2 meter length $eing more
common %he" are shoed at the $ottom with a hea&" iron point# and are painted in
7
alternati&e $ands of either $lack and white or red and white or $lack# red and white in
succession# each $and $eing 20 cm deep so that on occasion the rod can $e used for rough
measurement of short lengths ,anging rods are used to range some intermediate
intermediate points in the sur&e" line %he" are circular or octagonal in cross8section of 3
cm nominal diameter# made of well8seasoned# straight grained tim$er %he rods are
almost in&isi$le at a distance of a$out 200 meters# hence when used on long lines each
rod should ha&e a red# white or "ellow flag# a$out 30 to 50 cm s:uare# tied on near its top
!ig11,anging and -ffset rod
R(nging poles'
,anging poles are similar to ranging rods e1cept that the" are longer and of
greater diameter and are used incase of &er" long lines 3enerall" the" are not pointed#
$ut in all cases the" are pro&ided with a large flag %heir length ma" &ar" from 4 to 8
meters# and diameter from 6 to 10 cm%he foot of each pole is sunk 05m into the ground#
the pole $eing set :uite &ertical $" aid of a plum$ $o$
OFFSET RODS'
*n offset rod is similar to a ranging rod and has a length of 3m%he" are round
wooden rods# shod with pointed iron shoe at one end# and pro&ided with a notch or a
hook at the other %he hook facilitates pulling and pushing the chain through hedges and
other o$structions %he rod is mainl" used for measuring rough offsets near$" 6t has also
two narrow slots passing through the center of the section# and set at right angles to one
another# at the e"e le&el# for aligning the offset line
/%tt ro$'
* $utt rod is also used for measuring offsets# $ut it is often used $" $uilding
sur&e"ors or architects 6t generall" consists of two laths# each of 1 "ard or 1 m in length
loosel" ri&eted together %he 0oint is also pro&ided with a spring catch to keep the rod
e1tended %he rod is painted $lack the di&isions of feet and inches are marked out with
white and red paint
P0"STER*S 0"T!S "ND .!ITES'
6n open le&el ground# intermediate points on a line ma" also $e lined out with
straight laths# to 1 meter long# made of soft wood %he" are light $oth in color and
8
weight# and can $e easil" carried a$out and sharpened with a knife when re:uired %he"
are also &er" useful for ranging out a line when crossing a depression from which the
forward rod is in&isi$le# or when it is hidden $" o$stacles# such as hedges etc
.hites'
!ig12Ahites
Ahites are pieces of sharpened thin sticks cut from the nearest edge# and are used for the
same purpose as the laths# through not so satisfactor" in use %he" are sharpened at one
end and split with the knife at the top# and pieces of white paper are inserted in the clefts
in order to make them more &isi$le when struck up in the grass %he" are also useful in
cross8sectioning or in temporar" marking of contour points
P0U/ /O/'
Ahile chaining along sloping ground# a plum$ $o$ is re:uired to transfer the
points to the ground 6t is also used to make ranging poles &ertical and to transfer points
from a line ranger to the ground 6n addition #it is used as centering aid in
theodolites#compass#plane ta$le and a &ariet" of other sur&e"ing instruments
!ig13+lum$ ?o$
1. ESUREENT OF DIST"NCE /Y C!"ININ) "ND R"N)IN)
1.(2 To me(s%re $ist(n&e -et3een t3o points %sing $ire&t r(nging
9
"im'
%o measure the distance $etween two stations $" using chain or tape and direct
ranging
Instr%ments Re4%ire$'
Chain# %ape# *rrows# ,anging ,ods
Theor,'
Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distances either with the
help of a chain or a tape and is the more accurate method of making direct measurements
Ahile measuring the length of a sur&e" line or 7chain line.# chain or tape must $e
stretched straight along the line 0oining its two terminal stations 6f the length of line is
less than the length of the chain# there will $e no difficult"# in doing so6f# howe&er# the
length of the line e1ceeds the length of the chain# some intermediate points will ha&e to
$e esta$lished in line with the two terminal points $efore chaining is started %he process
of fi1ing or esta$lishing such an intermediate points is known as ranging %here are two
methods of ranging( i) 9irect ,anging# ii) 6ndirect ranging
9irect ranging is done when two ends of the sur&e" lines are inter&isi$le 6n such
cases ranging can either $e done $" e"e or through some optical instruments such as line
ranger or a theodolite
!ig14
1. (.12 Pro&e$%re for $ire&t r(nging'
1 Bet * and ? $e two points at the ends of a sur&e" line
2 -ne ranging rod is erected at the point ?# while the sur&e"or stands with another
ranging rod at point 7*.# holding the rod at a$out half meter length in line with
*?
3 %he assistant then goes with another ranging rod and esta$lishes the rod at a point
appro1imatel" in the line with *? >$" 0udgment) at a distance not greater than one
chain length from 7*.
4 %he sur&e"or at 7*. then signals the assistant to mo&e tra&erse to the chain line#till
he is in line with 7*. C 7?.
5 4imilarl"# other intermediate points can $e esta$lished %he code of signal used
for this purposes are gi&en in the ta$le $elow
Sl
No
Sign(l -, S%r+e,or "&tion -, the "ssist(nt
1 ,apid sweep with right hand 2o&e considera$l" to right
10
2 4low sweep with right hand 2o&e slowl" to right
3 ,ight arm e1tended Continue to mo&e to right
4 ,ight arm up and mo&ed to the right +lum$ the rod to the right
5 ,ight sweep with left hand 2o&e considera$le to Beft
6 4low sweep with left hand 2o&e slowl" to left
7 left arm e1tended Continue to mo&e to left
8 Beft arm up and mo&ed to the left +lum$ the rod to the left
9 ?oth hands a$o&e head and then $rought down correct
10 ?oth arm e1tended forward hori/ontall" and the
hands depressed $riskl"
!i1 the road
1. (.12 Pro&e$%re for "&&%r(te r(nging (n$ &h(ining'
1 Bet the length of the line 7*?. is to $e measured# point 7*. $eing the starting
point +lace a ranging rod $ehind the point 7?. so that it is on the line with respect
to the starting point 7*.
2 %he follower stands at the point 7*. holding one end of the tape while the leader
mo&es ahead holding /ero end of the tape in one hand a $undle of arrows in the
other Ahen he reaches appro1imatel" one tape length distance from 7*. the
follower directs him for ranging in the line %he tape is then pulled out and
whipped gentl" to make sure that its entire length lies along the line %he leader
then pushes the arrow into the ground# opposite the /ero
3 %he follower then releases his end of the tape and the two mo&es forward along
the line# the leader dragging the tape Ahen the end of the tape reaches the arrow
0ust placed# follower calls out of tape and lines the leader in and the procedure is
repeated as in step 2
4 Ahen the second arrow has $een esta$lished $" the leader# follower picks up the
first arrow# and $oth the persons mo&e ahead as descri$ed in step 3%he procedure
is repeated until ten tape lengths ha&e $een measured *t this stage# the leader will
$e out of arrows# while follower will ha&e nine arrows %he leader will then call
DarrowsE or DtenE Ahen the leader mo&es further after the tape length has $een
measured# and reaches the tape length ahead# the follower takes out the tenth
arrow# erects a ranging rod or a nail in its place and then transfers 10 arrows to the
leader %he sur&e"or records the transfer of arrows in the field $ook
5 *t the end of the line# at 7?.# the last measurement will generall" $e a partial tape
length from the last arrow set to the end point of the line %he leader holds the end
of the tape at 7?.while the follower pulls the tape $ack till it $ecomes taul and
then reads against the arrow
Res%lts'
1. %he ranging is done $etween 7*. and 7?.
%he total chain length ;
1. %he accurate ranging is done $etween 7*. C 7?.
%he total tape length ;
O-ser+(tions'
i) *&erage pace &alue ; *ctual 9istance ; 30=39 ;077 mt
11
'oofsteps
'o of steps from 7*. to 7?.;
%herefore#
9istance $" pacin.s $etween 7*. C 7?. ; >'o of steps from 7*. to 7?.) 1 >*&gpace
&alue)
Ch(ining'
ii) %he actual chain length ; 30 mt
'o of chain lengths measured ;
*fter the888888chain# length to 7?. ;
%herefore#
%otal chain length $etween 7* 7C 7?.;
iii) %he actual chain length ; 30 mt
'o of tape lengths measured ;
*fter the888888%ape# length to 7?. ;
%herefore#
%otal tape length $etween 7* 7C 7?. ;

1. -2 SETTIN) OUT OF PERPENDICU0"RS "T #"RIOUS POINTS ON
)I#EN 0INE USIN) CROSS ST"FF5 OPTIC"0 S6U"RE "ND T"PE.
12
"im'
%o set out perpendiculars to a gi&en chain line from a point on it using Cross staff#
-ptical s:uare and tape
Instr%ments Re4%ire$'
Chain# %ape# *rrows# ,anging ,ods# Cross staff# -ptical s:uare
Theor,'
%here are se&eral t"pes of instruments used to set out a right angles to a chain line
%he most common $eing i) cross8staff ii) optical s:uare iii) prism s:uarei&) site s:uare
Cross7st(ff'
%he simplest instrument used for setting out right angles is a cross staff 6t
consists of either a frame or $o1 with two pairs of &ertical slits and is mounted on a pole
shod for fi1ing in the ground %he common forms of cross staff are >a) open cross staff#
>$) !rench cross staff#>c) ad0usta$le cross staff
!ig15
Opti&(l S4%(re'
-ptical s:uare is somewhat more con&enient and accurate instrument than the
cross staff for setting out a line at right angles to another line6t is a sur&e"orFs instrument
with reflectors which refracts an incident $eam at an angle of 90 degrees
Prism S4%(re'
%he prism s:uare works on the same principle as that of optical s:uare 6t is a
more modern and precise instrument and used in similar manner 6t has the merit that no
ad0ustment is re:uired since the angle $etween the reflecting surfaces >ie 45 G) cannot
&ar"
Site s4%(re(
%he site s:uare designed for setting out straight lines and offset lines at 90 G to
each other
1. -.12 Pro&e$%re for setting o%t perpen$i&%l(r %sing &ross st(ff'
1 %he cross staff is set up at a point on the line from which the right angle is to run
13
2 %he cross staff is then turned until one line of sight passes through the ranging
pole at the end of the sur&e" line
3 %he line of sight through the other two &anes will $e a line at right angles to the
sur&e" line and a ranging rod ma" $e esta$lished in that direction
1. -.12 Pro&e$%re for setting o%t perpen$i&%l(r %sing Ch(in (n$ T(pe'
%here three methods of setting out perpendicular using chain and tape %he" are as
follows %he 6llustrations gi&en are for a 10m tapeHowe&er# a 20m tape ma" also $e
used
!ig16
i) The 8797: metho$'
1 5rect a chain line 7*?. on the ground
2 Bet it $e re:uired to erect a perpendicular to the chain line at a point 7C. on a
chain line
3 5sta$lish a point 75. at a distance of 3 mt from C
4 +ut the /ero end of the tape >10m long) at 5 and the 10m end at C
5 %he 5m and 6m marks are $rought together to form a loop of 1m
6 %he tape is now stretched tight $" fastening the ends 75. and 7C.
7 %he point 79. is thus esta$lished *ngle 9C5 will $e 90 G -ne person can set
a right angle $" this method
ii2 Se&on$ metho$'
1 4elect a chain line.*?.
2 4elect a point 7C. on chain line 7*?.
3 4elect 75. and 7!. e:uidistant from 7C.ie 5C;C!
4 Hold the /ero end of the tape at 75.# and 10 m end at !
5 +ick up 5m mark# stretch the tape tight and esta$lish 9Ioin 9C
iii2 Thir$ metho$'
1 4elect a chain line 7*?. on the ground
2 4elect a point 7C. on chain line 7*?.
3 4elect one more point 7!. outside the chain line 7*?. prefera$l" at 5 m
distance from 7C.
4 Hold the 5m mark at 7!. and /ero mark at 7C.#and with 7! 7as centre draw an
arc to cut the line at 75.
5 Ioin 75!. and produce it to 79 7such that 75!;!9.%hus the point 79. is done
6 %hus the point 9 will lie at the 10m mark of tape laid along 5! with its /ero
end at 5 Ioin 9C
Res%lt'
* perpendicular of distance C9 is plotted on the ground $" using chain and tape
14
1 38485 method C9;
2 4econd method C9;
3 %hird method C9;
1. -.82 Pro&e$%re to $rop ( perpen$i&%l(r to ( &h(in line from ( point o%t si$e it'
!ig17
i2 First metho$'
1 5rect a chain line 7*?. on the ground
2 Bet 79.$e the point which is to $e dropped perpendicularl" to the chain line
3 4elect an" point 75. on the chain line
4 Aith 79. as centre and 95 as radius# draw an arc to cut the chain line in !
5 ?isect 5! at CIoin C and 9C9 will $e perpendicular to *?
ii2 Se&on$ metho$'
1 4elect an" point 5 on the chain line *?
2 Ioin 59 and $isect it at !
3 Aith ! as centre and 5! or !9 as radius# draw arc to cut the chain line in
CC9 will $e perpendicular to the chain line
iii2 Thir$ metho$'
1 4elect an" point 5 on the chain line *?
2 Aith 5 as centre and 59 as radius# draw arc to cut the chain line in !
3 2easure !9 and !5
4 -$tain the point C on the line $" making !C ; !9
2
= 25!
5 Ioin C and 9
6 C9 will $e perpendicular to the chain line
Res%lt'
!C ; !9
2
= 25! ;
%he length of the line !C is found to $e 8888888888 m $" using chain and tape
8.0 SETTIN) OUT OF RECT"N)0E5 !E;")ON USIN) T"PE<C!"IN "ND
OT!ER "CCESSORIES
8.12 CONSTRUCTION OF " RECT"N)0E
15
"im'
%o construct a regular rectangle of si/e 15m 1 10 m using tape or chain and other
accessories
Instr%ments Re4%ire$'
Chain# %ape# *rrows# ,anging ,ods# Cross staff
Theor,'
* regular rectangle is a pol"nomial which has four e:ual interior angle and 2
e:ual sides as parallel to each other
Pro&e$%re'
i2 etho$ =1'
1 4tretch a chain line on the le&el ground
2 'ow mark a point * and with a distance 15m from * mark another point ? on
the chain line
3 *s we know that in right angled triangle the h"potenuse is gi&en $"
*9 ;J *?
2
K ?9
2
# *9;?C >9iagonals)
4 *s the si/e of the rectangle is gi&en $" 15 1 10 mAe know that inclined angle
is 90 G
5 'ow the diagonal length *9 of rectangle is calculated
6 'ow with ? as centre draw an arc of radius 1802 m# with * as centre draw an
arc of radius 10 m such that it cuts the pre&ious arc at C
7 'ow the point 7C. is esta$lished
8 ,epeat the steps 6 C 7 to get the point 79. on the other side 2easure for C9#
*9# ?9 and ?C
ii2 etho$ =1'
1 4tretch a chain line on the le&eled ground
2 2ark stations * C ? on the chain line 15 m apart
3 Lsing cross staff or 38485 method erect a perpendicular *5 C ?5 from * C ?
4 6f the perpendicular is erected $" using cross staff# then the perpendicular length
shall $e e:ual to 10 m or# if the perpendicular is erected $" using 38485 method
then the new points 5 C ! will $e introduced C from the perpendicular length
will $e produced up to 10m
5 !inall" the stations C C 9 are esta$lished *C perpendicular to *? and ?9
perpendicular to *? will $e checked $" using Cross staff
6 'ow the rectangle is o$tained $" 0oining *?C9
iii2 etho$ =8'
1 4tretch the chain line on the le&eled ground
2 2ark stations * C ? on the chain line 15 m apart
3 4et out perpendicular at * C ? using Cross staff C measure for a$out 10m
4 2ark the points C C 9 on the ground Ioin C9 and measure it
16
O-ser+(tions'
!rom %riangle *?C# ?C
2
; *?
2
K

*C
2
?C ; J*?
2
K

*C
2
; J15
2
K

10
2
?C ; 1802 m
Res%lt'
i2 etho$ 1'
C9;
*9;
?9;
?C;
ii2 etho$ 1'
C9;
iii2 etho$ 8'
C9;
17
8.12 CONSTRUCTION OF " RE)U0"R PENT")ON
18
"im'
%o construct a regular pentagon of gi&en sides using tape or chain and other
accessories
Instr%ments Re4%ire$'
Chain# %ape# *rrows# ,anging ,ods# Cross staff etc
Theor,'
Lsing tape and chain an" regular figure can $e constructed %he included angle of
the gi&en regular figure can $e calculated as $elow %he included angle of the regular
pentagon is determined as follows
6ncluded angle M ; >2n84) 90 G
n
Ahere#
n ; num$er of sides
M ; included angle
%here fore here
M ; >2 1 584) 1 90 G
5
6n triangle *?C# if N
le
?; 108 G#
Ae know that# N
le
* K N
le
? KN
le
C ; 180 G
N
le
* KN
le
C ; 180 G 8 108 G
N
le
* ; N
le
C ;36 G
?" sin rule#
*C ; *?
4in ? 4in C
*C; *? 1 4in ?
4in C
*C; 5 1 4in 108 G
4in 36 G
%here fore *C ; 809 m ;810 m
Pro&e$%re'
i2 etho$ 71'
1 4elect a chain line on the ground
2 2ark points * C ? at a distance of 5 m from *
3 %o get point C# keep ? as centre 5m as radius >,egular pentagon) cut an arc
4 Oeep * as centre# 810 m as radius cut the arc which is drawn in step 3# to get
point C
5 ,epeat the same procedure to get 5 from * C ?
M ;108 G
19
6 %o get point 9 take 5m from 5 and C# $isect to get point 9
ii2 etho$ 71'
1 4elect a chain line on the ground
2 2ark points * C ? at a distance of 5 m from *
3 5rect perpendicular at ? $" 38485 method and mark a point ?F at a distance of 5m
on that perpendicular line
4 ?isect *? to get point 1 on *?
5 * as centre *?F as radius draw an arc to cut chain line at the point 2
6 Aith ? as centre draw an arc of 5 m
7 Aith * as centre and *2 as radius draw an arc to cut the pre&ious arc at CIoin ?
C C
iii2 etho$ 78'
1 4elect a chain line on the ground
2 2ark points * C ? at a distance of 5 m from *
3 5rect perpendicular at ? $" 38485 method and mark a point ?F at a distance of 5m
on that perpendicular line
4 ?isect *? to get point 1 on *?51tend the $isection line to a con&enient distance
and mark point 2
5 Ioin * C ?F to get point 4
6 ? as centre#?* as radius cut an arc on line 182 to get 5
7 2easure the distance $etween 4 and 5 and $isect it to get point 6
8 ? as centre ?* as radius draw an arc
9 6 as centre 6? as radius cut an arc to get point C
10 ,epeat the same procedure at point * to get point 5
11 *fter getting 5 and C# 5 as centre and 59 ;5m as radius cut the arc and repeat the
same from C
Res%lt'
8.82 CONSTRUCTION OF " RE)U0"R !E;")ON
"im'
20
%o construct a regular he1agon of sides 6m using tape or chain and other
accessories
Instr%ments Re4%ire$'
Chain# %ape# *rrows# ,anging ,ods# Cross staff etc
i2 etho$ 71'
Pro&e$%re'
1 4tretch a chain line PQ and mark the distance *? ;6m on the chain line
2 Aith * as centre 6m as radius draw an arc# with ? as centre again 6m as radius
draw another arc which cuts the pre&ious arc at -
3 Oeeping - as centre -* as radius draw a circle passing through ? and *
4 'ow ? as centre 6m as radius cut the circle successi&el" to get C# 9# 5 and !
5 Ioin the sides ?C# C9# 95# 5! and !*
Theor,'
Lsing tape and chain an" regular figure can $e constructed %he included angle of
the gi&en regular figure can $e calculated as $elow %he included angle of the regular
he1agon is determined as follows
6ncluded angle M ; >2n84) 90 G
n
Ahere#
n ; num$er of sides
M ; included angle
%here fore here # n;6
M ; >2 1 684) 1 90 G
6

C(l&%l(tions'
6n triangle *?C# if N
le
?; 120 G#
Ae know that# N
le
* K N
le
? KN
le
C ; 180 G
N
le
* KN
le
C ; 180 G 8 120 G
N
le
* ; N
le
C ;30 G
?" sin rule#
*C ; *?
4in ? 4in C
*C; *? 1 4in ?
4in C
*C; 6 1 4in 120 G
M ;120 G
21
4in 30 G
%here fore *C ; 1039 m ;1040 m
ii2 etho$ 71'
Pro&e$%re'
1 Aith * as centre 104m as radius draw an arc#
2 Aith ? as centre 6m as radius cut the pre&ious drawn arc to get the point C
3 4imilarl" repeat the procedure in step 2 to get !
4 5rect perpendiculars at * C ?
5 Oeeping ! as centre cut the perpendicular at 5 which is drawn at * to the chain
line $" taking 6m as radius
6 ,epeat the procedure in step 5 to get 9
7 Ioin 5 and 9 to complete the he1agon
Res%lt'
9.0. COP"SS SUR#EY
Intro$%&tion'
22
Chain sur&e"ing can $e used when the area to $e sur&e"ed is comparati&el" small
and is fairl" flatHowe&er# when large areas are in&ol&ed# methods of chain sur&e"ing
alone are not sufficient and con&enient 6n such cases# it $ecomes essential to use some
sort of instrument which ena$le angles or directions of the sur&e" lines to $e o$ser&ed 6n
engineering practice# following are the instruments used for such measurements(
a) 6nstruments for the direct measurement of directions(
i) 4ur&e"or.s Compass
ii) +rismatic Compass
$) 6nstruments for measurement of angles
i) 4e1tant
ii)%heodolite
%he direction of the sur&e" lines is measured with the help of an instrument known as
compass %he directions of sur&e" lines ma" $e defined in 2 wa"s
1 ,elati&e to each other
2 ,elati&e to some reference direction
S%r+e,ing Comp(sses'
4ur&e"ing compasses are of the following two t"pes
1) +rismatic compass
2) 4ur&e"or.s Compass
Prism(ti& &omp(ss'
+rismatic compass is the most con&enient and porta$le form of magnetic compass which
can either $e used as a hand instrument or can $e fitted on a tripod
!ig 18
6t consists of a circular $o1 of a$out 100 mm in diameter * $road magnetic
needle $alanced on a hard steel pointed pi&ot
23
*n aluminium ring graduated in degrees and half half degrees is attached to the
needle
%he o$ser&ations are seen in clockwise from 0 to 360G
%he graduations are in&erted and the" are &iewed through prism
Ahen the needle is $alanced on the pi&ot# it orients itself in the magnetic
meridian
%he o$0ecti&e &ane carries a &ertical hair of fine silk thread
%he sight &ane consists of &ertical slit cut in to the upper graduated assem$l" of
the prism
4un glasses are pro&ided on the prism to sight luminous o$0ects
?reaking pin pro&ided at the $ase of the o$0ect &ane is used to dampen the
oscillations of the needle to facilitate the readings
+rismatic compass reads whole circle $earing of the lines of o$0ects directl"
S%r+e,or*s Comp(ss'
%he graduated ring is attached to the circular parts and not to the magnetic needle
%he edge $ar t"pe magnetic needle floats freel" on the pi&ot and is not attached to
the ring
%he e"e &ane consists of metal &ane with a fine sight hole
*s the compass $o1 is turned# the letters '#5#4 C A turn with it# $ut the needle
continue to point towards the north
%he /ero degrees is placed at $oth north and south directions and 90G is marked at
5ast and Aest directions
%he 5ast and Aest markings are interchanged from their normal positions
24
(gneti& /e(ring' 2agnetic $earing of a line is the hori/ontal angle which it makes
with the magnetic meridian passing through one of the e1tremities of the line * magnetic
compass is used to measure it
%he common s"stems of notation of $earings are(
a) %he whole circle $earing s"stem>AC?) or */imuthal s"stem
$) %he Ruadrantal $earing >R?) s"stem
The 3hole &ir&le -e(ring s,stem >..C./2 or "?im%th(l s,stem' 6n this s"stem# the
$earing of a line is measured with magnetic north >or with south) in clockwise direction
%he &alue of the $earing thus &aries from 0 to 360 G
!ig18
+rismatic compass is graduated on this s"stem ,eferring to !ig18#the AC? of *? is
M1#of *C is M2#of *9 is M3 and of *! is M4
-2 The 6%($r(nt(l -e(ring >6./2 s,stem' >Re$%&e$ -e(ring2
6n this s"stem# the $earing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north and
south are used as reference meridians and the directions can $e either clockwise or
anticlockwise depending upon the position of the line 6n this s"stem# therefore# the
:uadrant# in which the line lies# will ha&e to $e mentioned %hese $earings are o$ser&ed
$" 4ur&e"or.s compass
,eferring !ig19# the R? of the line *? isS and is written as ' S 5# the $earing
$eing measured with reference to 'orth meridian >since it is nearer)# towards 5ast %he
$earing of *C is T and in anticlockwise direction towards 5ast 4imilarl"# the $earings of
*9 and *! are respecti&el" 4 M A and 'U A
!ig19
25
"$@%stment of Prism(ti& &omp(ss'
%he following are the ad0ustments usuall" necessar" in the prismatic compass
a) St(tion or Tempor(r, "$@%stments(
i) Centering
ii) Be&elling
iii) !ocusing the prism
$) Perm(nent ($@%stments' the permanent ad0ustments are those ad0ustments which are
done onl" when the fundamental relations $etween the parts are distur$ed %he" are#
therefore# not re:uired to $e repeated at e&er" set up of the instrument %hese consist of(
i) *d0ustment of le&els
ii) *d0ustment of sight &anes
iii) *d0ustment of needle
i&) *d0ustment of pi&ot point
Tempor(r, "$@%stments((
%emporar" ad0ustments are those ad0ustments which ha&e to $e made at e&er" set
up of the instrument %he" comprise the following
i2 Centring' Centring is the process of keeping the instrument e1actl" o&er the
station -rdinar" prismatic compass is not pro&ided with fine centring de&ice
as is generall" fitted to engineer.s theodolite %he centring is in&aria$l" done
$" ad0usting or manipulating the legs of the tripod * plum$ $o$ ma" $e used
to 0udge the centring and if it is not a&aila$le# it ma" $e 0udged $" dropping a
pe$$le from the centre of the $ottom of the instrument
ii2 0e+elling'6f the instrument is a hand instrument# it must $e held in hand in
such a wa" that graduated disc is swinging freel" and appears to $e le&el as
0udged from the top edge of the case3enerall"#a tripod is pro&ided with $all
and socket arrangement with the help of which the top of the $o1 can $e
le&eled
iii2 Fo&%sing the Prism' %he prism attachment is slided up or down for focusing
till the readings are seen to $e sharp and clear
Terminolog,'
/e(rings (n$ "ngles(
%he direction of a sur&e" line can either $e esta$lished
a) with relation to each other# or
$) Aith relation to an" meridian
%he first will gi&e the angle $etween two lines while the second will gi&e the $earing of
the line
/e(ring' ?earing of a line is its direction relati&e to a gi&en meridian * meridian is an"
direction such as 1) %rue 2eridian 2) 2agnetic 2eridian 3) *r$itrar" 2eridian
12 Tr%e eri$i(n' %rue meridian through a point is the line in which a plane# passing
that point and the north and south poles# intersects with surface of the earth 6t thus#pases
through the true north and south %he direction of true meridian through a point can $e
esta$lished $" astronomical o$ser&ations
26
Tr%e /e(ring' %rue $earing of a line is the hori/ontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the e1tremities of the line 4ince the direction of the true
meridian through a point remains fi1ed# the true $earing of a line is a constant :uantit"
12 (gneti& eri$i(n' 2agnetic meridian through a point is the direction shown $" a
freel" floating and $alanced magnetic needle free from all other attracti&e forces %he
direction of magnetic meridian can $e esta$lished with the help of a magnetic compass
(gneti& /e(ring' 2agnetic $earing of a line is the hori/ontal angle which it makes
with the magnetic meridian passing through one of the e1tremities of the line * magnetic
compass is used to measure it
82 "r-itr(r, eri$i(n' *r$itrar" meridian is an" con&enient direction towards a
permanent and prominent mark or signal# such as a church spire or top of a chimne"
4uch meridians are used to determine the relati&e position of line in a small area
"r-itr(r, /e(ring' *r$itrar" $earing of a line is the hori/ontal angle which it makes
with the an" ar$itrar" meridian passing through one of the e1tremities of the line *
theodolite or se1tant is used to measure it
Tr(+erse S%r+e,'
%ra&ersing is that t"pe of sur&e" in which a num$er of connected sur&e" lines
form the framework and the directions and lengths of the sur&e" line are measured with
the help of an angle >or direction)measuring instrument and a tape>or chain)respecti&el"
Ahen the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point# it is known as a closed
tra&erse 6f the circuit ends elsewhere# it is said to $e an open tra&erse
Fore /e(ring (n$ /(&A /e(ring(
%he $earing of line whether e1press in AC?=R? s"stem differs accordingl" as the
o$ser&ation are made from one end of the line and the other
6f the $earing of a line *? in fig is measured from * towards ? #it is known as
forward $earing=fore $earing is o$ser&ed as !46f the $earing at *? in fig is measured
from ? towards * is known as ?ackward = ?ack $earing >??)
Units of (ngle me(s%rements(
*n angle is the difference indirection of two intersecting lines %here are three
popular s"stems of angular measurements
a) 4e1agesimal 4"stem( 1 circumference ;360 G>degrees of arc)
1 degree ;60. >minutes of arc)
1 minute ;60E >second of arc)
$) Centesimal 4"stem( 1 circumference ;400
g
>grads)
1 grad ;100
c
>centigrads)
1 centigrad ;100
cc
>centicentigrads)
27
c) Hours 4"stem( 1 circumference ;24
h
>hours of time)
1 grad ;60
m
>minutes of time)
1 centigrad ;60
s
>seconds of time)
%he se1agesimal s"stem is widel" used in L4# 3reat ?ritain# 6ndia and other parts of the
world 2ost of the sur&e"ing instruments are graduated according to this
s"stemHowe&er# due to facilit" in computation and interpolation# the centesimal s"stem
is gaining more fa&our in 5urope %he hours s"stem is mostl" used in astronom" and
na&igation
Errors in Comp(ss S%r+e,'
%he" are classified as
a) 6nstrumental errors
$) +ersonal errors
c) 5rrors due to natural causes
(2 Instr%ment(l errors'
%he" are those which arise due to the fault" ad0ustment of the instruments %he ma" $e
due to the following reasons(
1 %he needle not $eing perfectl" straight
2 +i&ot $eing $ent
3 4luggish needle
4 ?lunt pi&ot point
5 6mproper $alancing weight
6 +lane of sight not $eing &ertical
7 Bine of sight not passing through the centres of the right
-2 Person(l Errors' %he" ma" $e due to the following reasons(
1 6naccurate le&elling of the compass $o1
2 6naccurate centring
3 6naccurate $isection of signals
4 Carelessness in reading and recording
&2 N(t%r(l Errors' %he" ma" $e due to the following reasons(
1 Variation in declination
2 Bocal attraction due to pro1imit" of local attraction forces
3 2agnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms
4 6rregular &ariations due to magnetic storms etc
28
9.1 E"SUREENT OF /E"RIN) OF T!E SIDES OF " C0OSED TR"#ERSE
B "DCUSTENT OF C0OSIN) ERROR /Y /O.DIC! ET!OD "ND
TR"NSIT ET!OD
"im'
2easurement of $earing of the sides of closed tra&erse and ad0ustment of closing
tra&erse $" ?owdich method
Instr%ments'
+rismatic compass with stand# chain# tape# ranging rods# arrows etc
Theor,'
%he $asis of this method is on the assumption that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to Jl and that the errors in angular measurements are
in&ersel" proportional to Jl where l is the length of the line %he ?ow ditch.s rule# also
termed as the compass rule# is mostl" used to $alance a tra&erse where linear and angular
measurements are of e:ual precision %he total error in latitude and in the departure is
distri$uted in proportion to the lengths of the sides
%he ?ow ditch rule is(
Correction to latitude
>or departure) of an" side ;%otal error in latitude >or departure) 1 Bength of that side
+erimeter of tra&erse
%hus if# CB ; correction to latitude of an" side
C9 ; correction to departure of an" side
WB ; total error in latitude
W9; total error in departure
Wl ;length of the perimeter
l;length of an" side
Ae ha&e CB ; WB l
Wl
*nd C9; W9 l
Wl
29
9.12 /o3 $it&h*s metho$
Pro&e$%re'
1 4elect an" 4 station points which are *# ?# C and 9 on the ground !i1 the ranging
rods at all the stations
2 4et up the prismatic compass at station *# do all the necessar" ad0ustments
3 %ake !ore ?earing of *? and also take ?ack ?earing of 9* $" sighting 9 from
station * *fter measure the length * to ? $" using chain or tape
4 4hift the compass to station ? and do all the necessar" ad0ustment and take !ore
?earing of ?C and also take ?ack ?earing of ?* 2easure the length ?C $"
using chain or tape
5 4hift the compass to station C and repeat the procedure is as a$o&e
9.12 Tr(nsit metho$
%he transit rule ma" $e emplo"ed where angular measurement are more precise
that the linear measurements *ccording to this rule# the total error in latitudes and
departures is distri$uted in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides 6t is
claimed that the angles are less affected $" corrections applied $" transit method than $"
those $" ?o ditch.s method
%he transit rule is (
Correction to latitude >or departure) of an" side ;
%otal error in latitude >or departure) 1 latitude >or departure of that line
*rithmetic sum of latitudes >or departures)
%hus if# B ; latitude of an" side
9 ; departure of an" side
WB ; total error in latitude
B% ; *rithmetic sum of latitudes
9%; *rithmetic sum of departures
Ae ha&e CB ; WB B
B%
30
*nd C9; W9 9
9%
Res%lt'
Closing error was corrected $" ?owdich method using prismatic compass and chain
31
O-ser+(tions'
0ine 0ength O-ser+e$ /e(ring
F/ //
*?
?C
C9
9*
0ine O-ser+e$ /e(ring Corre&tions Corre&te$ /e(ring
F/ // F/ //
*?
?C
C9
9*
0ine 0ength
l
.C/ 6/ 0(tit%$e
0Dl &os E
Dep(rt%re
DDl sin E
*?
?C
C9
9*
/o3$it&h*s etho$
0ine 0(tit%$e Dep(rt%re Corre&tions Corre&tions
0(tit%$e Dep(rt%re 0(tit%$e Dep(rt%re
*?
?C
C9
9*
32
:.TO SET OUT RECT"N)0ES5 PENT")ON5 !E;")ON5 USIN) T"PE <C!"IN
"ND COP"SS.
:.12 " RECT"N)0E
"im'
%o set out a rectangle of sides 15 m 1 10 m# using compass gi&en that the !ore
?earing of line *? ;40G 0F
Instr%ments'
+rismatic compass with stand# chain# tape# ranging rods# arrows etc
Pro&e$%re'
1. 4et the compass at station * and make temporar" ad0ustment such as centering
and le&eling %he line of sight termed to set up $earing as 40G 0F and along this
line of sight mark a point ? at a distance of 15m from *
1. Compass is shifted to ? and makes the temporar" ad0ustments 'ote down the
?ack ?earing of *? as check 'ow turn the line of sight to set $earing of line ?C
is 130 G*long this line of sight mark a point at a distance of 10 m
8. +rocedure is repeated at pt C to locate the point 9*s a check the measure the
distance 9* as check
Res%lts'
O-ser+(tions'
3i&en $earing of *? ;40 G
6nterior or included angle M ; >2n84) 90 G
n
;
!ore ?earing of ?C ; ?ack ?earing of *?86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of C9; ?ack ?earing of ?C86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of 9* ; ?ack ?earing of C986ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of *? ; ?ack ?earing of 9*86ncluded angle
33
:.12 " PENT")ON.
"im'
%o set out a pentagon using compass and tape #gi&en that the !ore ?earing of line
*? ; ' 30G A
Instr%ments'
+rismatic compass with stand# chain# tape# ranging rods# arrows etc
Pro&e$%re'
1 4et the compass at station * and do the temporar" ad0ustment such as centering
and le&eling %urn the line of sight to set up $earing as 330 G and along this line of
sight mark a point ? at a distance of 8m from *
2 4hift the compass to ? and do the temporar" ad0ustments 'ote down the ?ack
?earing of *? as check %urn the line of sight to set $earing of line ?C as 258 G
+ro0ect this line of sight and mark a point C at a distance of 8 m
3 4hift the compass to point C and the turn the line of sight to set the $earing of the
line C9 as 78 G
4 *long the line of sight mark a point 9 at a distance of 8 m
5 ,epeat the same procedure and note down the corresponding distance 95 and
corresponding $earings and 2ark the points on the ground *s a check measure
the distance !*
Res%lts'
34
O-ser+(tions'
3i&en $earing of *? ;
6nterior or included angle M ; >2n84) 90 G
n
;
!ore ?earing of *? ;
!ore ?earing of ?C; ?ack ?earing of *?86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of C9 ; ?ack ?earing of ?C86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of 95 ; ?ack ?earing of C986ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of 5* ; ?ack ?earing of 95 K 51terior angle
Che&A'
!ore ?earing of *? ; ?ack ?earing of 5* 86ncluded angle
Bine !?
*?
?C
C9
95
5*
35
:.82 " !ex(gon
"im'
%o set out a regular He1agon of side 6m each $" using compass and tape with
initial $earing of line *? ; ' 30G 5
Instr%ments'
+rismatic compass with stand# chain# tape# ranging rods# arrows etc
Pro&e$%re'
6 4et the compass at station * and make temporar" ad0ustment such as centering
and le&eling %urn the line of sight to set up $earing as 30 G 0F and along this line
of sight mark a point ? at a distance of 8 from *
7 4hift the compass to ? and the temporar" ad0ustments to $e done 'ote down the
?ack ?earing of *? as check %he line of sight has to $e turned to set $earing of
line ?C as 30 G+ro0ect this line of sight and mark a point C at a distance of 8m
8 4hift the compass again to point C and ,epeat the same procedure and note down
the corresponding distance 95 and corresponding $earings and 2ark the points
on the ground *s a check measure the distance !*
Res%lts'
O-ser+(tions'
3i&en $earing of *? ;
6nterior or included angle M ; >2n84) 90 G
n
;
!ore ?earing of *? ;
!ore ?earing of ?C; ?ack ?earing of *?86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of C9 ; ?ack ?earing of ?C86ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of 95 ; ?ack ?earing of C986ncluded angle
!ore ?earing of 5! ; ?ack ?earing of 9586ncluded angle
36
!ore ?earing of !* ; ?ack ?earing of 5!86ncluded angle

Bine !?
*?
?C
C9
95
5!
!*
37
F.0 TO DETERINE T!E DIST"NCE /ET.EEN T.O IN"CCESSI/0E
POINTS USIN) C!"IN<T"PE B COP"SS
"im'
%o determine the distance $etween two inaccessi$le points using chain=tape and
compass
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
1 +rismatic compass with stand
2 Chain=%ape
3 *rrows
4 ,anging ,ods
Pro&e$%re'
1 Bet it $e re:uired to determine the distance $etween two inaccessi$le points * C
?
2 4elect a line +R appro1imatel" parallel to *?
3 4et the compass at + and take the $earing of line +*# +? and +R
4 'ow shift the instrument to the station R le&el it and take fore $earings of R+#
R*# and R?
5 2easure the distance +R# Bet it $e7d m.
6 %he distance *? is measured $" appl"ing sine and cosine rule for the triangles
Res%lt'
%he distance $etween the two inaccessi$le points * C ?# ie *? ;
38
O-ser+(tions'
M1; M2; M3;
M4; M5; M6;
?" referring the figure and from &alues the diagram can $e rewritten
!rom triangle *+R#
S ; 360G8 >M1 K M2) ;
T ; M3 8 M2 ;
X ; M4 8 M5 ;
39
M ; 360G8 >M4 K M5) ;
6n triangle *+R $" appl"ing sine rule#
*+ YY ; +RYYYY ; YY+RYY
4in S 4in N
le
* 4in >S K T)
N
le
* ;180 GK> S K T K X) ;
N
le
? ;180 G 8 >X K T K M) ;
*R ; +R 1 4in>S K T) ;
4in N
le
*
?R ; +R 1 4in T
4in N
le
?
YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY
%herefore *? ; J *R2 K ?R2 Z 2 *R?RCos M ;
40
G.TO 0OC"TE POINTS USIN) R"DI"TION "ND INTERSECTION ET!OD
OF P0"NE T"/0IN)
P0"NE T"/0E SUR#EYIN)
Intro$%&tion'
+lane ta$ling is a graphical method of sur&e" in which the field o$ser&ations and
plotting proceed simultaneousl" %he principle of plane ta$le is parallelism means the
ra"s drawn from station to o$0ecta on the paper are parallel to the line from station to
o$0ect on the ground
%he relati&e position of the o$0ect on the ground is represented $" their plotted
positions on the paper and lie on their respecti&e ra"s xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Instr%ments %se$ in Pl(ne t(-le s%r+e,ing'
%he following instruments are used in plane ta$le sur&e"(
The pl(ne t(-le 3ith tripo$'
%his consists of a drawing $oard usuall" 45 1 60 cm or 60 1 75 cm 6t is mounted on a
tripod in such a wa" that the $oard can $e rotated a$out the &ertical a1is and can $e
clamped in an" position%he ta$le can $e le&eled with the help of the foot screws
1. "li$($e(
* plane ta$le alidade is a straight edge with some form of sighting de&ice %wo
t"pes are used( +lain alidade and %elescopic alidade
Pl(in (li$($e'
!ig ?elow shows the simple form and used for ordinar" work 6t generall"
consists of a wooden or metal rule with two &anes at the ends %he two &anes or sights are
hinged to fold down on the rule when the alidade is not in use-ne of the &anes is
pro&ided with a narrow slit while the other is open and carries a hair or thin wire
41
Teles&opi& "li$($e' %he telescopic alidade is used when it is re:uired to take inclined
sights *lso the accurac" and range of sights are increased $" its use 6t essentiall"
consists of small telescope with a le&el tu$e and graduated arc mounted on hori/ontal
a1is %he hori/ontal a1is rests on an *8frame fitted with &erniers fi1ed in position in the
same manner as that in a transit
Pl%m-ing ForA'
%he plum$ing fork >!ig)# used in large scale work# is meant for centring the ta$le
o&er the point or station occupied $" the plane ta$le when the plotted position of that
point is alread" known on the sheet*lso#in the $eginning of the work# it is meant for
transferring the ground point on to the sheet so that the plotted point and the ground
station are in the same &ertical line
42
%he fork consists of a hair pin shaped light metal frame ha&ing arms of e:ual
length# in which a plum$8$o$ is suspended from the end of the lower arm %he fitting can
$e placed with the upper arm l"ing on the top of the ta$le and the lower arm $elow it# the
ta$le $eing centred when the plum$8$o$ hangs freel" o&er the ground mark and the
pointed end of the upper arm coincides with the e:ui&alent point on the plan
Spirit le+el' * small spirit le&el ma" $e used for ascertaining if the ta$le is properl"
le&el %he le&el ma" $e either of the tu$ular &ariet" or of the circular t"peesserntiall"
with a flat $ase so that it can $e laid on the ta$le and is trul" le&el when the $u$$le is
central
Comp(ss' %he compass is used for orienting the plane ta$le to magnetic 'orth %he
compass used with a plane ta$le is a trough compass in which the longer sides of the
trough compass are parallel and flat so that either side can $e used as a ruler or laid down
to coincide with a straight line drawn on the paper
Dr(3ing P(per( %he drawing paper used for plane ta$ling must $e of superior :ualit" so
that it ma" ha&e minimum effect of changes in the humidit" of the atmosphere %he
change in the humidit" of the atmosphere produces e1pansion and contraction in different
directions !or work of high precision# fi$re glass sheets or paper $acked with sheet
aluminium are often used
.orAing oper(tions'
%hree operations are needed
a) !i1ing( !i1ing the ta$le to the tripod
$) 4etting( i) Be&elling the ta$le
ii) Centring
6ii) -rientation
c) 4ighting the points
0e+elling'
!or small8scale work# le&elling is done $" estimation !or work of accurac"# an
ordinar" spirit le&el ma" $e used %he ta$le is le&eled $" placing the le&el on the $oard in
two positions at right angles and getting the $u$$le central in $oth directions !or more
precise work# a Iohnson %a$le or Coast 4ur&e" %a$le ma" $e used
Centring'
%he ta$le should $e so placed o&er the station on the ground that the point plotted
on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should $e e1actl" o&er the station on
the ground %he operation is known as centring the plane ta$le *s alread" descri$ed this
is done $" using a plum$ing fork
Orient(tion'
-rientation is the process of putting the plane ta$le into some fi1ed direction so
that line representing a certain direction on the plane is parallel to that direction on the
ground %his is essential condition to $e fulfilled when more than one instrument station
is to $e used
%here are two main methods of orienting the plane ta$le(
i) -rientation $" means of trough compass
ii) -rientation $" means of $acksighting
43
i2 Orient(tion -, me(ns of tro%gh &omp(ss'
%he compass# through less accurate# often pro&es a &alua$le ad0unct in ena$ling the rapid
appro1imate orientation to $e made prior to the final ad0ustment %he plane ta$le can $e
oriented $" compass under the following conditions(
1 Ahen speed is more important than accurac"
2 Ahen there is no second point a&aila$le for orientation
3 Ahen the tra&erse is so long that accumulated errors in carr"ing the a/imuth
forward might $e greater than orientation $" compass
4 !or appro1imate orientation prior to final ad0ustment
5 6n certain resection pro$lems
!or orientation# the compass is so placed on the plane ta$le that the needle floats
centrall"# and a fine pencil line is ruled against the long side of the $o1 *t an" other
station# where the ta$le is to $e oriented# the compass is placed against this line and the
ta$le is oriented $" turning it until the needle floats centrall" %he ta$le is then clamped in
position
ii2 Orient(tion -, me(ns of -(&Asighting'
-rientation can $e done precisel" $" sighting the points alread" plotted on the
sheet %wo cases ma" arise(
1 Ahen it is possi$le to set the plane ta$le on the point alread" plotted on the sheet
$" wa" of o$ser&ation from pre&ious station
2 Ahen it is not possi$le to set the plane ta$le on the point
G.12 R"DI"TION ET!OD
"im'
%o determine the length $etween &arious points $" radiation method
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
+lane %a$le# *lidade# 4pirit le&el# %rough compass# plum$ fork# %ape# %ripod#
*rrows# ,anging ,ods etc
Pro&e$%re'
1 4et the ta$le at % >6nstrument station)# le&el it and transfer the point on to the sheet
$" means of plum$ing fork
2 Oeep the alidade touching t and sight to * 9raw the ra" along the fiducial edge
of the alidade4imilarl"#sight different points ?#C#9#5 etc#and draw the
44
corresponding ra"s>* pin ma" $e inserted at t#and the alidade ma" $e kept
touching the pin while sighting the points)#
3 2easure %*#%?#%C#%9#%5 etc#in the field and plot their distances to some scale
along the corresponding ra"s# thus getting a#$#c#d#e etc#Ioin these if needed
Res%lt'
O-ser+(tions'
4cale ;
%* ;
%? ;
%C ;
%9 ;
%5 ;
%! ;
45
G.12 INTERSECTION ET!OD
"im'
%o determine the length $etween &arious points $" intersection method
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
+lane %a$le# *lidade# 4pirit le&el# %rough compass# plum$ fork# %ape# %ripod#
*rrows# ,anging ,ods etc
Pro&e$%re'
1 4et the ta$le at point *# le&el it and transfer the point * on the sheet $" means of
plum$ing fork Clamp the ta$le# mark the point as a
2 Aith the help of trough compass# mark the north direction on the sheet
3 +i&oting the alidade a$out a# sight it to ?2easure *? and plot it along the ra" to
get $%he $ase line a$ is thus drawn
4 +i&oting the alidade a$out a# sight the details C#95 etc#and draw the
corresponding ra"s
5 4hift the ta$le at ? and set it there -rient the ta$le roughl" $" compass and
finall" $" $ack sighting
6 +i&oting the alidade a$out $#sight the details C#9#5 etc#and draw the
corresponding ra"s along the edge of the alidade to intersect with the pre&iousl"
drawn ra"s in c#d#e etc#%he positions of the points are thus mapped $" wa" of
intersection
Res%lt'
O-ser+(tions'
2easured distances
46
H.TO SO0#E 87POINT PRO/0E IN P0"NE T"/0IN) USIN) /ESSE0*S
)R"P!IC"0 SO0UTION
"im'
%o locate the position of station occupied $" plane ta$le on the plan $" 38point
pro$lems
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
+lane %a$le# *lidade# %rough compass# plum$ fork# %ripod# etc
Theor,'
6n the figure *#? and C are the defined points in the field whose position ha&e
$een alread" plotted as a#$ and cBet p $e the station o&er which the plane ta$le is to $e
setup and the position 7+. is re:uired to locate on plan %he solution is -$tained $"
?essel.s 3raphical methods
47
Pro&e$%re'
1 *fter ha&ing set the ta$le at station +# keep the alidade on $8a and rotate the ta$le
so that * is $isected Clamp the ta$le
2 +i&oting the alidade a$out $#sight to C and draw the ra" 1" along the edge of the
alidade
3 Oeep the alidade along a$ and rotate the ta$le till $ is $isected Clamp the ta$le
4 +i&oting the alidade a$out a# 4ight to C9raw the ra" along the edge of the
alidade to intersect the 1" in c.Ioin cc.
5 Oeep the alidade along c.c and rotate the ta$le till C is $isected Clamp the ta$le
%he ta$le is correctl" oriented
6 +i&oting the alidade a$out $#sight to ? 9raw the ra" to intersect cc. in p4imilarl"
#if alidade is pi&oted a$out a and * is sighted# the ra" will pass through p#if the
work is accurate
7 %he points a#$#c and p form a :uadrilateral and all the four points lie along the
circumference of a circleHence#this method is known as 7?essel.s 2ethod of
6nscri$ed Ruadrilateral.
Res%lt'
48
I.TO DETERINE DIFFERENCE IN E0E#"TION /ET.EEN T.O POINTS
USIN) F0Y 0E#E0IN) TEC!NI6UE B TO CONDUCT F0Y /"CJ
0E#E0IN). /OOJIN) OF 0E#E0S USIN) /OT! !EI)!T OF INSTRUENT
"ND RISE B F"00 ET!ODS.
I.12 0E#E00IN)'
Intro$%&tion'
Be&elling is a $ranch of sur&e"ing the o$0ect of which is 1) to find the
ele&ations of gi&en points with respect to a gi&en or assumed datum# and >2) to esta$lish
points at a gi&en ele&ation or at different ele&ations with respect to a gi&en or assumed
datum %he first operation is re:uired to ena$le the works to $e designed while the second
operation is re:uired in the setting out of all kinds of engineering worksBe&elling deals
with measurements in a &ertical plane
0e+el s%rf(&e' * le&el surface is defined as a cur&ed surface which at each point is
perpendicular to the direction of gra&it" at the point %he surface of a still water is trul"
le&el surface *n" surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is#
therefore#a le&el surface
0e+el line' is a line l"ing in a le&el surface 6t is# therefore# normal to the plum$ line at all
points
!ori?ont(l Pl(ne' Hori/ontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the le&el
surface at that point 6t is# therefore# perpendicular to the plum$ line through the point
!ori?ont(l 0ine' 6t is a straight line tangential to the le&el line at a point 6t is also
perpendicular to the plum$ line
#erti&(l line' 6t is a line normal to the le&el line at a point# it is commonl" considered to
$e the line defined $" a plum$ line
D(t%m' 9atum is an" surface to which ele&ations are referred# the mean sea le&el affords
a con&enient datum world o&er# and ele&ations are commonl" gi&en as so much a$o&e or
$elow sea le&el 6t is often more con&enient# howe&er# to assume some other datum#
especiall" if onl" the relati&e ele&ations of points are re:uired
Ele+(tion' %he ele&ation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its &ertical
distance a$o&e or $elow an ar$itraril" assumed le&el surface or datum %he difference in
49
ele&ation $etween two points is the &ertical distance $etween the two le&el surfaces in
which the two points lie
#erti&(l (ngle( is an angle $etween two intersecting lines in a &ertical plane3enerall"#
one of these lines is hori/ontal
e(n Se( 0e+el' is the a&erage height of the sea for all stages of the tides *t an"
particular place it is deri&ed $" a&eraging the hourl" tide heights o&er a long period of 19
"ears
/en&h m(rA( is a relati&el" permanent point of reference whose ele&ation with respect to
some assumed datum is knpwn6t is used either as a starting point for le&eling or as a
point upon which to close as a check
1. )r($e Trigonometri&(l S%r+e, /en&h (rA' >)TS /2
%he ele&ation of this $ench mark is fi1ed $" the sur&e" of 6ndia 9epartment with &er"
high precision
1. Perm(nent /en&h (rA >P/2
%hese are fi1ed with in $etween 3%4 ?2 $" 3o&ernment ;xxxxxx
8. "r-it(r, /en&h (rA >"/2'
%hese ele&ations are ar$itar" assumed %hese are adopted in small le&eling
9. Tempor(r, /en&h m(rA >T/2' %he" are esta$lished of the end of the da" work
temporaril"
etho$s of le+eling' %hree principle methods are used for determining difference in
ele&ation# namel"# $arometric le&ellingtrigonometric le&elling and spirit le&elling
/(rometri& le+elling' 2akes use of the phenomenon that difference in ele&ation
$etween two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these
points *t a gi&en point# the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course
of the da"# e&en in the course of an hour %he method is therefore# relati&el" inaccurate
and is little used in sur&e"ing work accept on reconnaissance or e1plorator" sur&e"s
Trigonometri& le+elling >In$ire&t le+elling2' %rigonometric or indirect le&elling in
which the ele&ations of points are computed from the &ertical angles and hori/ontal
distances measured in the field #0ust as the length of an" side in an" triangle can $e
computed from proper trigonometric relations 6n a modified form called stadia
le&elling#commonl" used in mapping# $oth the difference in ele&ation and the hori/ontal
distance $etween the points are directl" computed from the measured &ertical angles and
staff readings
Spirit 0e+elling >Dire&t le+elling2'
6t is that $ranch of le&elling in which the &ertical distances with respect to a hori/ontal
line >perpendicular to the direction of gra&it") ma" $e used to determine the relati&e
difference in ele&ation $etween two ad0acent points * hori/ontal plane of sight tangent to
le&el surface at an" point is readil" esta$lished $" means of a spirit le&el or a le&el &ial
6n spirit le&elling# a spirit le&el and a sighting de&ice >telescope) are com$ined and
&ertical distances are measured $" o$ser&ing on graduated rods placed on the points %he
method is also known as direct le&elling6t is the most precise method of determining
ele&ations and the one most commonl" used $" engineers
0e+elling instr%ments( %he instruments commonl" used in direct le&elling are(
1 * le&el
2 * le&elling staff
Tempor(r, ($@%stments of le+elling'
50
5ach sur&e"ing instruments needs two t"pes of ad0ustments(1) temporar" ad0ustments
and 2) +ermanent ad0ustments %emporar" ad0ustments or 4tation ad0ustments are those
which are made at e&er" instrument setting and preparator" to taking o$ser&ations with
the instrument
%he temporar" ad0ustments for a le&el consist of the following(
1 4etting up the le&el
2 Be&elling up
3 5limination of paralla1
Setting %p the le+el' %he operation of setting up includes a) fi1ing the instrument on the
stand# and $) le&elling the instrument appro1imatel" $" leg ad0ustment %he tripod legs
are so ad0usted that the instrument is at the con&enient height and the tri$rach is
appro1imatel" hori/ontal 4ome instrument is also pro&ided with a small circular $u$$le
on the tri$rach
0e+elling %p' *fter ha&ing le&elled the instrument appro1imatel"# accurate le&eling is
done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate le&els %he purpose of
le&eling is to make the &ertical a1is trul" &ertical %he manner of le&eling the instrument
$" the plate le&els depends upon whether there are three le&eling screws or four le&eling
screws
(2 Three s&re3 he($(
1 Boose the clamp# %urn the instrument until the longitudinal a1is of the plate le&el
is roughl" parallel to a line 0oining an" two of the le&eling screws
2 Hold these two le&eling screws $etween the thum$ and first finger of each hand
and turn them uniforml" so that the thum$s mo&e either towards each other or
awa" from each other until the $u$$le is central
3 %urn the upper plate through 90G#ie#until the a1is on the le&el passes o&er the
position of the third le&eling screw
4 %urn this le&eling screw until the $u$$le is central
5 ,eturn the upper part through 90G to its original position and repeat step >2) till the
$u$$le is central
6 %urn $ack again through 90G and repeat step>4)
7 ,epeat steps >2) and >4) till the $u$$le is central in $oth the positions
8 'ow rotate the instrument through 180 G %he $u$$les should remain in the centre
of its run# pro&ided it is in correct ad0ustment %he &ertical a1is will then $e trul"
&ertical 6f not# it needs permanent ad0ustments
Terms (n$ (--re+i(tions(
St(tion' 6n le&eling# a station is that point where the le&el rod is held and not where le&el
is setup 6t is the point whose ele&ation is to $e ascertained or the point that is to $e
esta$lished at a gi&en ele&ation
!eight of Instr%ment >!.I2' !or an" set up of le&el# the height of instrument is the
ele&ation of plane of sight >line of sight) with respect to the assumed datum 6t does not
mean the height of the telescope a$o&e the ground where the le&el stands
/(&A Sight >/.S2' ?ack sight is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of known
ele&ation# to ascertain the amount $" which the line of sight is a$o&e that point and thus
to o$tain the height of the instrument ?ack sighting is e:ui&alent to measuring up from
the point of known ele&ation to the line of sight 6t is also known as a plus sight as the
$ack sight reading is alwa"s added to the le&el of the datum to get the height of the
51
instrument %he o$0ect of the $ack sighting is# therefore# to ascertain the height of the
plane of sight
Fore Sight >F.S2' !ore sight is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown
ele&ation# to ascertain the amount $" which the point is $elow the line of sight and thus to
o$tain the ele&ation of the station !ore sighting is e:ui&alent to measuring down from
the line of sight 6t is also known as a minus sight as the sight reading is alwa"s
su$tracted >e1cept in special cases of tunnel sur&e")from the height of the instrument to
get the ele&ation of the point %he o$0ect of the fore sight is# therefore# to ascertain the
ele&ation of the point
T%rning Point >T.P2' %urning point or change point is a point on which $oth minus sight
and plus sight are taken on the point in one set of instrument to ascertain the ele&ation of
the point while the plus sight >$ack sight) is taken on the same point in other set of the
instrument to esta$lish the new height of the instrument
Interme$i(te St(tion >I.S2' 6ntermediate station is a point# intermediate $etween two
turning points# on which onl" one sight >minus sight) is taken to determine the ele&ation
of the station
52
I.12 SIP0E 0E#E00IN).
"im'
%o find the ele&ation of different point shown on the ground with respect to gi&en
ar$itrar" $ench mark
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
9ump" le&elle&elling staff# etc#
Theor,'
6t is the simplest form of le&eling in which ele&ation of different points can $e
found out $" a single set up of an instrument %here are two steps in le&eling(
a) %o find $" how much amount the line of sight is a$o&e the $ench mark# and
$) %o ascertain $" how much amount the ne1t point is $elow or a$o&e the line of sight
Here ,B of the line of sight is esta$lished $" taking $ack sight on a $ench mark
6t is to $e noted that if a $ack sight is taken on a $ench mark located on the roof of a
tunnel or on the ceiling of a room with the instrument at a lower ele&ation# the $ack sight
must $e su$tracted from the ele&ation to get the height of the instrument4imilarl"# 6f a
foresight is taken on a point higher than the instrument# the foresight must $e added to the
height of the instrument# to get the ele&ation of the point
,B of an" point;H6 8 64 or !4
Ahere#
,B; ,educed le&el
H6; Height of 6nstrument
; ,B of $ench mark >Onown ,B) K?ack sight
64;6ntermediate sight
!4;!ore sight
%his is a simple form of le&eling and is a preliminar" step to understand a principle
in&ol&ed in le&eling
Pro&e$%re'
1 4et up the instrument at a con&enient point so that all points and $ench mark >?2
or a point of known ele&ation) are &isi$le properl"
2 9o the temporar" ad0ustments properl" and make the line
3 %he ele&ation of which is to $e ascertained $" direct le&eling !irst take $ack sight
is taken on the rod held at ?2 $" focusing the telescope %hen
H6;5l&of ?2 K ?4
53
4 %urn the telescope to $ring into &iew# the rod held on point ?#a foresight>minus
sight) is taken%hen
5l& of +oint ? ; H6 Z !4
Res%lt'
1 %he 5le&ation of point ? shown on the ground ;
2 %he difference in ele&ation $etween * and ? ;
O-ser+(tions'
St(tion /S IS FS !I R0 Rem(rAs
" /
/
,B of point * ;100000
H6; Height of 6nstrument
; ,B of $ench mark >Onown ,B) K?ack sight
,B of an" point;H6 8 64 or !4
%he difference in ele&ation $etween * and ?;,B of +oint *8 ,B of +oint ?
54
I.82 DIFFERENTI"0 0E#E00IN) >F0Y 0E#E00IN)2'
"im'
%o determine difference in ele&ation $etween two points using fl" le&eling and
!l" $ack le&eling ?ooking the &alues using $oth H6 and ,ise and !all method
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
9ump" le&elle&elling staff# %ripod etc#
Theor,'
9ifferential le&eling is the method of direct le&eling the o$0ect of which is solel"
to determine the difference in ele&ation of two points regardless of the hori/ontal position
of the points with respect to each other Ahen the points are apart# it ma" $e necessar" to
set up the instruments se&eral times %his t"pe of le&eling is also known as fl" le&eling
%he operation of le&eling to determine the ele&ation of points at some distance
apart is called differential le&eling and is usuall" accomplished $" direct le&eling Ahen
two points at such a distance from each other the" cannot $oth $e within range of the
le&el at the same time# the difference in ele&ation is not found $" single setting $ut the
distance $etween the points is de&ided in two stages $" turning points on which the staff
is held and the difference of ele&ation of each of succeeding pair of such turning points is
found $" separate setting up of the le&el
Pro&e$%re'
1 4et up the instrument at a near $ench mark and make temporar" ad0ustments
2 !irst take $ack sight on ?26f the $ench mark is in&erted #then staff should $e
held re&erse# so that /ero end touches ?2 and ?4 readings should $e entered as
negati&e %hen
H6;5l&of ?2 8 ?4 >6n case the ?2 is in&erted)
3 %ake a series of 64 on near $" o$0ects including 1
st
point $efore taking !4 on 1
st

turning point >%+)
4 2ake le&eling# take !4 and ?4 on %+ untill reading last point Calculate ,B.s of
all the points
55
5 'ow a le&eling process is re:uired to $e repeated in a re&erse direction# which is
known as !l" $ack le&eling
6 %o check the accurac" for this work a !4 taken on last point will $e considered as
?4# 4o that the point can $e located as ?2 for the fl" $ack le&eling
7 'ow calculate the ,B.s# 64 are re:uired in a fl" $ack le&eling for a work to $e
accurate %he ,B of ?2 thus determined should confirm suita$l" as the ,B which
is assumed at the $eginning of a work within e1perimental limits
8 Calculate ,B.s and appl" checks suita$l"
/ooAing of le+els
i2 !eight of instr%ment metho$'
6n this method #the height of the instrument>H6) is calculated for each setting of
the instrument $" adding $ack sight>plus sight) to the ele&ation of the ?2>!irst
point)%he ele&ation of reduced le&el of the turning point is then calculated $" su$tracting
from H6the fore sight>minus sight)!or the ne1t setting of the instrument# the H6 is
o$tained $" adding the ?4 taken on %+1 to its ,B%he process continues till the ,B of
the last point >a fore sight)is o$tained $" su$tracting the staff reading from height of the
last setting of the instrument 6f there are some intermediate points# the ,B of those
points is calculated $" su$tracting the intermediate sight >minus sight) from the height of
the instrument for that setting
"rithmeti& Che&A' %he difference $etween the sum of $ack sights and the sum of fore
sights should $e e:ual to the difference $etween the last and first ,B# %hus
W?4 8W!4 ;Bast ,B Z !irst ,B
%he method affords a check for the H6 and ,B of turning points $ut not for the
intermediate points
ii2 Rise B f(ll metho$s'
6n rise and fall method# the height of the instrument is not at all calculated $ut the
difference of le&el $etween consecuti&e points is found $" comparing the staff readings
on the two points for the same setting of the instrument %he difference $etween their
staff readings indicates a rise or fall according as the staff reading at the point is smaller
or greater than that at the preceding point %he figures for 7rise. and 7fall. worked out
thus for all the points gi&e the &ertical distance of each point a$o&e or $elow the
preceding one# and if the le&el of an" one point is known the le&el of the ne1t will $e
o$tained $" adding its rise or su$tracting its fall #as the case ma" $e
"rithmeti& Che&A' %he difference $etween the sum of $ack sights and the sum of fore
sights should $e e:ual to the difference $etween the sum of rise and sum of fall should $e
also e:ual to the difference $etween last and first ,B# %hus
W?4 8W!4 ; W,ise 8W!all ;Bast ,B Z !irst ,B
%he method affords a complete check on the intermediate sights also?ut this
method is tedious than H6 method
Res%lt'
1 %he difference in ele&ation $etween * and ? ;
56
O-ser+(tions'
i2!eight of Instr%ment metho$'
St(tion /S IS FS !I R0 Rem(rAs
"
/
C
D
ii2 Rise (n$ f(ll metho$'
St(tion /S IS FS Rise F(ll R0 Rem(rAs
" / (n$ 1
st
point
/
C
d
57
10. TO DETERINE DIFFERENCE IN E0E#"TION /ET.EEN T.O POINTS
USIN) RECIPROC"0 0E#E0IN) "ND TO DETERINE T!E
CO00I"TION ERROR
"im'
%o determine difference in ele&ation $etween two points using reciprocal le&eling
and to determine collimation 5rror
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
9ump" le&el with tripodle&elling staff# chain or tape# arrows etc#
Theor,'
Ahen it is necessar" to carr" le&eling across a ri&er# ra&ine or an" o$stacle
re:uiring a long sight $etween two points so situated that no place for the le&el can $e
found from which the lengths of fore sight and $ack sight will $e e&en appro1imatel"
e:ual# special method ie# reciprocal le&eling must $e used to o$tain accurac" and to
eliminate the following(
2 5rror in instrument ad0ustment
3 Com$ined effect of earth.s cur&ature and the refraction of the atmosphere#
and
4 Variation in the a&erage refraction
58
Pro&e$%re'
1 Bet * and ? $e the points and o$ser&ations $e made with a le&el# the line of sight
of which is inclined upwards when the $u$$le is in the centre of its run
2 %he le&el is set at a point near * and staff reading are taken on * and ? with the
$u$$le in the centre of its run 4ince ?2 * is &er" near to instrument# no error
due to cur&ature# refraction and collimation will $e introduced in the staff
readings at *# $ut there will $e an error e in the staff reading on ?
3 %he le&el is then shifted to the other $ank# on a point &er" near ?2?#and the
readings are taken on staff held at ? and * 4ince ? is &er" near# there will $e no
error due to the three factors in reading the staff# $ut the staff reading on * will
ha&e an error e
4 Bet ha and h$ $e the corresponding staff readings on * and ? for the first set of the
le&el and ha. and h$. $e the readings for the second set
5 !rom fig
Res%lt'
3 %he 5le&ation of point ? shown on the ground ;
4 %he difference in ele&ation $etween * and ? ;
59
O-ser+(tions'
St(tion /S IS FS !I R0 Rem(rAs
" /
/
,B of point * ;100000
H6; Height of 6nstrument
; ,B of $ench mark >Onown ,B) K?ack sight
,B of an" point;H6 8 64 or !4
%he difference in ele&ation $etween * and ?;,B of +oint *8 ,B of +oint ?
11.TO CONDUCT PROFI0E 0E#E0IN) FOR ."TER SUPP0Y <SE.")E 0INE
"ND TO DR". T!E 0ON)ITUDIN"0 SECTION TO DETERINE T!E
DEPT! OF CUT "ND DEPT! OF FI00IN) FOR " )I#EN FOR"TION
0E#E0
"im'
%o conduct profile le&eling for water suppl" or sanitar" line and to draw the
Bongitudinal section >B4) to determine depth of cutting and depth of filling
Instr%ments re4%ire$'
9ump" le&el with tripodle&elling staff# chain# ranging rods etc#
Theor,'
+rofile le&eling is the process of determining the ele&ations of the points at short
measured inter&als along a fi1ed line such as the centre line of a railwa"# highwa"# canal
or sewer %he fi1ed line ma" $e a single straight line or it ma" $e composed of a
succession of straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected $" cur&es 6t is also
known as longitudinal sectioning ?" means of such sections the engineer is ena$led to
stud" the relationship $etween the e1isting ground surface and the le&els of the proposed
construction in the direction of its length %he profile is usuall" plotted on speciall"
prepared profile paper# on which the &ertical scale is much larger than the hori/ontal# and
on this profile# &arious studies relating to the fi1ing of grades and the estimating of costs
are made
60
Pro&e$%re'
1 +rofile. le&eling# like differential le&eling# re:uires the esta$lishment of turning
points on which $oth $ack and fore sights are taken 6n addition# an" num$er of
intermediate sights ma" $e o$tained on points along the line from each set up of
the instrument
2 6n fact# points on the profile line are merel" intermediate stations 6t is generall"
$est to set up the le&el to one side of the profile line to a&oid too short sights on
the points near the instrument
3 !or each setup# intermediate sights should $e taken after the fore sight on the ne1t
turning station has $een taken
4 %he le&el is then set up in an ad&anced position and a $ack sight is taken on that
turning point
5 %he positions of the intermediate points on the profile are simultaneousl" located
$" chaining along the profile and noting their distances from the point of
commencement
6 Ahen the &ertical profile of the ground is regular or graduall" cur&ing# le&els are
taken on points at e:ual distances apart and generall" at inter&als of a chain
length
7 -n irregular ground where a$rupt changes of slope occur# the points should $e
chosen nearer !or purpose of checking and future reference# temporar" $ench
marks should $e esta$lished along the section
8 !ield notes for profile le&eling are commonl" kept in the standard form %he
method is almost the same as gi&en for 7collimation height. method as
computations are easier $" that method
9 %he distances of the points on the profile are also recorded
61
10 plotting the profile(
%he hori/ontal distances are plotted along the hori/ontal a1is to some
con&enient scale and the distances are also marked
%he ele&ation are plotted along the &ertical a1is
5ach ground point is thus plotted $" the two co8ordinates>ie hori/ontal
distance and &ertical ele&ation)
%he &arious points so o$tained are 0oined $" straight lines#
3enerall"#the hori/ontal scale is adopted as 1 cm ; 10 m> or 1E;100 ft)
%he &ertical scale is not kept the same $ut is e1aggerated so that the
ine:ualities of the ground appear more apparent
%he &ertical scale is kept 10 times the hori/ontal scale>ie 1 cm ; 1m)
%he reduced le&els of the points are also written along with the hori/ontal
distances
Res%lt'
O-ser+(tions'
4tation 9istance ?4 64 !4 H6 ,B ,emarks
62
11. DEONSTR"TION
INOR INSTRUENTS = C0INOETER5 CEY0ON )!"T TR"CER5 !"ND
0E#E05 /O; SE;T"NT5 P0"NIETER "ND P"NT")R"P!
C0INOETER'
12 In$i(n p(ttern &linometer >T(ngent Clinometer2(
63
6ndian pattern clinometer is used for determining difference in ele&ation $etween points
and is speciall" adopted to plane ta$ling %he clinometer is placed on the plane ta$le
which is le&eled $" estimation %he clinometer consists of the following(
1 * $ase plate carr"ing a small $u$$le tu$e and a le&eling screw%hus#the
clinometer can $e accuratel" le&eled
2 %he e"e &ane carr"ing a peep hole %he e"e &ane is hinged at its lower end to the
$ase plate
3 %he o$0ect &ane ha&ing graduations in degrees at one side and tangent of the
angles to the other side of the central opening
%he o$0ect &ane is also hinged at its lower end to the $ase plate * slide# pro&ided
with a small window and hori/ontal wire in its middle# can $e mo&ed up and down the
o$0ect &ane $" a rack and pinion fitted with a milled head
Ahen the instrument is not in use# the &anes fold down o&er the $ase
Pro&e$%re for %sing the In$i(n p(ttern &linometer 3ith Pl(ne T(-le'
1 4et the plane ta$le o&er the station and keep the 6ndian pattern clinometer on it
2 Be&el the clinometer with the help of the le&eling screw
3 Booking through the peep hole# mo&e the slide of the o$0ect &ane till it $isects the
signal at the other point to $e sighted 6t is prefera$le to use a signal of the same
height as that of the peep hole a$o&e the le&el of the plane ta$le station
4 'ote the reading #ie#tangent of the angle# against the wire%hus#the difference in
ele&ation $etween the e"e and the o$0ect ;distance 1 tangent of &ertical angle;
d tan S
%he distance d $etween the plane ta$le station and the o$0ect can $e found from the plan
%he reduced le&el of the o$0ect can thus $e calculated if the reduced le&el of the plane
ta$le station is known
-ther t"pes of clinometers are(
1. /%rel !(n$ le+el'
64
%his consists of a simple frame carr"ing a mirror and a plain glass %he mirror
e1tends half8wa" across the frame %he plain glass e1tends to the other half %he frame
can $e suspended &erticall" in gim$les%he edge of the mirror forms &ertical reference
line %he instrument is $ased on the principle that a ra" of light after reflected $ack from
a &ertical mirror along the path of incidence is hori/ontal Ahen the instrument is
suspended at e"e le&el# the image of the e"e is &isi$le at the edge of the irror#while the
o$0ects appearing through the plain glass opposite the image of the e"e are at the le&el of
o$ser&er.s e"e
1. De 0isle*s &linometer'
%his is another form of clinometer# similar to that of ?urel Hand le&el# used for
measuring the &ertical angles# determining the slope of the ground #and for setting out
gradients %his consists of the following(
1 * simple frame# similar to that of a ?urel le&el# carr"ing a mirror e1tending half8
wa" across the frame# the o$0ects $eing sighted through the other half which is
open %he frame can $e suspended in gim$les%he edge of the mirror forms a
&ertical reference line
2 * hea&" semicircular arc# is attached to the lower end of the frame %he arc is
graduated in gradients or slopes from 1 in 5 to 1 in 50%he arc is attached to the
&ertical a1is so that it ma" $e resol&ed to $ring the arc towards the o$ser&er>ie
forward) to measure the rising gradients or awa" from the o$ser&er to measure the
falling gradients
3 * radial arm is fitted to the centre of the arc %he arm consists of a $e&eled edge
which acts as inde1 ?" mo&ing the arm along the arc# the mirror can $e inclined
to the &ertical %he inclination to the hori/ontal of the line from the e"e to the
point at which it appear in the mirror e:uals the inclination of the mirror to the
&ertical %he arm also carries a sliding weight Ahen the weight is mo&ed to the
outer stop>at the end of the arm)#it counter $alances the weight of the arc in
hori/ontal position and makes the mirror &ertical %o make the line of the sight
hori/ontal# the weight is slided to the outer slope and the radial arm is turned $ack
to its fullest e1tent
65
Pro&e$%re to me(s%re ( gr($ient'
1 4lide the weight to the inner stop of the arm %he arc should $e turned forward for
rising gradients and $ackward for falling gradients
2 4uspend the instrument from the thum$ and hold it at arm.s length in such a
position that the o$ser&er sees the reflected image of his e"e at the edge of the
mirror
3 2o&e the radial arm till the o$0ect sighted through the open half of the frame is
coincident with the reflection of the e"e 'ote the reading on the arc against the
$e&eled edge of the arm %he reading o$tained will $e in the form of gradient
which can $e con&erted into degrees if so re:uired
8. Foot R%le Clinometer'
* foot rule clinometer consists of a $o1 wood rule ha&ing two arms hinged to
each other at one end# with a small $u$$le tu$e on each arm %he upper arm or part also
carries a pair of sights through which the o$0ect can $e sighted * graduated arc is also
attached to the hinge# and angles of ele&ations and depression can $e measured on it *
small compass is also recessed in the lower arm for taking $earings
%o sight an o$0ect# the instrument is held firml" against a rod# with the $u$$le
central in the lower arm %he upper arm is then raised till the line of sight passes through
the o$0ect %he reading is then taken on the arc
66
9. "-ne, Clinometer >"-ne, 0e+el2'
*$ne" le&el is one of the &arious forms of clinometers used for the measurement
of slopes #taking cross sections# tracing contours# setting grades and all other rough
le&eling operations 6t is a light# compact and hand instrument with low precision as
compared to engineer.s le&el %he a$ne" le&el consists of the following
1) * s:uare sighting tu$e ha&ing peep hole or e"e piece at one end and a cross wire
at the other end
2) * small $u$$le tu$e# placed immediatel" a$o&e the openings attached to a &ernier
arm
3) * semi8circular graduated arc is fi1ed in position
%he *$ne" le&el can $e used for
i) measuring &ertical angles
ii) measuring slope of the ground# and
iii) tracing grade contour
e(s%ring +erti&(l (ngles'
1) Oeep the instrument at e"e le&el and direct it to the o$0ect till the line of sight
passes through it
2) 4ince the line of sight is inclined# the $u$$le will go out of centre ?ring the
$u$$le to the centre of its run $" the milled screw Ahen the $u$$le is central# the
line of sight must pass through the o$0ect
3) ,ead the angle on the arc $" means of the &ernier
e(s%ring slope of the gro%n$'
1) %ake the target# ha&ing cross8marks#at o$ser&er.s e"e height and keep it at the
other end of the line
67
2) Hold the instrument at one end and direct the instrument towards the target till the
hori/ontal wire coincides with the hori/ontal line of the target
3) ?ring the $u$$le in the centre of its run
4) ,ead the angle on the arc $" means of the &ernier
Tr(&ing gr($e &onto%r'
1) %o locate the contour gradient in the field# a clinometer#a theodolite or a le&el ma"
$e used
2) Bet it $e re:uired to trace a contour gradient of inclination 1 in 100 #starting from
a point * #with the help of a clinometer%he clinometer is held at * and its line of
sight is clamped at an inclination of 1 in 100
3) *nother person ha&ing a target at a height e:ual to the height of the o$ser&er.s
e"e is directed $" the o$ser&er to mo&e up or down the slope till the target is
$isected $" the line of sight
4) %he point is then pegged on the ground
5) %he clinometer is then mo&ed to the point so o$tained and another point is
o$tained in a similar manner
6) %he line $etween an" two pegs will $e parallel to the line of sight
CEY0ON )!"T TR"CER'
6t is a &er" useful instrument for getting out gradients 6t essentiall" consists of a long
circular tu$e ha&ing a peep hole at one end and cross8wires at the other ends %he tu$e is
supported $" a *8frame ha&ing a hole at its top to fi1 the instrument to a straight rod or
stand %he tu$e also engra&ed to gi&e readings of gradients * hea&" weight slides along
the tu$e $" a suita$le rack and pinion arrangement %he weight# at its top# contains one
$e&eled edge which slides along the graduations of the $ar# and ser&es as an inde1 %he
line of sight is defined $" the line 0oining the hole to the intersection of the cross wires
and its prolongation
68
(2 To me(s%re ( slope'
1) !i1 the instrument on to the stand and hold it to one end of the lineOeep the
target at the other end
2) Booking through the e"e hole# mo&e the sliding weight till the line of sight passes
through the cross mark of the sight &ane
3) %he readings against the $e&eled edge of the weight will gi&e the gradient of the
line
-2 To set o%t ( gr($ient'
1) Hold the instrument at one end
2) 4end the assistant at the other end with the target
3) 4lide the weight to set it to the gi&en gradient# sa" 1 in n
4) 9irect the assistant to raise or lower the target till it is $isected
9eri&e a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the same le&el as that the
$ottom of the target
!"ND 0E#E0'
* hand le&el is a simple# compact instrument used fro reconnaissance and
preliminar" sur&e"# for locating contours on the ground and for taking short cross8
sections 6t consists of a rectangular or circular tu$e#10 to 15 cm long#pro&ided with a
small $u$$le at the top
To %se the instr%ment'
1) Hold the instrument in hand>prefera$l" against a rod or staff) at the e"e le&el and
sight the staff kept at the point to $e o$ser&ed
69
2) ,aise or lower the o$0ect end of the tu$e till the image of the $u$$le seen in the
reflector is $isected $" the cross8wire
3) %ake the staff reading against the cross8wire
6n some of the hand le&els# telescope line of the sight ma" also $e pro&ided
"$@%stment of the h(n$ le+el
%o make the line of sight hori/ontal when the $u$$le is centered
1) 4elect two rigid supports + and R at a$out 20 to 30 meters apart
2) Hold the le&el at a point * on the support at + and mark a point 9 on the other
support R# when the $u$$le is central
3) 4hift the instrument to R# hold it at the point 9# centre the $u$$le# and mark the
point ? where the line of sight strikes the first support 6f * and ? do not coincide#
the instrument re:uires ad0ustment
4) 4elect a point C midwa" $etween * and ?Aith the ad0ustment screws# raise or
lower the cross8wire till the line of sight $isects C
/O; SE;T"NT
%he $o1 se1tant is small pocket instrument used for measuring hori/ontal and
&ertical angles# measuring chain angles and locating inaccessi$le points ?" setting the
&ernier to 90G#it ma" $e used as an optical s:uare
* $o1 se1tant consists of the following parts
1) * circular $o1 a$out 8 cm in diameter and 4 cm high
2) * fi1ed hori/on glass# sil&ered at lower half and plain at upper half
3) * mo&a$le inde1 glass full" sil&ered
4) *n inde1 arm pi&oted at the inde1 glass and carr"ing a &ernier at the other end
70
5) *n ad0usta$le magnif"ing glass# to read
6) * milled8headed screw to rotate the inde1 glass and the inde1 arm
7) *n e"e hole or peep hole or a telescope for long distance sighting
8) * pair of colored glasses for use in $right sun
9) * slot in the side of the $o1 for the o$0ect to $e sighted
P0"NIETER
* planimeter is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of an ar$itrar"
two8dimensional shape %here are se&eral kinds of planimeters# $ut all operate in a similar
wa" %he precise wa" in which the" are constructed &aries# with the main t"pes of
mechanical planimeter $eing polar# linear and +r"t/ or [hatchet[ planimeters
%he" consist of a linkage with a pointer on one end# used to trace around the
$oundar" of the shape %he other end of the linkage is fi1ed for a polar planimeter and
restricted to a line for a linear planimeter %racing around the perimeter of a surface
induces a mo&ement in another part of the instrument and a reading of this is used to
esta$lish the area of the shape %he planimeter contains a measuring wheel that rolls
along the drawing as the operator traces the contour Ahen the planimeterFs measuring
wheel mo&es perpendicular to its a1is# it rolls# and this mo&ement is recorded Ahen the
measuring wheel mo&es parallel to its a1is# the wheel skids without rolling# so this
mo&ement is ignored %hat means the planimeter measures the distance that it.s
measuring wheel tra&els# pro0ected perpendicularl" to the measuring wheelFs a1is of
rotation %he area of the shape is proportional to the num$er of turns through which the
measuring wheel rotates when the planimeter is traced along the complete perimeter of
the shape
71
9e&elopments of the planimeter can esta$lish the position of the first moment of area
>center of mass)# and e&en the second moment of area %he pictures show a linear and a
polar planimeter
%he pointer 2 at one end of the planimeter follows the contour C of the surface 4
to $e measured !or the linear planimeter the mo&ement of the [el$ow[ 5 is restricted to
the "8a1is !or the polar planimeter the [el$ow[ is connected to an arm with fi1ed other
endpoint - Connected to the arm 25 is the measuring wheel with its a1is of rotation
parallel to 25 * mo&ement of the arm 25 can $e decomposed into a mo&ement
perpendicular to 25# causing the wheel to rotate# and a mo&ement parallel to 25#
causing the wheel to skid# with no contri$ution to its reading
P"NT")R"P!'
* pantograph is an instrument used for reproducing# enlarging or reducing the
maps 6t is $ased on the principles of similar triangles 6t consists of two long $ars *? and
*9 hinged together at * and supported on castors or rollers at ? and 9%wo short arms
5! and 3! are hinged together at ! and are connected to *9 and *? at 5 and 3
respecti&el" %hus *3!5 is a parallelogram of e:ual sides for all positions of the
instrument %he long $ar *9 carries a mo&a$le tu$ular frame which can $e slided along
it %he sliding frame carries an inde1 and also a hea&" weight R which forms the &ertical
a1is of the instrument< the whole instrument mo&es a$out the point R#%he $ar 5! carries
a pencil point + attached to a carrier which can also $e set to a desired reading on the $ar
5!
72
%he larger arm *? carries tracing point at the end ?!or an" setting of the
instrument# the point ?#+ and R are in a straight line %he original map is kept at ?and is
traced Correspondingl"# the pencil point + also mo&es# $ut the point R remains fi1ed in
position%hus#if ? is mo&ed straight $" an amount ??. #the point + mo&es to +. the ratio
$etween ??. and ++.$eing e:ual to the ratio of reduction !or an" position of the tracing
point# the points ?.#+. and R are alwa"s in a straight line
6f it is desired to enlarge the map# the pencil point is kept at ?#the tracing point at
+ and the map under the point +%he mo&ing frames at R and + are set to the same
reading e:ual to the ratio of enlargement %he pencil can $e raised off the paper# $"
means of a cord passing from the pencil round the instrument to the tracing point# if so
re:uired
73
MANUAL OF SURVEYING PRACTICE LAB-I
III SEMESTER BE CIVIL ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ANANDANAGAR, BANGALORE
74