GUIDE TO STYLISTIC DEVICES

The main constituting feature of a stylistic device SD! is the "inary

o##osition of t$o meanings of the em#loyed unit% one of $hich is
normatively fi&ed in the language and does not de#end u#on the
conte&t% $hile the other one originates $ithin certain conte&t and is
conte&tual.
It is possible to single out the following main groups of SD:
I. SD based on the binary opposition of lexical meanings regardless of
the syntactical organization of the utterance - lexical stylistic devices.
II. SD based on the binary opposition of syntactical meanings regardless
of their semantics - syntactical stylistic devices.
III. SD based on the binary opposition of lexical meanings accompanied
by fixed syntactical organization of employed lexical units - lexico-
syntactical stylistic devices.
IV. SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and/or
graphical elements of the language - graphical and phonetical stylistic
means.
hen the opposition is clearly percei!ed and both indicated meanings
are simultaneously realized within the same short context we spea" of fresh#
original# genuine SD.
hen one of the meanings is suppressed by the other we spea" of trite#
or hackneyed SD.
hen the second# contextual# meaning is completely blended with the
first# initial one# we spea" of the disappearance of SD and its replacement by
polysemy or phraseology.
LE'IC(L STYLISTIC DEVICES
$exical SD are further classified according to the nature of lexical
meanings participating in their formation.
Stylistic Devices )ased on the Interaction "et$een the
Logical and *ominal +eanings of a ,ord
(ntonomasia
Antonomasia is always trite when its contextual meaning is logical#
because# to be employed as a common noun# the proper name must ha!e
fixed logical associations between the name itself and the %ualities of its
bearer which may occur only as a result of long and fre%uent usage.
&he second type of antonomasia# as a rule# is original# for the !ariety of
common nouns becoming contextual proper names is unlimited# and thus
each case is a uni%ue creation. &he main function of this type of antonomasia
- to characterize the person simultaneously with naming him - is !astly used
in the so-called 'spea"ing names' ($ady &easle) *iss Sharp) *r. +redulous#
etc.,.
Stylistic Devices )ased on the Interaction "et$een
T$o Logical +eanings of a ,ord
(-, Various ob.ects# phenomena# actions# etc.# may possess similar
features# which fact pro!ides the possibility of transference of meaning on the
basis of similarity and association# i.e. metaphor. hen li"eness is obser!ed
between inanimate ob.ects and human %ualities# we spea" of
personification. hen a group of metaphors is clustered around the same
image to ma"e it more !i!id and complete# we spea" of a developed
(sustained# prolonged) metaphor.
*etaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. &he most
complete identification of the associated phenomena is achie!ed in !erb-
metaphors.
(/, Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two ob.ects
and is thus based on their contiguity. Since the types of relations between two
ob.ects can be finally limited# they are obser!ed again and again# and
metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one0s bread) to li!e by the pen) to
"eep one0s mouth shut# etc.,. *ost cases of original metonymy present
relations between a part and the whole and are "nown as synecdoche.
*etonymy is expressed by nouns or substanti!ized numerals. (She was a
pale and fresh eighteen.,
(1, Irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the
same context# which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Irony can be
realized also through the medium of the situation# which# in written speech#
may extend as far as a paragraph# chapter or e!en the whole boo". 2itter#
socially or politically aimed irony is referred to as sarcasm.
Stylistic Devices )ased on the Interaction "et$een the
Logical and Emotive +eanings of a ,ord
(-, Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of some %uantity# %uality#
size# etc.# big though it might be e!en without exaggeration.
If it is smallness that is being hyperbolized (a woman of poc"et size,# we
spea" of understatement# which wor"s on identical principles but in opposite
directions with hyperbole proper.
(/, Epithet# the most explicitly sub.ecti!e SD# structurally falls into: (a,
ord-epithets# i.e.# epithets expressed by any notional part of speech in the
attributi!e or ad!erbial function) (b, to-step epithets# i.e.# epithets supplied
by intensifiers (mar!elously radiant smile,) (c, syntactical epithets based on
illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified (the brute
of a boy,) (d, phrase-epithets, including into one epithet an extended phrase
or a completed sentence (a you-"now-how-dirty-men-are loo",) (e,
sentence-epithets# expressed by a one-member (or one-word, sentence#
which fulfils the function of emoti!e nomination (3ool4,.
In the sentence epithets are distributed: (a, singly (a dry loo",) (b, in
#airs (a wonderful and happy summer,) (c, in strings (a ribald# thundering#
insolent# magnificent laugh,.
Semantic classification of epithets allows to differentiate among them
metaphorical epithet# which are based on metaphor (the iron hate, and
transferred ones# which transfer the %uality of one ob.ect upon its nearest
neighbour (tobacco-stained smile, thus characterizing both of them.
(1, !xymoron .oins two antonymous words into one syntagm# most
fre%uently attributi!e (adoring hatred, or ad!erbial (shouted silently,# less
fre%uently of other patterns (doomed to liberty,# etc.
&rite oxymorons (pretty lousily# awfully nice and others, ha!e lost their
semantic discrepancy and are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue as
indicators of roused emotions.
In the treatment of both abo!e-discussed groups the attention must be
focused on the context and its role in the con!ersion of genuine SD into trite
and dead ones as well as on the structural and semantic peculiarities and
types of them.
Stylistic Devices )ased on the Interaction
"et$een the -ree and .hraseological +eanings
of a ,ord
or "et$een the +eanings of T$o /omonyms!
&he main stylistic function of the indicated SD is to create humorous
effect. 5roceeding from the %uality of the context and the structure of the SD
we shall differentiate:
(-, "eugma - the context allows to realize two meanings of the same
polysemantic word (or a pair of homonyms, without the repetition of the word
itself.
(/, #un - the role of the context is similar to that of zeugma# while the
structure is changed# for the central word is repeated.
(1, $emantically false chain - extended context prepares the reader for
the realization of a word in one contextual meaning when unexpectedly
appears a semantically alien element forcing the second contextual meaning
upon the central word. 6s it is seen from the denomination of the SD#
structurally it presents a chain of homogeneous members belonging to non-
relating semantic fields but lin"ed to the same "ernel# which due to them is
realized in two of its meanings simultaneously.
(7, %iolation of phraseological units - occurs when the bound
phraseological meanings of the components of the unit are disregarded and
intentionally replaced by their original literal meanings.
SY*T(CTIC(L STYLISTIC DEVICES
Syntactical SD deal with the syntactical arrangement of the utterance
which creates the emphasis of the latter irrespecti!e of the lexical meanings
of the employed units. It should be obser!ed here that oral speech is normally
more emphatic than the written type of speech. Various syntactical structures
deliberately employed by the author as SD for the creation of the proper
effect# in oral speech are used automatically as a norm of oral intercourse
and are not to be considered SD. 2ut when these syntactical oral norms are
intentionally imitated by the writer to produce the effect of authenticity and
naturalness of dialogue we may spea" of his preliminary deliberate choice of
most suitable structures and of their preconcei!ed usage# i.e. syntactical
norms of oral speech# interpreted and arranged by the writer# become SD in
belles-lettres style. &hough# while analyzing them we should always "eep in
mind that their employment as SD is secondary to their normati!e usage in
oral speech and that their primary function as SD is to con!ey the effect of
ease and naturalness of the characters0 speech.
Depending upon the part of the syntactical structure that is endowed with
contextual meaning to create the emphasis of the whole structure we
differentiate the following syntactical SD:
(-, Inversion deals with the displacement of the predicate (which is the
case complete inversion, or will the displacement of secondary members of
the sentence (which is the case of partial inversion) and their shift into the
front# opening position in the sentence.
&he structure of %uestions as we "now is characterized by the
grammatically in!erted word order. If direct word order is re-established in
%uestions# we can spea" of secondary inversion (i.e. in!ersion of in!ersion,.
&he in!erted %uestions (i.e. %uestions with direct word order beyond
con!eying the tone and manner of the spea"er also due to the changed
structure, ac%uire the connotation meaning of the %uestioner0s awareness of
the possible nature of the expected answer.
(/, &hetorical 'uestion, which is the statement in the form of a
%uestion# also presupposes the possible (though not demanded, answer: the
positi!e form of the rhetoric# %uestion predicts the negati!e answer# the
negati!e form - the positi!e answer.
(1, Apokoinu construction# characteristic of irregular oral speech#
presents a blend of two clauses into one# which is achie!ed at the expense of
the omission of the connecting word and the double syntactical function
ac%uired by the unit occupying the lin"ing position between both former
clauses: thus# 'I0m the first one saw her#' presents the blend of the complex
sentence 'I0m the first one who saw her.' Due to its contraction into the
apo"oinu construction syntactical functions of 'the first one'8 predicati!e of
the first clause# and 'who'8 sub.ect of the second one 8 are both attributed
to 'the first one' which becomes the syntactical centre of the newly coined
sentence.
&he main stylistic function of apo"oinu constructions is to emphasize the
irregular# careless or uneducated character of the speech of personages.
(7, In ellipsis# which is the omission of one of the main members of a
sentence# we must differentiate the one used in the author0s narration to
change its tempo and condense its structure from the one used in
personages0 speech to reflect the oral norms and create the effect of
naturalness and authenticity of the dialogue.
(9, &hrough detachment secondary members of the sentence ac%uire
independent stress and intonation which leads to their emphatic
intensification. &he effect is the strongest if detached members are isolated
from the rest of the sentence by full stops.
(:, $udden break in the narration# or aposiopesis# is a norm of
excited oral speech. 6s a SD it is used to indicate emotions paralyzing the
character0s speech or his deliberate stop in the utterance to conceal its
meaning. +ertain phrases# often repeated with the intonation of the
nonfinished sentence# become trite aposiopeses. &hey indicate that the
spea"er0s idea of the possible continuation of utterance exists in a !ery
general# non-detailed# !ague form. ('ell# I ne!er4' reads approximately
'ell# I ne!er expected it') 'I ne!er thought of it'# etc.,
(;, $uspense# holding the reader or the listener in tense anticipation# is
often realized through the separation of predicate from sub.ect or from
predicati!e# by the deliberate introduction between them of a phrase# clause
or sentence (fre%uently parenthetic,.
(<, &he function and impact of repetition depends upon the position
occupied by the repeated unit. &hus#
ordinary repetition offers no fixed place for the repeated unit:
aa...#..a...#a.a.#aaa...etc.
anaphora models differently: a...#a...#a...a...
epiphora: ...a#.. ...a#..a# ....a.
framing: a...a# b...b.
anadiplosis (catch repetition, ...a# a...
chain repetition ...a# a...b# b...c#c...d.
e should not forget also morphological repetition when (mainly to
achie!e humorous effect, a morpheme is repeated.
(=, >epetition# in!ol!ing the whole structure of the sentence is called
parallelism and is differentiated into complete parallelism# presenting
identical structures of two or more successi!e clauses or sentences# and
partial parallelism# in which the repeated sentence-pattern may !ary.
(-?, (hiasmus is also called reversed parallelism# for into its pattern
two sentences are included# of which the second necessarily repeats the
structure of the first# or in re!ersed manner# so that the general formula of
chiasmus may be fixed as follows: S5@# @5S.
(--, #olysyndeton is also a "ind of repetition 8 here con.unctions or
connecting words are repeated. &he repetition of 'and'# e. g.# mainly creates
the atmosphere of bustling acti!ity) the repetition of 'or' ser!es either to
stress e%ual importance of enumerated factors or to emphasize the !alidity of
the indicated phenomenon regardless of its !arying denominations by !arious
parties concerned# etc.
(-/,Asyndeton, li"e polysyndeton# is a type of syntactical connection
but unli"e polysyndeton# offers no con.unctions or connecting words for this
purpose. Aence difference in functions: asyndeton is used mostly to indicate
tense# energetic# organized acti!ities or to show succession of minute#
immediately following each other actions. @pening the story (the passage#
the chapter,# asyndeton helps to gi!e a laconic and at the same time detailed
introduction into the action proper.
LE'ICO0SY*T(CTIC(L STYLISTIC DEVICES
hile in lexical SD the desired effect is achie!ed through the interaction
of lexical meanings of words and in syntactical SD through the syntactical
arrangement of elements# the third group of SD is based on the employment
of both 8 fixed structure and determined scope of lexical meanings. So# in
(-, (limax we obser!e parallelism consisting of three or more steps#
presenting a row of relati!e (or contextual relati!e, synonyms placed in the
ascending !alidity of their denotational (which results in logical and
%uantitati!e climax, or connotational meanings. &he latter type of climax is
called emoti!e and is realized through still another pattern of a two-step
structure# based on repetition of the semantic centre# usually expressed by
an ad.ecti!e or ad!erb# and the introduction of an intensifier between two
repeated units (I am sorry# terribly sorry,.
If each step of climax is supplied with a negati!e particle# that
necessitates the re!ersed B descending scale of its components: to
emphasize absence of a certain fact# %uality# phenomenon# etc.# the row of
relati!e synonyms begins with the one showing the highest degree of this
%uality# importance# etc. &hus the affirmati!e and the negati!e constructions
of climax demand diametrically opposite order of the same lexical units# while
stylistic functions of both structural types remain identical.
Sudden re!ersal of expectations roused by climax (mainly non-
completed,# causes anticlimax. &he main bul" of paradoxes is based on
anticlimax.
(/, Antithesis is a structure consisting of two steps# the lexical meanings
of which are opposite to each other. &he steps may be presented by
morphemes# which brings forth morphological antithesis# (underpaid and
o!erwor"ed,) by antonyms (or contextual antonyms, and antonymous
expressions which is the case of antithesis proper; and by completed
statements or pictures semantically opposite to one another which brings
forth developed antithesis.
(1, )itotes presupposes double negation) one8through the negati!e
particle no or not) the other8through (a, a word with a negati!e affix (not
hopeless,) (b, a word with a negati!e or derogatory meaning (not a coward,)
(c, a negati!e construction (not without lo!e,) (d, an ad.ecti!e or ad!erb
preceded by too (not too awful,.
&he stylistic function of all these types is identical: to con!ey the doubts
of the spea"er concerning the exact characteristics of the ob.ect in %uestion.
&he lexical meaning of the second component of litotes is of extreme
importance# for similar structures may lead to opposite effects (0loo"ing not
too bad0 expresses a wea"ened positi!e e!aluation# while 0loo"ing not too
happy0 expresses a wea"ened negati!e e!aluation of the phenomenon,.
(7, $imile is also a structure of two components .oined by a fixed range
of lin"-ad!erbs like# as# as***as+ as though# etc. If there is no formal indicator
of simile while semantic relations of both parts of the structure remain those
of resemblance and similarity# we may spea" of a disguised simile which
preser!es only one side of the SD - lexical# modifying its other side -
structural. &rue enough# instead of the accepted simile-formants# in disguised
similes there are often used !erbs# lexical meanings of which emphasize the
type of semantic relations between the elements of the utterance# such as 0to
remind0# 0to resemble0# 0to recollect0# 0to seem0 and others.
If the basis of similarity appears to the author !ague# he supplies the simile
with a "ey# immediately following the structure and re!ealing those common
features of two compared phenomena which led to the origination of the SD.
(9, &he structure of periphrasis is modelled with difficulty# for it is
exceedingly !ariable. Very generally and not %uite precisely it can be defined
as a phrase or sentence# substituting a one-word denomination of an ob.ect#
phenomenon# etc.
5roceeding from the semantic basis for the substitution# periphrases fall
into logical# euphemistic and figurative. &he main stylistic function of all
these types is to con!ey the author0s sub.ecti!e perception# thus illuminating
the described entity with the new# added light and understanding.
(:, &epresented speech# which combines lexical and syntactical
peculiarities of collo%uial and literary speech# has gained widespread
popularity especially in the /?th century# allowing the writer in a condensed
and seemingly ob.ects e manner to lead the render into the inner wor"ings of
human mind.
G1(./IC(L (*D ./O*ETIC E'.1ESSIVE
+E(*S
(-, Craphical expressi!e means ser!e to con!ey in the written form
those emotions which in the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation
and stress. e refer here to emphatic use of punctuation and deliberate
change of the spelling of a ord.
6ll types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of
the spea"er. Emphatic punctuation is used in many syntactical SD8
aposiopesis# rhetorical %uestion# suspense# and may be not connected with
any other SD (6nd there# drin"ing at the bar was83inney4 (>.+h., ,
,he changed type (italics# bold type# etc., or spelling (multiplication
80laaarge0# 0rrruin0) hyphenation80des-pise0# 0g-irl0# etc., are used to indicate
the additional stress on the emphasized word or part of the word.
&here is no correlation between the type of graphical means and the
type of intonation they reflect# for their choice is too inade%uate for the !ariety
and %uality of emotions inherent in intonation
(/, 5honetic expressi!e means alliteration# onomatopoeia and
others8deal with the sound instrumenting of the utterance and are mainly
found in poetry.
Craphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation with the
ensuing !iolation of the accepted spelling 8 graphonis characteristic of
prose only and is used to indicate blurred# incoherent or careless
pronunciation# caused by temporary (tender age# intoxication# ignorance of
the discussed theme# etc., or by permanent factors (social# territorial#
educational status# etc.,.
5ermanent graphon is !astly used by some modern writers in Dngland
(6. Sillitoe# S. +haplin# D. Storey# and others, and by 6fro-6merican and
military-no!el writers in 6merica (>. right# E. 2aldwin# E. Eones# E. Aersey#
and others,.