STUDIES ON CODING TECHNIQUES

AND ITS APPLICATION TO OTDR

A Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING


By

Sudharani Kindo (10509008)
V Jaikishen (10509011)
Under the guidance of
Prof. P.K. Sahu












Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela,769008 (2008-2009)





ii


STUDIES ON CODING TECHNIQUES
AND ITS APPLICATION TO OTDR


A Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING


By
Sudharani Kindo (10509008)
V Jaikishen (10509011)
Under the guidance of
Prof. P.K. Sahu












Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, 769008 (2008-2009)






iii

National Institute of Technology
Rourkela

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, Studies on coding techniques and its application to
OTDR submitted by Sudharani Kindo in partial fulfillments for the requirements for the
award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electronics & Communication Engineering at
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela (Deemed University) is an authentic work carried
out by her under my supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted to any
other University / Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.



Date:
Prof. P. K. SAHU
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engg.
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela - 769008













iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We place on record and warmly acknowledge the continuous encouragement, invaluable
supervision, timely suggestions and inspired guidance offered by our guide Prof. P.K.Sahu,
Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela, in bringing this report to a successful completion.

We are grateful to Prof. S.K.Patra, Head of the Department of Electronics and
communication Engineering, for permitting us to make use of the facilities available in the
department to carry out the project successfully. Last but not the least we express our sincere
thanks to all of our friends who have patiently extended all sorts of help for accomplishing
this undertaking.

We are particularly grateful to Prof S.K. Varshney, Professor, Department of Electrical and
Electronics Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur and Mr.
Utpal Patra, in charge of Optics Lab at the same for permitting us to use the resources
available there to carry out the project successfully.

Finally we extend our gratefulness to one and all who are directly or indirectly involved in
the successful completion of this project work.



V Jaikishen (10509011)
Sudharani Kindo (10509008)









v

Abstract:

In the following thesis, we will be discussing the different aspects and
parameters involving Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) as well as
different aspects of unipolar coding techniques. The purpose of this thesis is to
fully understand the methods by which unipolar codes like the Golay and
Simplex codes are created from Hadamard matrices and to understand its
application in Optical Time Domain Reflectometry. Furthermore, this thesis also
delves into the region of performance enhancement of Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer by means of implementation of these coding techniques.

























vi

Contents

List of figures
List of tables
Abstract
Chapter 1: Basics of an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer. .... 1
1.1 Introduction to OTDR .... 2
1.2 Parameters of OTDR .... 3
1.2.1 Reflection .... 3
1.2.2 Dead zone .... 4
1.2.3 Dynamic range .... 7
1.2.4 Pulse width .... 8
1.2.5 Sampling resolution and sampling points .... 9
1.3 Conclusion .... 11
Chapter 2: Introduction and mathematical analysis of coding
techniques .... 12
2.1 Introduction to coding techniques .... 13
2.2 SNR of conventional OTDR .... 14
2.3 Different Codes implemented in OTDR .... 15
2.3.1 Golay Codes .... 15
2.3.2 Bi-Orthogonal Codes .... 18
2.3.3 Simplex Codes .... 23
2.3.4 CCPONS .... 26
2.4 Conclusion .... 29
Chapter 3: Experiments using conventional OTDR .... 30
3.1 Experiments on OTDR .... 31
3.1.1 Aim of the experiment .... 31
3.1.2 Equipment used .... 31
3.1.3 Experimental setup .... 31
3.1.4 OTDR specifications .... 31
vii

3.1.5 Observations .... 32
3.2 Conclusion .... 35
Chapter 4: Results and Future prospects .... 36
4.1 Results .... 37
4.2 Advantages of coding techniques over conventional OTDR .... 38
4.3 Future scope and prospects .... 38
4.4 Conclusion .... 39
References .... 40


















viii

List of Figures:

Fig. 1.1: A typical OTDR trace screen. .... 2
Fig. 1.2: Schematic representation of Rayleigh backscattering. .... 3
Fig. 1.3: The detected trace responses in cases of connections and open ends. .... 4
Fig. 1.4: Event dead zone in case of merged event. .... 5
Fig. 1.5: A standard event dead zone as seen in OTDR trace. .... 5
Fig. 1.6: 1
st
case of attenuation dead zone. .... 6
Fig. 1.7: 2
nd
case of attenuation dead zone. .... 7
Fig. 1.8: Representation of input energy for different cases of pulses. .... 8
Fig. 1.9: Fault detection in high resolution cases. .... 10
Fig. 1.10: Fault detection in low resolution cases. .... 10
Fig. 2.1: Pulse generation used in bi-orthogonal codes. .... 21
Fig. 2.2: Code gain comparison of bi-orthogonal code with Golay code. .... 23
Fig. 2.3: Coding gain in Case of Simplex Codes. .... 26
Fig. 2.4: Code gain variation of CCPONS. .... 28
Fig. 2.5: Comparison of Code gain for different code length of different codes. .... 28
Fig. 3.1: Experimental setup used to perform the experiment. .... 31
Fig. 3.2: OTDR trace of SMF at 1310 nm wavelength .... 32
Fig. 3.3: OTDR trace of SMF at 1550 nm wavelength .... 33
Fig. 3.4: OTDR trace of MMF at 1310 nm wavelength .... 34
Fig. 3.5: OTDR trace of MMF at 1550 nm wavelength .... 35
Fig. 4.1: The excessive equipment required to integrate coding into an OTDR. .... 39





ix

List of tables:

Table 2.1: Some examples of Golay code .... 16
Table 4.1 Coding gain and PAPRs of code concerned .... 37



















1










CHAPTER 1

BASICS OF AN OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN
REFLECTOMETER.















2

1.1 Introduction to OTDR:
OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer) is a device that is used to
determine the nature and location of faults in optical fibers. In order to determine
faults, the OTDR sends a pulse into the fiber and records the reflected light and plots
a response graph. When light is sent through a glass fiber link, some of the light is
reflected back to the transmitter (this is known as backscattering). When
characterizing a fiber link using an OTDR, it is this reflected light that is used to
calculate the attenuation of the link, the characteristics of loss and the length of the
fibre span. The OTDR software displays the faults and fibre joints on a generated
graph that is called trace. Faults and Connections can be determined from display of
the OTDR.
A typical OTDR trace is shown in figure 1. As we can see from the figure,
there is a table on the display below the trace. This table lists all the faults in the fibre
in the form of events, namely connectors, splices, fibre breaks etc. A good quality
OTDR should be able to determine faults and display them in such a manner that it is
understood by the user.


Fig. 1.1: A typical OTDR trace screen. [45]



Distance L
Reflected Optical
Power in dB
Background
Noise
Reflective
Fibers End
Reflective
Event
Non-Reflect ive
Event
0
P
1
P
2
P
1
L
2
L
3
L
Non-Reflect ive
Fibers End
3

1.2: Parameters of an OTDR:
1.2.1 Reflection:
The key to determining faults in fibres using OTDR is reflection. In an OTDR there
are two types of light levels. One is a low level created by Rayleigh Backscattering
and the other is a high level that is created by Fresnel Reflection. Rayleigh
backscattering is used to calculate the level of attenuation in the fiber as a function of
distance (expressed in dB/km), which is shown by a straight slope in an OTDR trace.
This phenomenon comes from the natural reflection and absorption of impurities
inside optical fiber. When hit, some particles redirect the light in different directions,
creating both signal attenuation and backscattering. Higher wavelengths are less
attenuated than shorter ones and, therefore, require less power to travel over the same
distance in a standard fiber. The figure illustrates Rayleigh Backscattering.


Fig.1.2: Schematic representation of Rayleigh backscattering. [45]

The second type of reflection used by an OTDRFresnel reflectiondetects
physical events along the link. When the light hits an abrupt change in index of
refraction (e.g., from glass to air) a higher amount of light is reflected back, creating
Fresnel reflection, which can be thousands of times bigger than the Rayleigh
backscattering. Fresnel reflection is identifiable by the spikes in an OTDR trace.
Examples of such reflections are connectors, mechanical splices, bulkheads, fiber
breaks or opened connectors. The figure below shows how the trace detects the
following events.

The 1
st
spike shows a mechanical splice, the 2
nd
spike shows a bulkhead and the 3
rd

4

spike shows an opened connection.


Fig. 1.3: The detected trace responses in cases of connections and open ends. [45]

1.2.2 Dead zone:
Fresnel reflections lead to an important OTDR specification known as dead zones.
There exist two types of dead zones: event and attenuation. Both originate from
Fresnel reflections and are expressed in distance (meters) that vary according to the
power of those reflections. A dead zone is defined as the length of time during which
the detector is temporary blinded by a high amount of reflected light, until it recovers
and can read light againthink of when you drive a car at night and you cross another
car in the opposite direction; your eyes are blinded for a short period of time. In the
OTDR world, time is converted into distance; therefore, more reflection causes the
detector to take more time to recover, resulting in a longer dead zone. Most
manufacturers specify dead zones at the shortest available pulse width and on a -45
dB reflection for single mode fibers and -35 dB for multi mode fibers. There are two
types of dead zones that are important in OTDRs.

1.2.2.1 Event dead zone:
The event dead zone is the minimum distance after a Fresnel reflection where an
OTDR can detect another event. In other words, it is the minimum length of fiber
needed between two reflective events. Still using the car example mentioned above,
when your eyes are blinded by another car, after a few seconds you could notice an
object on the road without being able to properly identify it. In the case of an OTDR,
the consecutive event is detected, but the loss cannot be measured (as illustrated in
Figure 1.4). The OTDR merges the consecutive events and returns a global reflection
5

and loss for all merged events. To establish specifications, the most common industry
method is to measure the distance at -1.5 dB from each side of the reflective peak (see
Figure 1.5). Another method that measured the distance from the beginning of the
event until the reflection level falls to -1.5 dB from its peak has also been used; this
method returns a longer dead zone, but it is not often used by manufacturers.

Fig. 1.4: Event dead zone in case of merged event. [45]

Fig. 1.5: A standard event dead zone as seen in OTDR trace. [45]

The importance of having the shortest-possible event dead zone allows the OTDR to
detect closely spaced events in the link. For example, testing in premises networks
6

requires an OTDR with short event dead zones since the patchcords that link the
various data centres are extremely short. If the dead zones are too long, some
connectors may be missed and will not be identified by the technicians, which makes
it harder to locate a potential problem.

1.2.2.2 Attenuation dead zones:
The attenuation dead zone is the minimum distance after a Fresnel reflection where
an OTDR can accurately measure the loss of a consecutive event. Still using the car
example previously mentioned, after a longer time, your eyes will have recovered
enough to identify and analyze the nature of the object on the road. As illustrated in
Figure 1.6 below, the detector has enough time to recover so that it can detect and
measure the loss of the consecutive event. The minimum required distance is
measured from the beginning of a reflective event until the reflection is back to 0.5 dB
over the fibers backscattering level, as illustrated in Figure 1.7 below.



Fig. 1.6: 1
st
case of attenuation dead zone. [45]
The importance of dead zones is that, short attenuation dead zones enable the
OTDR to detect consecutive events that are placed close by and also to return the loss
of such closely placed events. For instance, the loss of a short patchcord within a
network can now be known, which helps technicians to have a clear picture of what is
inside the link.
7



Fig. 1.7: 2
nd
case of attenuation dead zone. [45]

Dead zones are influenced by one more factor, namely the pulse width. Lower pulse
width creates smaller dead zones and as the pulse width increases so does the dead
zone. Use of longer pulse width causes larger dead zones, but the use of larger pulse
width has a different advantage, which will be explained in coming sections.

1.2.3 Dynamic Range:
The third important parameter of OTDR is the dynamic range. To put it simply,
dynamic range is simply the measure of the range of an OTDR, i.e. the maximum
length of the fiber that the OTDR pulse can reach. This value is measured in dB and
what it shows actually is the maximum loss that can be detected by the OTDR in the
form of backscattering at a given noise level. Therefore, the bigger the dynamic range
(in dB), the longer the distance reached. Evidently, the maximum distance varies from
one application to another since the loss of the link under test is different. Connectors,
splices and splitters are some of the factors that reduce the maximum length of an
OTDR. Therefore, averaging for a longer period of time and using the proper distance
range is the key to increasing the maximum measurable distance. Most of the dynamic
range specifications are given using the longest pulse width at a three- minute
averaging time, signal-to- noise ratio (SNR) = 1 (averaged level of the root mean
square (RMS) noise value).
8

A good rule of thumb is to choose an OTDR that has a dynamic range that is 5 to 8
dB higher than the maximum loss that will be encountered. For example, a single
mode OTDR with a dynamic range of 35 dB has a usable dynamic range of
approximately 30 dB. Assuming typical fiber attenuation of 0.20 dB/km at 1550 nm
and splices every 2 km (loss of 0.1 dB per splice), a unit such as this one will be able
to accurately certify distances of up to 120 km. The maximum distance could be
approximately calculated by dividing the attenuation of the fiber to the dynamic range
of the OTDR. This helps determine which dynamic range will enable the unit to reach
the end of the fiber. Keep in mind that the more loss there is in the network, the more
dynamic range will be required. Note that a high dynamic range specified at 20 s
does not guarantee a high dynamic range at short pulses excessive trace filtration
could artificially boost dynamic range at all pulses at the cost of a bad fault- finding
resolution.

1.2.4 Pulse width:
What is pulse width? The pulse width is actually the time during which the laser is on.
As we know, time is converted into distance so that the pulse width has a length. In an
OTDR, the pulse carries the energy required to create the back reflection for link
characterization. The shorter the pulse, the less energy it carries and the shorter the
distance it travels due to the loss along the link (i.e., attenuation, connectors, splices,
etc.). A long pulse carries much more energy for use in extremely long fibers. Figure
1.8 below illustrates the pulse width as a function of time.


Fig. 1.8: Representation of input energy for different cases of pulses. [45]
9


If the pulse is too short, it loses its energy before the fiber end, causing the
backscattering level to become low to the point where the information is lost at the
noise floor level. This results in an inability to reach the end of the fiber. Therefore, it
is not possible to measure the complete link since the returned end of fiber distance is
much shorter than the actual length of the fiber. Another symptom is when the trace
becomes too noisy near the fiber end; the OTDR can no longer proceed with the
signal analysis and the measurements may be faulty.
So why deal with pulse width? When the trace becomes noisy, there are two easy
ways to obtain a cleaner trace. First, the acquisition time can be increased, which
results in a considerable improvement (increase) in SNR, while maintaining the good
resolution of the short pulse. However, increasing the averaging time has its limits, as
it does not improve SNR indefinitely. If the trace is still not sufficiently smooth, then
we move on to the second method, which is to use the next available higher pulse
(more energy). However, keep in mind that dead zones extend along with the pulse
width. Fortunately, most OTDRs on the market have an Auto mode that selects the
appropriate pulse width for the fiber under test; this option is very convenient when
the length or loss of the fiber under test is unknown.
When characterizing a network or a fiber, it is mandatory to select the right pulse
width for the link under test. Short pulse width, short dead zone and low power are
used to test short links where events are closely spaced, while a long pulse width, long
dead zone and high power are used to reach further distances for longer networks or
high- loss networks.

1.2.5 Sampling resolution and sampling points:
The ability for an OTDR to pinpoint the right distance of an event relies on a
combination of different parameters and among them are the sampling resolution and
the sampling points. Sampling resolution is defined as the minimum distance
between two consecutive sampling points acquired by the instrument. This parameter
is crucial, as it defines the ultimate distance accuracy and fault- finding capability of
the OTDR. Depending on the selected pulse width and distance range, this value
could vary from 4 cm up to a few meters. Consequently, there must be a high number
of sampling points taken during an acquisition to maintain the best possible
resolution. Figures 1.9 and 1.10 illustrate the role that high resolution plays in fault-
10

finding.

Fig. 1.9: Fault detection in high resolution cases. [45]

Fig. 1.10: Fault detection in low resolution cases. [45]

These are the various parameters of an OTDR that influence its operation and
efficiency. While designing an OTDR, manufacturers pay maximum attention to these
11

details so that their design can perform even under difficult circumstances. Next we
will see the different coding techniques used in OTDR systems.
1.3 Conclusion:
In this chapter we have seen the different aspects of OTDR and what are the different
criteria to be considered while designing or selection of one for research or for
practical purposes.




















12










CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION AND MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF
DIFFERENT CODING TECHNIQUES
















13

2.1 Introduction to coding:
Coding tackles the two major parameters of an OTDR, namely dead zone and pulse
width. As we have seen in the pulse width section, we need more energy in the signal
that the OTDR sends in order to detect faults in extremely long fibers. By
incorporating a code of a length of, say 64 bits, we are in fact sending that many
pulses into the fiber and hence input that much energy into the fiber and hence we can
improve the SNR of the OTDR as increasing signal power for the same level of noise
results in larger SNR. Also the dead zone problem is also accounted for as in coding
the no of pulses are increased and not the pulse width in itself.
OTDR is an important diagnostic tool for the testing of fiber optic transmission
system. At present time when optical fiber technology is widely applied not only in
building up of optical fiber transmission systems but also in other fields like sensors
with distributed parameters Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) plays an
important role. The basic idea of the conventional OTDR consists in launching a
rather short and high power optical impulse into the tested fiber and the consequent
detection of the Rayleigh back-scattered or Fresnel reflected light at the input end of
the fiber. The measured signal is very weak typically 40-60 dB under the level of
the launched optical power. In OTDR there is also a well-known trade-off between
the Signal-Noise Ratio (SNR) and the spatial resolution. Increasing the pulse width of
the probe pulse improves the signal- to-noise ratio (SNR) of the detected signal and
accordingly improves the dynamic range but degrades the spatial resolution of the
OTDR. To overcome this tradeoff between the SNR and the spatial resolution, the use
of correlation techniquescommonly used in wireless radarshave been suggested,
e.g., employing periodic pseudorandom bit sequences (PRBSs). Still, with the
problem resulting from the periodic features of PRBS, this approach was found to be
unsuitable for the practical applications. Overcoming the limitations of PRBS-coded
OTDR, the complementary correlation OTDR (cc-OTDR) based on the Golay codes
was suggested. Following the cc-OTDR, an OTDR based on the simplex codes (scs),
Biorthogonal codes, correlated Prometheus orthonormal sequence was then proposed,
predicting better SNR performances (over the Golay-code cc-OTDR) without the
penalty in the spatial resolution. Still, with the analysis based on simple analogy
compared to that of optical spectrometry the scope of the work was limited to a
conjecture on the expected amount of coding gain (SNR increase over conventional
14

OTDR, with identical measurement time and spatial resolution). Therefore
researchers are permanently trying to look for new ways how to remove this
limitation and also new approaches how to enhance its performance parameters. The
performance parameters of this method are limited mainly by the SNR. One of the
most effective ways for its improvement is the use of the coded test signals. Another
parameter related to SNR is the peak to average power ratio (PAPR). In this paper we
give a brief overview of the latest developments in the application of the coded-probe
signal approaches to the SNR enhancement in OTDR.
2.2. SNR in the conventional OTDR :
Let P
bst
(t) be the reflectivity of a fiber of particular length. Reflectivity is calculated
by injecting the optical power, in the form of electrical voltage or current, into the
fiber at one end and measuring the reflected signal at same end as a function of time
or distance. This method of injection is carried out several times and the result is
averaged. Let P
bsm
(t) be the back-scattered optical power detected at the input end of
the fiber as a response to a short and high power level probe optical impulse injected
into the probed fiber. This reflected signal is somewhat different from the injected
pulse due to the presence of noise, so that P
bsm
(t) = P
bst
(t) + e, where e is the noise
amplitude [4]. The variance of the measurement is given by quadratic mean-square
value as follows [P
bsm
(t) - P
bst
(t)]
2
= e
2
=
2
that represents the electrical noise power
in the measurements. If the measurement is repeated N times and let the noise is
uncorrelated zero mean random variable then the mean value of P
bsm
(t) is given as
P
bsm
(t) = (2.1)
Now the variance in the measurement is
(2.2)
Thus the noise power of the N times repeated measurement process is reduced by
the factor N or consequently the noise amplitude is also decreased by the factor .
Due to the fact that the total detected signal amplitude is proportional to the N the
SNR of the conventional OTDR is enhanced by the factor of .
15

Peak to Average Power Ratio (also known as Peak to Mean Envelope Power Ratio
or PMEPR) is a metric of wireless signals which define the variations in the transmit
power for that signal. Large variations in output power i.e. large PAPR are a cause of
concern; they can cause power amplifier (PA) saturation, non- linearity and other
effects. To combat this, the power amplifier has to operate in the linear range; this in
turn causes significant inefficiency of operation and requires more expensive PAs. In
OTDR, codes with low PAPR helps in launching more power into the fiber and hence
increase the SNR.
For any codeword c, the instantaneous power of the corresponding transmitted
signal S
c
(t) is equal to S
c
(t)
2
.The average power is given by where . is the
Euclidean norm. So PAPR of the codeword can be given as
PAPR max (2.3)

Similarly for any code c of length n, rate R and Euclidean distance d, the PAPR is
given as
PAPR n (1- /2n)
2
(2.4)
Where d
*
denotes the minimum distance between the code words of c.
2.3 Different Codes used in OTDR:
In OTDR the following codes have been successfully implemented so far.
2.3.1. Golay Codes (GC):
2.3.1.1 Introduction to Golay codes:
The Golay code is one of the most important types of linear binary block codes. It is
of particular significance since it is one of only a few examples of a nontrivial perfect
code. The Golay code is actually an error correcting code that is widely used in digital
communication and was the first code to have been incorporated with an OTDR. Its
fundamental with respect to error correction is that a t-error-correcting code can
correct a maximum of t errors. A perfect t-error correcting code has the property that
every word lies within a distance of t to exactly one code word. Therefore, the code
has d
min
= 2t + 1, and a covering radius t, where the covering radius r is the smallest
16

number such that every word lies within a distance of r to a codeword. This table
shows us a few Golay codes.
Code
Length
X(X*) Y(Y*) Amplitude of
the main
peak
2 + +(+ +) + -(- +) 4
4 + + - +(+ - + +) + + + -(- + + +) 8
8 + + + - + + - +
(+ - + + - + + +)
+ + + - - - + -
(- + - - - + + +)
16
16 - - + - - - - + - + + + - + - -
( - - + - + + + - + - - - - + - - )
- - + - - - - + + - - - + - + +
(+ + - + - - - + + - - - - + - - )
32
Table 2.1. A few examples of Golay Codes.
Where X* and Y* are code sequences applied for the compression using matched
filters
2.3.1.2 Construction of Golay Code (GC)
It is truly the bipolar code with the amplitudes of +1 and -1, consisting of two
complementary components A and B, each of them being of the same bit length L.
The most valuable property of the code is represented by the fact that the sum of the
autocorrelation functions of the both components is proportional to the (t) function.
This code can be described by the relation

(2.5)
The recursive rule for the generation of the complementary pair of the code was
introduced by M. J. E. Golay. According to the rule it is possible to generate from the
components A, B of an L-bit pair of the bipolar Golay code a new 2L-bit pair code in
the following manner
17



where represents complementary value to the B. This procedure allows create codes
with the required bit length. The number of bits of the code is given by the power of
2. Below is shown the construction of the two-, four- and eight-bit code from the one-
bit code for A = [1], B = [1]






2.3.1.3 OTDR based on the use of the Golay Code (GC OTDR)
The principle of the OTDR based on the application of the Golay code (GC) consists
in probing the fiber by a continuous optical signal modulated by the GC function. Due
to the fact that the probing signal is spread in longer time it is possible to launch much
more energy into the fiber as compared with the case of a single impulse as it is in
conventional OTDR. Nearly the same space resolution as it is in conventional OTDR
is obtained by the use of the autocorrelation function of t he GC. By performing the
correlation between the modulation signal and the back-scattered signal it is possible
to restore the backscattered power. It is equivalent to the response corresponding to
probing the fiber by one impulse of the GC but with the optical power multiplied by
the number L which is the length of the GC (number of impulses in one sequence of
the GC). GC is a bipolar code in which only two values +1 and 1 occur, but we
know that for OTDR the coded signal used should be unipolar in nature. Due to the
fact that the optical power can not be of negative value it is necessary to probe the
fiber by four modified components of the GC as follows A1, A2, B1, B2 that are
defined by the relations A1=0.5(1+A), A2 =0.5(1-A), B1=0.5(1+B), B2=0.5(1-B) [1].
Simultaneously it holds A=A1-A2, B=B1-B2. One can easily show that these signals
do not contain any negative values and as a result they can be realized by the
18

modulation of optical power. After the detection of the fiber responses to these N-
times repeated application of the four probe signals and a consequent arithmetic
averaging one has to calculate the correlation function between the averaged signals
and the particular GC components A and B respectively. The resulting signal - the
time dependence of the back-scattered signal - is given by the sum of these correlation
functions [6].
The SNR of the GC-OTDR with the code length of L bits is defined by the relation
that is frequently named as OTDR makers formula
SNR (dB) = (2.6)
where P
in
is the optical power of the input test impulse, P
NEP
is noise equivalent
power of the optical receiver N
oct
=log
2
N while N is the number of measurements
during the averaging process and L
oct
= log
2
L, where L is the GC length, a the
attenuation coefficient of the fiber and z is the distance from the input end of the
fiber.
By comparing the performance parameters of the conventional OTDR and the
GC-OTDR one can state that the SNR and consequently also the dynamical range of
the GC-OTDR is times better than it is in conventional OTDR provided the
available impulse optical power of the laser is the same in both cases. Also the PAPR
of any Golay code is at most 2 which is quite low.
2.3.2 Biorthogonal Codes:
2.3.3.1 Introduction to Biorthogonal Codes:
Many experimental demonstrations of SNR improvement using the coding techniques
have been limited to the complementary correlation OTDR based on the Golay codes
[27]. These however suffer from a spatial resolution penalty that results in a reduction
of SNR by around 3-dB at the same level of spatial resolution. These processes are
inherently associated with the decoding process of the correlation OTDR [29].It was
however shown that it is possible to avoid this penalty of 3-dB by preserving the
shape of the unit pulse in the decoding process with a proper code set and decoding
method based on the linear matrix operations of addition and subtraction. The
resulting coding sequence is what is called a Bi-orthogonal sequence and this method
19

of coding has been proven to have significant impact on the SNR improvement of
OTDR systems.
Biorthogonal code is a kind of error correcting codes and consists of a
combination of orthogonal and antipodal signals. When the code length is n, a
Biorthogonal code set has 2n code words constituting a 2n n BC matrix B. In
contrast with the correlation approach discussed above OTDR based on the use of
orthogonal codes (OC) utilizes the basic properties of the direct and inverse linear
transformation of the OC. At this approach the optical fiber is repeatedly probed by a
set of series optical impulses (code words) with the sequence in one code word
defined by a particular BC. The basic idea of the method consists in detection of the
back-scattered power coming simultaneously from different points on the fiber. It is
achieved by the time delay between the particular bits of the code word of the BC.
2.3.2.2 Construction of Bi-orthogonal Code:

In the following we shall briefly describe the BC construction using the Hadamard
matrix (HM) [1]. The basic HM H
1
has the form
H
1
=
The higher order HM can be generated by the application of the C formula
H
m
=
where the symbol ' means that the matrix is a complementary to the matrix H. Using
the HM H
m
one can construct the Biorthogonal code matrix B
m
consisting of 2n lines
(code words) of the length n as follows
B=B
m
=
The code word length n is related to the matrix index m through the relation n = 2m .
It is interesting that the matrix H
m
has several significant properties - except the first
line and column its lines represent the orthogonal vectors, the number of units and
zeros in the word is the same, the matrix is symmetrical.

20

2.3.2.3 OTDR based on the use of Biorthogonal Code
We measure the fiber under test by launching n-bit coded pulse sequences 2n times
sequentially, according to the constructed Biorthogonal code words. Then the original
OTDR trace is restored from the 2n measured traces, using the Moore-Penrose
generalized inverses. Since the rows of B are linearly independent, the generalized
inverses [2] B
+
can be calculated by B
+
= (B
T
B)
-1
B
T
, where B
T
and B
-1
means the
transpose and the inverse of the matrix B, respectively. The restored trace shows the
same shape as the conventional OTDR trace which is averaged from 2n single pulse
measurements, except for its improved SNR achieved from the higher backscatter
level in each measurement by launching n-bit pulse sequences rather than a single
pulse into the fiber. The equation below shows an example using 2-bit Biorthogonal
code set which has 4 code words:
= B + , B = (2.7)
When
1
represents a conventional OTDR trace obtained by launching a single pulse
into fiber, let us define
n
(t) as the time delayed version of
1
(t),
n
(t) =
1
(t-(n-
1)), where is the pulse width of the single pulse. Then
1
(t) and e
i
(t) represents the
trace measured with i
t h
codeword and noise amplitude added in each measurement,
respectively.








21

Figure below shows examples of probe pulses with 2 bit bi-orthogonal code sets.

Fig. 2.1: Pulse generation used in bi-orthogonal codes [2]
In order to recover the original OTDR trace
1
(t) from these measured traces,
Moore-Penrose generalized inverse of the Biorthogonal code matrix B is multiplied to
the matrix of the measured traces as shown below, where represents the
estimate of
i
(t):
(2.8)
+ (2.9)
where B
+
=
By expanding first equation it is found that
1
and
2
are unnecessary because
1
only has noise signals and
3
(t) can be substituted with a summation of other
measurements
2
(t) and
4
(t). Even in the case of code length n, we can omit two
measurements
1
and
n+1
, by using
1
=0 and
n+1
(t) +
n/2+1
+
3n/2+1
(t). Note that the
matrix B
+
eff
, which is effectively applied to the noise matrix, is different from the
original generalized inverse. B
+
is obtained after replacing
3
(t) =

2
(t)+
4
(t).

22

As we defined
n
(t) as the time delayed version of
1
(t), the finally restored trace with
maximum SNR can be obtained by
=

+ (2.10)
The coding gain for the general code length n can be calculated using the
matrix which is effectively applied to the noise matrix as in above equation.
Finally the coding gain can be obtained calculating the ratio of noise amplitude
between the coding OTDR and conventional OTDR. Now for an n bit code the noise
power in each estimate is given as
(2.11)
Where represents an (i,j) element of the matrix .
Then the coding gain [2] at the code length n becomes
= (2.12)
Here it is assumed that noise is uncorrelated, zero mean random variable with
variance ( . Application of biorthogonal code in OTDR made it possible to improve
the SNR by an amount of 10dB against the conventional OTDR for length L=256.
Figure below here shows difference in code gain of bi-orthogonal codes from
normal Golay codes.
23


Fig. 2.2: Code gain comparison of bi-orthogonal code with Golay code. [2]
2.3.3 Simplex Codes:
2.3.3.1 Introduction to Simplex Codes:
We know that an optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) characterizes optical
fibres by injecting an optical probe pulse into the fiber under test and detecting the
backscattered optical signals. By increasing the pulse width of the input pulse we can
improve the signal-to- noise ratio (SNR) of the detected signal and accordingly
improve the dynamic range. But this degrades the spatial resolution of the OTDR. To
overcome this trade-off between the SNR and the spatial resolution, the most common
method used is correlation techniques. The use of these techniques in wireless radars
has been the most and the method involves the employment of periodic
pseudorandom bit sequences (PRBS) [24], [25]. Still, problems began to rise from the
periodic features of PRBS and this approach was found to be unsuitable for the
practical applications [26]. Hence, to overcome the limitations of PRBS-coded
OTDR, the method of complementary correlation OTDR (cc-OTDR), which is based
on the Golay codes, was suggested [27]. Following the introduction of cc-OTDR, an
OTDR based on the simplex codes (scs) was then proposed [28]. The implementation
of Simplex Code based OTDR predicted better SNR performances over the Golay-
code cc-OTDR without the resulting penalty in the spatial resolution. Still, this
analysis was based on simple analogy, compared to that of optical spectrometry
[29],[30]. The scope of this work was limited to a conjecture on the expected amount
of coding gain, i.e. the SNR increase of the Simplex Code based OTDR over a
24

conventional OTDR, with identical measurement times and spatial resolutions. In
consideration with the need of a detailed set of guidelines for its practical application,
a systematic analysis of the system, with considerations on OTDR-specific hardware,
and the resulting experimental data was to be provided to give insights for the initial
design consideration.
2.3.3.2 Construction of Simplex Code
Simplex code is also constructed from Hadamard code. Hadamard code is the basis of
construction of all codes. The S-codes are the rows of an MM matrix S called the S-
matrix which is obtained from the Hadamard matrix of order M+1 by omitting the
first row and first column.
2.3.3.3 SNR improvement of OTDR using Simplex Code
Let us consider a simplex code of length L [3].Let be the OTDR trace measured
with single probe pulse and are the delayed version of the pulses such
that
(2.13)
Let be the estimated trace of the OTDR. Then writing S
L
and S
L
-1

as S matrix
and its inverse matrix of order L, trace estimates can be written as
(2.14)
Now, inversely time shifting each row in above expression with multiples of t, and
then introducing matrix T
L
(normalized matrix of S
L
-1
), we obtain the following
equation

Where (2.15)
Now, utilizing the following relation
25

i
(t+ (i+1) ) =
1
(t) (i = 1,2,3 .L) (2.16)
we obtain L equations relating the estimate
i
(t) to the conventional trace
1
(t) as
(2.17)

1
(t) (2.18)

(t + (L-1) =
1
(t) + *(t+(L-1) (2.19)
Finally, summing over the traces and taking its average, the following equation for the
final trace can be obtained, which includes the exact noise components:
+ (2.20)
Now, calculating the mse of the restored trace
E
(2.21)
=
=
Note that the above result was derived by using the following assumptions:
E {e
i
(t + )} = 0
E {
E {e
i
(t) e
j
(t + )}= 0 (i j)
E {e
i
(t) e
j
(t + )}= R
i
()
= R
N
() (i=1, 2.L)
I.e. noise is uncorrelated
26

Restricting our analysis to an ideal receiver with an infinite bandwidth, the mse can
be simplified to
(2.22)
Finally the expression for the coding gain [3] of an SC OTDR of length=L can be
written as
(2.23)
Application of simplex code to OTDR also resulted a increase in coding gain.
Experiments have been carried out for a simplex code of length 7 the code gain was
found to be 2.3 dB and for a length of L=255 the code gain was found to be 9.2dB.
Figure below shows how the code gain of Simplex codes vary with code length

Fig. 2.3 Coding gain in Case of Simplex Codes. [4]

2.3.4. CCPONS:
2.3.4.1 Introduction to CCPONS
CCPONS stands for Complementary Correlated Prometheus Non-Orthogonal
Sequence. It is one of the latest coding sequences to be integrated with an OTDR. An
OTDR system, exploiting for the use of the CCPONS, provides strongly enhanced
27

performance in terms of the dynamic range and SNR. The coding and decoding
operations in CCPONS utilize exclusively a set of integer additions and subtractions.
Here, we have used a complementary quartet of the codes. Coding in OTDR has to be
unipolar as polar signal sources can induce polarity based scattering in fibres. Also,
the OTDR needs to have coding schemes that can be detected by a direct detection
module. For this purpose, we have obtained the unipolar version of the required
quartet and we transmit a unipolar version of the codes and their 1s complement
version. The main advantage of this coding is the low Crest Factor. Crest factor is a
description of the extent of extreme fluctuations in signal power over time. This
enables us to launch more energy into the fibre and hence improve the SNR.
Following the CCPONS equations, the variation of code gain with respect to code
length can be obtained quite easily. We can see that the CCPONS coded sequence
produces an impressive result compared to the single pulse case. In addition, the
CCPONS coding has an advantage that it requires only the transmission of four
complementary codes or quartet of codes and their 1s complement versions.
Therefore this process reduces the systems processing time when compared with other
codes like Hadamard codes, Simplex codes, Bi-orthogonal codes and Golay codes. In
those cases it is required to transmit a matrix of codes and the code length is
dependent on the size of the matrix, I.e. the number of rows in the matrix . Also, it is
possible to generate different quartets of CCPONS and hence supports a multitasking
2.3.4.2 Construction of PONS
The PONS construction technique is based upon ideas of Golay and Shapiro. Golay
and Shapiro method starts with the a matrix of two rows representing a pair of
complementary codes,

Longer complementary codes of length any power of 2 are generated by the following
scheme:

28

The PONS waveforms form a matrix of size 2
N
2
N
, N being any positive number,
where each row has a mating row that constitutes a complementary pair. The
symmetric PONS construction starts from any pair of complementary sequences p
1

and p
2
, of length L and obtains four vectors 2L as
=
To produce PONS matrix of size 2
N
x 2
N
begin with the first matrix which are now
referred as P
(1)
and recursively apply them to P
2m-1
(k-1)
,P
2m
(k-1)
of adjacent rows of the
(k-1)th PONS matrix to form 2
k
x2
k
matrix. Thus the 4x4 matrix formed by
substituting the first row of P
(1)
for p
1
and the second row for p
2
in above equation we
obtain

Similarly the next PONS matrix of size 8x8, is formed by applying (1) using the
first two rows of the matrix P
(2)
to generate the first 4 rows of the matrix P
(3)
and last
two rows of P
(2)
to generate the last 4 rows of P
(3).
2.3.4.3 Performance improvement of OTDR using CCPONS
The PONS code constructed is a bipolar code. For application in OTDR it has to be
converted to a unipolar code. The theoretical code gain of PONS was found [5] to be
Codegain = (2.24)
where L is the length of code.
It has been found through experiments that for a codeword of length L=64, the
code gain of CCPONS, biorthogonal and simplex code are 3.76, 3.0442 and 3.0274
dB. The PAPR of PONS has been found to be 2 through experiments.


29


Figure below shows us the code gain obtained while using CCPONS

Fig. 2.4: Code gain variation of CCPONS.[5]
2.4 Conclusion:
In this chapter we saw how the application of the codes instead of a single pulse helps
in increasing the coding gain of the OTDR without comprising the dynamic range.
The code gain of each code is different and it affects an OTDR system in a different
manner. Also what is most important in the case of these codes is the PAPR value that
determines efficiency of the code. Figure 2.5 gives us a comparative idea of how the
code gains of these codes vary with code length.

Fig. 2.5: Comparison of Code gain for different code length of different codes.
30
















CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTS USING CONVENTIONAL OTDR


















31

3.1 Experimental Studies on an OTDR:
The experimental studies were performed on an Agilent 6000 series OTDR at IIT
Kharagpur. The details are as follows.

3.1.1 Objective of the experiment:
To understand the workings of an OTDR and to take real-time measurements from
single mode and multi mode fibres using the OTDR

3.1.2 Equipment:
1. Agilent E6003A mini-OTDR
2. Optical fibre, singlemode fibre of 500 metres length and two multimode fibres of
lengths 1000 metres and 500 metres.
3. Mechanical connectors

3.1.3 Experimental setup

Fig 3.1: Experimental setup used to perform the experiment.

3.1.4 OTDR specifications:
The Agilent E6003A mini-OTDR comes equipped with an exhaustive user manual.
Due to the fragility of the OTDR equipment, it was vital that the instructions in the
manual were accurately followed. The manual also held specifications for the
instrument. Specifications are as follows,

Laser Type FP InGaAsP
Laser class 3A/Class 1 (Europe/US
std) O/P power (pulse max) 50 mW
32

Pulse duration 10s (max)
O/P power (CW) 500W
Beam waist diameter 9m
Numerical Aperture 0.1
Wavelength 1310/1550 25 nm
Observations:
Refractive index of fiber: 1.471 Pulse width setting:10 ns

3.1.5 Observations:
3.1.5.1 Case 1:
Single mode fiber
OTDR wavelength setting 1310 25 nm
End to end length as per OTDR trace: 506.28 m
Front end reflection: -10.60 dB
Rear end reflection: -13.60 dB
2-point attenuation: 54.977 dB/Km
2-point loss: 27.834 dB
Range setting of OTDR: 0-1 Km
Optical return loss: 10.59 dB/Km

Fig 3.2: OTDR trace of SMF at 1310 nm wavelength

33

The above trace was obtained on the mini-OTDR monitor during the course of the
experiment using a singlemode fiber at 1310 nm wavelength.

3.1.5.2 Case 2:
Single mode fiber
OTDR wavelength setting 1550 25 nm
End to end length as per OTDR trace: 506.28 m
Front end reflection: -10.60 dB
Rear end reflection: -14.40 dB
2-point attenuation: 59.577 dB/Km
2-point loss: 30.163 dB
Refractive index of fiber: 1.471
Range setting of OTDR: 0-1 Km
Optical return loss: 10.37 dB/Km

Fig 3.3: OTDR trace of SMF at 1550 nm wavelength

The above trace was obtained on the mini-OTDR monitor during the course of the
experiment using a singlemode fiber at 1550 nm wavelength.



34


3.1.5.3 Case 3:
Multi mode fiber
OTDR wavelength setting 1310 25 nm
End to end length as per OTDR trace:
1
st
fiber: 510.11 m
2
nd
fiber: 1503.23 m
Front end reflection: -10.60 dB
Rear end reflection: -14.40 dB
2-point attenuation: 16.193 dB/Km
2-point loss: 24.565 dB
Range setting of OTDR: 0-2 Km
Optical return loss: 14.11 dB/Km

Fig 3.4: OTDR trace of MMF at 1310 nm wavelength

The above trace was obtained on the mini-OTDR monitor during the course of the
experiment using a multimode fiber at 1310 nm wavelength.

3.1.5.4 Case 4:
Multi mode fiber
OTDR wavelength setting 1510 25 nm
35

End to end length as per OTDR trace:
1
st
fiber: 510.11 m
2
nd
fiber: 1503.23 m
Front end reflection: -10.60 dB
Rear end reflection: -12.56 dB
Reflection at connector: -45.67 dB
2-point attenuation: 20.722 dB/Km
2-point loss: 31.350 dB
Range setting of OTDR: 0-2 Km
Optical return loss: 10.59 dB/Km

Fig 3.5: OTDR trace of MMF at 1550 nm wavelength

The above trace was obtained on the mini-OTDR monitor during the course of the
experiment using a multimode fiber at 1550 nm wavelength.


3.2 Conclusion:
This chapter deals with the experiment involving a conventional OTDR and the traces
observed on the OTDR screen are found to be matching with the theoretically
predicted values.


36














CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

















37

4.1 Results:
The following table shows the code gains and associated PAPR values of the different
codes we have dealt with in the previous chapters.


Table 4.1: Coding gains and PAPRs of the codes concerned.

From this data and the experimental results obtained from the experiment
performed at IIT Kharagpur using a conventional OTDR, we are able to draw some
important conclusions.
PAPR technically gives us information about the amount of power that is sent in
the signal. Remember that the signal sent is not sinusoidal but rather a series of pulses
modulated according to an unipolar coding sequence. Low PAPR is essentially the
requirement for all systems involving digital communication and the above coding
techniques seem to help reduce PAPR. PAPR can increase in conventional OTDR
because sometimes the pulse may spike causing the maximum power to become much
larger than the average power of the pulse causing PAPR to increase. Also unipolar
coding has the advantage over standard coding and modulating techniques as in
unipolar coding, the average signal power is always greater than zero, where as in
standard modulating techniques the carrier signal used is sinusoidal and the average
signal power is zero in such cases causing infinite PAPR. From the coding techniques
discussed, PAPR of CCPONS and Simplex is found to be the lowest and hence most
suited for the required applications.


Coding technique Code Gain
for a code
length of 64
PAPR
Golay Code 3.01 db 4
Simplex Code 4.06 dB 2
Bi-Orthogonal Code 4.00 dB 2
Complementary Correlated Prometheus Ortho-Normal
Sequence
5.66 dB 2
38


4.2 Advantages of Coding over Conventional OTDR:
The basic principle in OTDR is to send a small signal through an optical fibre and
observe the reflected light. The intensity of the reflected light depends upon many
parameters like nature of the fibre, wavelength of light etc. One of the parameters
influencing this is the power of the input signal. Larger the input power, larger will be
the distance it covers within the fibre. The easiest way of increasing input power
would be to send n number of pulses one after the other. But this method has a
drawback because u cannot just send pulses like that as it will result in the receiver
getting saturated very quickly and it will result in a permanent dead zone that renders
the analysis ineffective.
This is where the concept of coding shows its advantage. By using unipolar coding
techniques, one is able to send a large amount of input power by using less number of
pulses. This way we are able to avoid the scenario of receiver getting saturated.
The other advantages of coding techniques over conventional OTDR include better
dynamic range and greater spatial resolution with a definite amount of noise present
in the system.

4.3 Future scope and prospects:
Throughout this thesis, we have been discussing the different parameters of an OTDR
and how external factors can affect them. In the different chapters we have seen how
coding is one of the ways to improve the SNR of an OTDR system and also through
different coding methods a better dynamic range and spatial resolution trade off can
be achieved.
The experiment performed using the Agilent Mini-OTDR at IIT Kharagpur helped
us understand the tracing phenomenon of the OTDR. It is crucial to understand the
fact each OTDR manufacturer chooses the different characteristics to be included in
their OTDR design. The feature not so commonly found though is the ability to
integrate a PC based OTDR into a single kit. Most practical experiments involving the
testing of coding revolves around a circuit that is similar to the one shown below.

39


Fig 4.1: The excessive equipment required to integrate coding into an OTDR.[5]

This figure is the experimental setup that was used to implement CCPONS code in
an OTDR. The entire circuitry except for the waveform generator (WFG) and the
modulator (MZM) is integrated into the current available models of OTDR. The
waveform generator and the modulator are the two components of this setup that
allow the CCPONS code to be integrated in the testing mechanism.
Throughout the years, the process of implementing various codes and sequences in
an OTDR has involved extensive setups like the ones above. But t he results of the
implementing these codes has been obvious each time a new code is developed. The
results of the various experiments performed can be used to facilitate research into
design of new OTDR machines which implement these coding techniques in their
probing mechanisms. This will result in better fault analysis and the ability of the
OTDR to analyze extremely long fibres.
The different experiments and its results that have been studied in this thesis can be
used in future to design highly efficient OTDR systems that will be able to provide a
better SNR, lower PAPR and in affect improve the dynamic range of the OTDR to a
far greater degree.

4.4 Conclusion:
From this chapter it can be concluded that OTDR systems implementing various
unipolar codes out perform a conventional OTDR system and by implementation of
such codes, PAPR of the signal can be reduced that helps to add to the efficiency of
the OTDR system




40

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