Heat treatment of steel

Copper melts at 1084C, and if copper ore is smelted together with tin the resulting
bronze alloy flows easily at about 950C !ure iron, howe"er, melts only at 15#$C,
which was beyond the means of the early metalwor%ers &t the temperatures that their
furnaces could reach, iron was reduced from the ore in the solid state, producing a solid
spongy mass mi'ed with slag and unburnt charcoal, called a (bloom( )his became the raw
material of the smith *y hammering on the bloom, which was %ept soft by fre+uently re,
heating it, he could dri"e out the slag and other impurities, e"entually producing a bar of
almost pure iron , (wrought iron(
Pure iron is, however, inferior to bronze in many respects - it is softer,
and does not hold an edge as well. Why, then, go to all that trouble?
During the hot-working process, while the bloom was being re-heated,
small uantities of carbon from the charcoal in the forging furnace
would di!use into the metal. "lloying with carbon increases the
hardness and strength of iron dramatically. #his improved alloy is, in
fact, a steel.
#he hardness of steeled iron is increased still further if the red-hot
metal is uenched - suddenly cooled by plunging it into water.
"lthough this techniue hardens the steel, it also makes it brittle and
likely to break with use. $owever, if the uenched steel is re-heated for
a short time, and then slowly cooled, it gives up some hardness but
also becomes tough and springy. #his process is known as tempering.
#hese metalworking techniues make use of the fact that the atomic
structure of the metal varies with temperature. #hese changes are
immensely important, for they enable metallurgists to vary the
properties of steel according to the purpose for which it is intended. %f
they did not take place, our metals technology might still be based on
copper and bronze.
The role of carbon
)he amount of carbon that can be dissol"ed in iron depends on the arrangement of atoms
in the crystal lattice &t normal temperatures, iron has a body,centred cubic -bcc.
structure )his material, which is termed ferrite, can contain only a few hundredths of a
per cent carbon &t temperatures higher than about 90/C, howe"er, the atoms rearrange
themsel"es to form a face,centred cubic -fcc. lattice )his structure, which can
accomodate up to 1$ per cent carbon in solid solution, is called austenite, after 0ir
1illiam 2oberts,&usten, a renowned 19th,century metallurgist
What happens, then, when an iron-carbon solid solution is slowly
cooled? "t some temperature above &'()* +e,actly which temperature
depends on the carbon content-, the iron atoms start to revert to the
ferrite structure. #he carbon atoms do not immediately come out of
solution, but di!use to where the lattice is still face-centred cubic, thus
creating carbon-rich zones in the carbon-free ferrite. When these areas
are saturated, carbon starts to precipitate from solution. #his process is
completed at &'()*, when all the austenite has been converted to
ferrite.
#he carbon that precipitates from solid solution is deposited in .ne
lamellae of /cementite/, an iron carbide with the formula 0e
(
*, which
alternate with layers of surplus ferrite. #his structure is called /pearlite/,
due to its iridescent appearance under the microscope.
*ementite has similar properties to intermetallic compounds - it is
e,tremely hard, but brittle. " steel consisting of pearlite alone +1.23*-,
which combines the hardness of cementite with the ductility of ferrite,
would be too hard for structural use. +Pearlite is, however, the basis of
high-stength steel wire and rope.- #he most common types of
structural steels are low-carbon +less than 1.(3*-, which have
e,cellent ductility and moderate strength. 4edium-carbon +1.(-1.&3*-
and high-carbon steels are often hardened further by uenching, which
produces an entirely di!erent structure.
Martensite in steel
Cooling an iron,carbon solid solution precipitates a separate carbon, rich phase only if
the rate of cooling is slow enough for the alloy structure to remain in e+uilibrium with the
temperature conditions 1ith "ery rapid cooling, there is not sufficient time for the
reaction that forms pearlite to ta%e place, and the carbon remains in solution 3n this case,
an alternati"e transformation occurs )he alloy re"erts to its low,temperature structure,
which cannot easily accomodate the carbon, and as a result the lattice becomes se"erely
distorted 3t is this distortion that gi"es +uenched carbon steels their great hardness
5een under the microscope, the transformed steel has a characteristic
microstructure, consisting of interlocking laths of a new phase, which
result from the stresses due to the transformation. #his material is
called martensite, after the 6erman metallurgist "dolf 4artens who
.rst observed the te,ture in about 7281.
9nlike the transformation to pearlite, the martensite transformation
involves a structural change only - no movement of the carbon atoms
is involved. #he process is sometimes referred to as a /di!usionless/
solid-state transformation.
"lthough the presence of martensite gives steel great hardness, it also
reduces its toughness and makes it brittle. 0ew steels, therefore, are
used in the fully hardeded martensitic condition. #he uenching
stresses are generally relieved by a carefully controlled tempering
treatment, which involves heating the steel to a temperature between
about ':1 and ::1)*, depending on the carbon content and the
properties desired. #his allows some of the carbon to precipitate from
the supersaturated solid solution as a .nely dispersed carbide phase.
)he 4aboratory of &tomic and 0olid 0tate !hysics at Cornell 5ni"ersity has some great
pages on martensites, including mpeg animations of the transformation
!hysical 6etallurgy 7i"ision
6i%e Cortie mi%ec8minte%coza
Heat Treatment of Steel
9rom the 19:4 edition of 6achinery(s ;andboo%
)his is the final part, the $th &fter it, howe"er, now comes
)esting the ;ardness of 6etals
*opyright; e,pired.
D%5*<"%4=>; D?@/# W>%#= 0?> "DA%*= ?@ #$%5 5#900. % D?@/# $"A=
"@B.
Detailed table of contents
0irst section; 0urnaces and Caths for $eating 5teel
Previous section; *asehardening
@e,t section; #esting the $ardness of 4etals
Application and Heat Treatment of
S. A. E. Carbon and Alloy Steels
)he following data and information on "arious carbon and alloy steels is condensed from
reports of the 3ron and 0teel 7i"ision of the 0ociety of &utomoti"e <ngineers, 3nc, as
re"ised up to 0eptember, 19:0 )he steels referred to are intended primarily for use in
automobile construction, but ha"e pro"ed of such "alue in other fields that they ha"e
been adopted by the 0ociety of &utomoti"e <ngineers, 3nc -0 & <., for general use in
aeronautic, marine, motor cycle, stationary engine and tractor industries )he
accompanying tables gi"e the compositions conforming to 0 & < specifications as
applied to "arious carbon and alloy steels )he notes and instructions gi"en in the
following, regarding physical characteristics, heat treatments, etc, are not to be
considered as part of the 0 & < specifications, but are added solely for the guidance of
users of these steels and to assist buyers in selecting the proper steels for different
purposes
When referring to the tables, DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated
*arbon 5teelsD and DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated "lloy 5teels,D
the following points should be considered; +7- #he .gures given
indicate what can be e,pected as the average product of a given
composition when treated in the manner speci.ed, and as applied to
average sections prevailing in automobile workE +'- the values given
are low enough so as to protect the makers of heat-treated stock and
parts from unreasonable demands, the idea being to give values which
coincide with the results obtained when stock of medium to high grade
is purchased in the open market and treated by means of commercially
eFcient euipment controlled by commercially accurate instruments.
0or the sake of simplicity it was deemed advisable to adopt only
average minimum values for tensile strength, elastic limit, reduction of
area and elongation. #hese values are based upon the following
considerations, the heat treatment being kept constant; #he lowest
tensile strength and elastic limit occur with steels at the bottom of a
given range in carbon. #he lowest reductions in area and elongations
occur with steels at the top of a given range in carbon. #rue elastic
limits are given, because these are constantly lower than
corresponding yield points. #he yield point is measured by the drop of
the testing machine beam, and while this is the most readily and
widely used measure of the so-called elastic limit, the results obtained
by this method are generally :111 to 7:,111 pounds higher than the
true elastic limit when the latter property is not in e,cess of 7':,111
pounds per suare inch. #he values given are very conservative and
average results in practice will generally e,ceed appreciably the
.gures given, which serves to increase the factor of safety and protect
both the engineer and the manufacturer.
S. A. E. Specifcation Numbers for Steels. -- " numeral inde,
system has been adopted by the 5ociety of "utomotive =ngineers, %nc.
for representing the di!erent classes of steel included in the 5. ". =.
speci.cations. #his system makes it possible to employ speci.cation
numerals on shop drawings and blueprints that are partially descriptive
of the steel to which the numbers apply. #he .rst .gure of the number
indicates the general class to which the steel belongs; thus, 7,
indicates carbon steelE ', nickel steelE (, nickel-chromium steelE :,
chromium steelE G, chromium-vanadium steelE &, tungsten steelE 8,
silico-manganese steel. %n the case of alloy steels, the second .gure
generally indicates the appro,imate percentage of the chief alloying
element. #he last two or three .gures indicate the average carbon
content in DpointsD or hundredths of one per cent. 0or e,ample,
speci.cation @o. ':7' indicates a nickel steel with appro,imately : per
cent nickel, and 1.7' per cent carbonE and speci.cation @o. &7GG1
indicates a tungsten steel with about 7G per cent tungsten and 1.G1
per cent carbon.
Heat Treatments for Carbon and Alloy Steels
-2ecommended for "arious steels conforming to 0 & < specifications.
;eat )reatment &
&fter forging or machining=
1 Carbonize between 1/00 degrees 9 and 1$50 degrees 9 -1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
desired.
: Cool slowly or +uench
# 2eheat to 1450 degrees,1500 degrees 9 and +uench
;eat )reatment *
&fter forging or machining=
1 Carbonize between 1/00 degrees 9 and 1$50 degrees 9 -1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
desired.
: Cool slowly in the carbonizing mi'ture
# 2eheat to 1500 degrees,1/:5 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to 1400 degrees,1450 degrees 9
/ >uench
$ 7raw in hot oil "arying from #00 degrees,450 degrees 9 depending upon hardness
desired
;eat )reatment 7
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1/00 degrees 9
: >uench
# 2eheat to 1400 degrees,1450 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to /00 degrees,1:00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment <
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1550 degrees 9
: Cool slowly
# 2eheat to 1450 degrees,1500 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to /00 degrees,1:00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 9
&fter shaping or coiling=
1 ;eat to 14:5 degrees,14$5 degrees 9
: >uench in oil
# 2eheat to 400 degrees,900 degrees 9 according to temper desired, and cool slowly
;eat )reatment ?
&fter forging or machining=
1 Carbonize between 1/00 degrees 9 and 1$50 degrees 9 -1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
desired.
: Cool slowly in the carbonizing material
# 2eheat to 1500 degrees,1550 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to 1#00 degrees,1400 degrees 9
/ >uench
$ 2eheat to :50 degrees,500 degrees 9 -depending upon wor%. and cool slowly
;eat )reatment ;
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1/00 degrees 9
: >uench
# 2eheat to /00 degrees,1:00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment @
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1550 degrees 9
: >uench
# 2eheat to 1#00 degrees,1#50 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to /00 degrees,1:00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 4
&fter forging or machining=
1 Carbonize between 1/00 degrees 9 and 1$50 degrees 9 -1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
desired.
: Cool slowly in the carbonizing mi'ture
# 2eheat to 1400 degrees,1450 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to 1#00 degrees,1400 degrees 9
/ >uench
$ 2eheat to :50 degrees,500 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 6
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1450 degrees,1500 degrees 9 : >uench
# 2eheat to 500 degrees,1:50 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment !
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1450 degrees,1500 degrees 9 : >uench
# 2eheat to 1#$5 degrees,1450 degrees 9 4 >uench
5 2eheat to 500 degrees,1:50 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment >
&fter forging=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1/00 degrees 9
: Cool slowly
# 6achine
4 2eheat to 1#$5 degrees,14:5 degrees 9
5 >uench
/ 2eheat to :50 degrees,550 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 2
&fter forging=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1550 degrees 9
: >uench in oil
# 2eheat to 1:00 degrees,1#00 degrees 9 -;old at this temperature three hours.
4 Cool slowly
5 6achine
/ 2eheat to 1#50 degrees,1450 degrees 9
$ >uench in oil
8 2eheat to :50 degrees,550 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 0
&fter forging or machining=
1 Carbonize between 1/00 degrees 9 and 1$50 degrees 9 -1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
desired.
: Cool slowly in the carbonizing mi'ture
# 2eheat to 1/50 degrees,1$50 degrees 9
4 >uench
5 2eheat to 14$5 degrees,1550 degrees 9
/ >uench
$ 2eheat to :50 degrees,550 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment )
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1500 degrees,1/00 degrees 9 : >uench
# 2eheat to 500 degrees,1#00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment 5
&fter forging=
1 ;eat to 15:5 degrees,1/00 degrees 9 -;old for about one,half hour.
: Cool slowly
# 6achine
4 2eheat to 1/50 degrees,1$00 degrees 9
5 >uench
/ 2eheat to #50 degrees,550 degrees 9 and cool slowly
;eat )reatment A
&fter forging or machining=
1 ;eat to 1/50 degrees,1$50 degrees 9 : >uench
# 2eheat to 400 degrees,1:00 degrees 9 and cool slowly
Ten Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !!". -- #his steel
is usually known in the trade as soft, basic open-hearth steel. %t is
commonly used for seamless tubing, pressed steel frames, pressed
steel brake drums, sheet steel brake bands, and a variety of other
pressed steel parts. %n a natural or annealed condition this steel has
little tenacity, and should not be used where much strength is reuired.
#he uality is considerably improved by cold-drawing or cold-rolling,
the yield point being raised by such mechanical working. When this
steel, after such cold working, is heated as for bending, pressing,
welding, etc., the yield point returns to that corresponding with the
annealed steel. #his is also true of all materials that are given a higher
yield point by cold working. #his steel has the following physical
characteristics;
"nnealed *old-drawn
Bield point, pounds per suare inch . . .'2,111 to (G,111 H1,111 to G1,111
>eduction of area, per cent . . . . . . . . . G:-:: ::-H:
=longation in ' inches, per cent . . . . . . H1-(1 unimportant
Heat Treatment. ,, )he 010 per cent carbon steel in the natural or annealed state does not
machine freely, and will tear badly in turning, threading, or broaching operations ;eat
treatment is of little benefit although the steel is made somewhat tougher 3f this steel is
heated to 1500 degrees 9 and +uenched in oil or water, this will produce a little stiffness
and put the steel in better condition for machining operations Bo drawing is re+uired
1hile this steel may be case,hardened, it is not as suitable as the 0:0 per cent carbon
steel 9or data on the composition, see the table C0 & < 0pecifications for Carbon
0teelsC DbelowE
0 & < 0pecifications for Carbon 0teels
Carbon, !er Cent
6anganese, !er
Cent
6a'imum !ercentage
0 & < 0pecification
Bumber
7esired
6in and
6a'
7esired
6in and
6a'
!hosphorus 0ulphur
010 005,015 045 0#0,0/0 0045 0050 1010
0:0 015,0:5 045 0#0,0/0 0045 0050 10:0
0:5 0:0,0#0 0/5 050,080 0045 0050 10:5
0#5 0#0,040 0/5 050,080 0045 0050 10#5
045 040,050 0/5 050,080 0045 0050 1045
095 090,105 085 0:5,050 0040 0050 1095
0 & < 0pecifications for Bic%el and Bic%el,Chromium 0teels
Carbon, !er Cent
6anganese, !er
Cent
Bic%el, !er Cent
Chromium, !er
Cent
0 & <
0pecification
Bumber
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired
6in
and
6a'
Bic%el 0teels
015
010,
0:0
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:#15
0:0
015,
0:5
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:#:0
0#0
0:5,
0#5
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:##0
0#5
0#0,
040
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:##5
040
0#5,
045
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:#40
045
040,
050
0/5
050,
080
#50
#:5,
#$5
:#45
01: 01$ 045
0#0,
0/0
500
450,
5:5
:51:F
Bic%el,Chromium 0teels
0:0
015,
0:5
0/5
050,
080
1:5
100,
150
0/00
045,
0$5
#1:0
0:5
0:0,
0#0
0/5
050,
080
1:5
100,
150
0/00
045,
0$5
#1:5
0#0
0:5,
0#5
0/5
050,
080
1:5
100,
150
0/00
045,
0$5
#1#0
0#5
0#0,
040
0/5
050,
080
1:5
100,
150
0/00
045,
0$5
#1#5
040
0#5,
045
0/5
050,
080
1:5
100,
150
0/00
045,
0$5
#140
0:0
015,
0:5
045
0#0,
0/0
1$5
150,
:00
1100
090,
1:5
#::0
0#0
0:5,
0#5
045
0#0,
0/0
1$5
150,
:00
1100
090,
1:5
#:#0
040
0#5,
045
045
0#0,
0/0
1$5
150,
:00
1100
090,
1:5
#:40
050
045,
055
045
0#0,
0/0
1$5
150,
:00
1100
090,
1:5
#:50
015
010,
0:0
0/0
045,
0$5
#00
:$5,
#:5
0800
0/0,
095
#415
0#5
0#0,
040
0/0
045,
0$5
#00
:$5,
#:5
0800
0/0,
095
#4#5
050
045,
055
0/0
045,
0$5
#00
:$5,
#:5
0800
0/0,
095
#450
0:0
015,
0:5
045
0#0,
0/0
#50
#:5,
#$5
1500
1:5,
1$5
##:0
0#0
0:5,
0#5
045
0#0,
0/0
#50
#:5,
#$5
1500
1:5,
1$5
###0
040
0#5,
045
045
0#0,
0/0
#50
#:5,
#$5
1500
1:5,
1$5
##40
0 & < 0pecifications for Chromium and Chromium,Aanadium 0teels G
Carbon, !er Cent
6anganese, !er
Cent
Chromium, !er
Cent
Aanadium, !er
Cent
0 & <
0pecification
Bumber
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired
6in
and
6a'
7esired 6in
Chromium 0teels
0:0
015,
0:5
F F 0$5
0/0,
090
51:0
040
0#5,
045
F F 0$5
0/0,
090
5140
0/5
0/0,
0$0
F F 0$5
0/0,
090
51/5
100
095,
110
0#5
0:0,
050
1#5
1:0,
150
5:100
Chromium,Aanadium 0teels
0:0
015,
0:5
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /1:0
0:5
0:0,
0#0
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /1:5
0#0
0:5,
0#5
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /1#0
0#5
0#0,
040
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /1#5
040
0#5,
045
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /140
045
040,
050
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /145
050
045,
055
0/5
050,
080
095
080,
110
018 015 /150
095
090,
105
0#5
0:0,
045
095
080,
110
018 015 /195
I #he phosphorus in chromium steels up to speci.cation @o. :7G:
inclusive must not e,ceed 1.1H1 per centE the ma,imum amount for
@o. :'711 is 1.1(1 per cent. #he ma,imum sulphur content is 1.1H:
per cent e,cept for steel @o. :'711 which must not have over 1.1(1
per cent sulphur. #he ma,imum amount of both phosphorus and
sulphur for all chromium-vanadium steels is 1.1H1 per cent, e,cept @o.
G78: which must not have over 1.1( per cent.
J #wo types of steel are available in this class, one with manganese
from 1.': to 1.:1 per cent +1.(: per cent desired- and silicon not over
1.'1 per centE the other with manganese from 1.G1 to 1.21 per cent
+1.&1 per cent desired- and silicon from 1.7: to 1.:1 per cent.
T#enty Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !$!". -- #his
steel is known to the trade as 1.'1 per cent carbon open-hearth steel
and often as machine steel. %t is intended primarily for casehardening,
forges well, machines well, but should not be considered as screw
machine stock. #his steel may e used for a large variety of forged,
machined, and casehardened automobile parts where strength is not
paramount. 5teel of this uality may also be drawn into tubes and
rolled into cold-rolled forms, and it is better for frames than the 1.71
per cent carbon steel as it is stronger. 0or automobile parts this steel
may be used interchangeably with the 1.71 per cent carbon steel as far
as cold-processed shapes are concerned, and it is only the most
diFcult cold-forming operations that will cause trouble from cracking.
#he physical properties of this steel after heat treatment, and of others
of higher carbon content, are given in the table, DPhysical Properties of
$eat-treated *arbon 5teels.D #hese values apply to 7K' to 7-7K' inch
round specimens which were heated from 7: to (1 minutes to the
temperatures given in the table, uenched in oil, re-heated for (1
minutes and .nally cooled in air. #he physical properties given in the
table referred to apply to three re-heating temperatures.
Heat Treatment. -- $eat treatment of the 1.'1 per cent carbon steel
produces but little change so far as strength is concerned, but it does
cause a desirable re.nement of the grain after forging, and materially
increases the toughness. #he machining ualities can often be
improved by heat treatment $. *asehardening is the most important
heat treatment for this uality of steel. #he heat treatment depends
upon the importance of the part and upon its shape and size. When
parts are not intended to carry much load or withstand any shock, and
the principal reuirement is hardness, the simplest form of
casehardening as obtained by heat treatment " will suFce. 5crews and
rod-end pins are e,amples of this class of work. 0or more important
parts, such as gears, steering wheel pivot pins, cam rollers, push rods,
and many similar automotive parts, which must not only be hard on
the surface but possess strength, the desired treatment is one which
.rst re.nes and strengthens the interior and uncarbonized metal. #his
is then followed by a treatment for re.ning the e,terior or carbonized
metal. $eat treatment C is employed. %n the case of very important
parts, the last drawing operation should be continued from one to
three hours. #he obLect of drawing is to relieve all internal strains
produced by uenching, and decrease the hardness. #he last drawing
operation can be omitted with a large number of pieces. #his steel
when cold-rolled or cold-drawn will have a yield point of from H1,111 to
&:,111 pounds per suare inch for sections not over 7K' inch round, or
7KH inch thick in the case of sheets or Mat stock.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness of the 1.'1 per cent
carbon steel conforming to the di!erent heat treatments listed in the
table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated *arbon 5teelsD are as follows;
0or a re-heating temperature of H11 degrees 0., 721 Crinell and (H
scleroscopeE for a re-heating temperature of 811 degrees 0., 7H1 Crinell
and (' scleroscopeE for a re-heating temperature of 7H11 degrees 0.,
711 Crinell and (1 scleroscope.
0 & < 0pecifications for )ungsten and 0ilico,6anganese 0teels
)ungsten 0teels
Carbon, !er
Cent
6anganese,
6a' !er
Cent
!hosphorus,
6a' !er
Cent
0ulphur,
6a' !er
Cent
Chromium,
!er Cent
)ungsten,
!er Cent
0 & <
0pecification
Bumber
7esired
6in
and
6a'
0/0
050,
0$0
0#0 00#5 00#5 #00,400 1:0,150 $1#/0
0/0
050,
0$0
0#0 00#5 00#5 #00,400 150,180 $1//0
0/0
050,
0$0
0#0 00#5 00#5 #00,400 150,:00 $:/0
0ilico,6anganese 0teels
Carbon, !er
Cent
6anganese, !er Cent 0ilicon, !er Cent
!hosphorus
and
0ulphur,
0 & <
0pecification
Bumber
7esired 6in 7esired 6in and 7esired 6in and
and
6a'
6a' 6a'
6a'
050
045,
055
0$0 0/0,080 195 180,:10 045 9:50
0/0
055,
0/5
0/0 050,0$0 1/5 150,180 045 9:/0
T#enty%f&e Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !$'". --
#his steel is used e,tensively for frames and for ordinary drop-forgings
where moderate ductility is desired but great strength is not essential.
%t is not intended for case-hardening, although by careful manipulation
it may be so treated. #his should be done in emergencies only, rather
than as regular practice, always employing the double heat treatment
followed by a drawing operation.
Heat treatment. -- $eat treatment has a moderate e!ect on the
physical properties of the 1.': per cent carbon steel, but this e!ect is
not nearly so marked as in the case of the 1.(: per cent carbon steel.
$eat treatment $ or D may be employed, the former being simpler.
#he drawing operation must be varied to suit each individual case. 0or
instance, if great toughness and little increase in strength are desired,
the higher drawing temperatures +7711 degrees or 7'11 degrees 0.-
may be usedE whereas, if considerable strength is desired and a little
toughness, the lower temperatures are used. With some parts the
drawing operation can be omitted entirely. #he double heat treatment
D gives better results than heat treatment $, a better re.nement of
grain being obtained.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness conforming to the heat
treatments listed in the table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated
*arbon 5teelsD are as follows; 0or a re-heating temperature of H11
degrees 0., '7: Crinell and (& scleroscopeE for a re-heating
temperature of 811 degrees 0., 7G1 Crinell and (H scleroscopeE for a re-
heating temperature of 7H11 degrees 0., 771 Crinell and (1
scleroscope.
Thirty%f&e Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !('". --
#his steel is sometimes referred to in the trade as 1.(: per cent carbon
machine steel. %t is intended primarily for use as structural steel. %t
forges well, machines well, and responds to heat treatment as regards
strength and toughness. %t can be used for all forgings such as a,les,
driving shafts, steering pivots, and other structural parts. %t is the best
all-around structural steel for such use as its strength warrants.
Heat treatment. -- $eat treatment for toughening and increasing the
strength is important with this steel. #he heat treatment must be
modi.ed in accordance with the e,perience of each user and to suit
the size of the work as well as the combination of strength and
toughness desired. #he steel should be heat treated whenever
reliability is essential. $eat treatments $, D, or = may be employed.
4achining may precede the heat treatment, depending somewhat
upon the convenience and nature of the treatment. When heat
treatment = is applied, machining may follow the second operation or
the slow cooling after heating to from 7:11 degrees to 7::1 degrees 0.
#o obtain the most strength, a uenching medium like brine should be
used. #he yield point will then be correspondingly high, and the steel
harder and more diFcult to machine. %f a moderately high yield point
will suFce, oil may be used for uenching, and then machining may
follow without any diFculty.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness conforming to the heat
treatments listed in the table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated
*arbon 5teelsD are as follows; 0or a re-heating temperature of H11
degrees 0., 'G1 Crinell and H' scleroscopeE for a re-heating
temperature of 811 degrees 0., '11 Crinell and (& scleroscopeE for a re-
heating temperature of 7H11 degrees 0., 7(: Crinell and ('
scleroscope.
)orty%f&e Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !*'". -- #his
steel is ordinarily known in the trade as a 1.H: per cent carbon
machine steel. %t is a structural steel of greater strength than the 1.(:
per cent carbon steel, but its uses are more limited and are con.ned in
general to such parts as reuire a higher degree of strength and
considerable toughness. With the proper heat treatment the fatigue-
resisting or endurance ualities are very high -- higher than in any of
the steels previously mentioned. #he 1.H: per cent carbon steel is
commonly used for crankshafts, driving shafts, and propeller shafts. %t
has also been used for transmission gears, but is not uite hard
enough without casehardening and is not tough enough with
casehardening to produce safe gears. #his steel should not be used for
casehardened parts. When properly annealed it machines well, but not
well enough for screw machine work.
Heat treatment. -- When 1.H: per cent carbon steel reuires annealing,
heat treatment = is suitable. 4achining may follow operation ', after
the steel has been slowly cooled from a temperature ranging between
7:11 degrees to 7::1 degrees 0. $eat treatment = is especially
adapted to crankshafts and similar parts. $eat treatment $ is also
commonly applied to this uality of steel.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness conforming to the heat
treatments listed in the table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated
*arbon 5teelsD are as follows; 0or a re-heating temperature of H11
degrees 0., (11 Crinell and H: scleroscopeE for a re-heating
temperature of 811 degrees 0., '(1 Crinell and H1 scleroscopeE for a re-
heating temperature of 7H11 degrees 0., 7G1 Crinell and (:
scleroscope.
Ninety%f&e Per Cent Carbon Steel (Specifcation No. !+'". --
#his grade of steel is generally used for springs, and when properly
heat treated very good results are possible. #he physical
characteristics of heat-treated spring steel are best determined by
transverse tests, because steel as hard as tempered spring steel is
diFcult to hold in the Laws of tensile testing machine. #here is more or
less slip and also side strains, all of which tends to produce misleading
results.
Heat treatment. -- $eat treatment 0 is recommended. %t should be
understood that the higher the drawing temperature, the lower the
yield point, but if the material is drawn to too low a temperature it will
be brittle. " few practical trials will indicate the best temper for any
given shape or size of spring. #he elastic limit of steel subLected to
heat treatment 0, as determined by transverse tests, varies from
81,111 to 721,111 pounds per suare inch.
Nic,el Steel %% !.' Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation No. $('". --
#his steel, containing 1.7: per cent carbon and (.: per cent nickel, is
suitable for carburizing purposes and will produce parts with
e,ceedingly strong and tough cores combined with a high-carbon
e,terior. #his steel may also be used for structural purposes, although
it should not be selected for such a purpose when ordering materials,
as much better results will be obtained with a nickel steel higher in
carbon. #he 1.7: per cent carbon nickel steel is intended for
casehardened gears of transmission systems and for other
casehardened parts reuiring a very tough, strong steel with a
hardened outer surface. #he composition of this steel and of others
having a higher carbon content, may be obtained from the
accompanying table D5. ". =. 5peci.cations for @ickel and @ickel-
chromium 5teels.D When used for structural purposes, the physical
characteristics will range about as given in the table DPhysical
Properties of "nnealed and $eat-treated "lloy 5teels,D which also
includes various other alloy steels referred to later.
Heat treatment. -- "lloy steels in general should be heat-treated and
not be used in an annealed or natural condition, because the
advantage of an annealed alloy steel as compared with a plain carbon
steel is as a rule not in proportion with the increased cost. Cy means of
heat treatment, however, there is a very marked improvement in
physical characteristics.
#he method of casehardening nickel steel @o. '(7: may be varied
considerably. "s a rule, those parts which are made of nickel steel
reuiere the best treatment for casehardening. $eat treatment 6 is
recommended. #he second uenching +operation G- should be at the
lowest temperature at which the material will harden, which is
sometimes below 7(11 degrees 0. #he .nal drawing +operation &- may
be omitted in some cases. Parts of intricate shape with abrupt changes
of thickness, sharp corners, etc. +especially sliding gears-, should
always be drawn to relieve internal strains.
Nic,el Steel %% !.$! Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation No. $($!". --
#his steel, containing 1.'1 per cent carbon and (.: per cent nickel,
may be used interchangeably with steel @o. '(7:. #he former,
although intended primarily for casehardening, may properly be used
for structural parts, and when suitably heat treated, will give elastic
limits somewhat higher than the nickel steel containing 1.7: per cent
carbon.
Heat treatment. -- 0or casehardening heat treatment 6 is
recommended, and for structural purposes heat treatment $ or N. #he
uenching temperatures, as with other steels, may be modi.ed to
meet individual cases.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness conforming to the heat
treatments listed in the table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated "lloy
5teelsD are as follows; 0or a re-heating temperature of H11 degrees 0.,
(&: Crinell and :: scleroscopeE for a re-heating temperature of 811
degrees 0., '21 Crinell and H' scleroscopeE for a re-heating
temperature of 7H11 degrees 0., 7': Crinell and '2 scleroscope.
Nic,el Steel %% !.(! Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation No. $((!". --
#his steel containing 1.(1 per cent carbon and (.: per cent nickel, is
intended primarily for heat-treated structural parts when strength and
toughness are desired, as in the case of a,les, front wheel spindles,
crankshafts, driving shafts and transmission shafts. #he physical
characteristics of this steel are practically the same as those of @o.
'('1, slight modi.cations in the heat treatment much more than
o!setting the slight di!erence in carbon content.
Heat treatment. -- $eat treatment $ may be employed, although a
higher re.nement may be obtained by heat treatment N. Wide
variations of yield point or elastic limit are possible by the use of
di!erent uenching mediums +oil, water, or brine- and by varying the
drawing temperatures from :11 up to 7'11 degrees 0.
Hardness. -- #he various degrees of hardness conforming to the heat
treatments listed in the table DPhysical Properties of $eat-treated "lloy
5teelsD are as follows; 0or a re-heating temperature of H11 degrees 0.,
Crinell H(G and scleroscope G1E for a re-heating temperature of 811
degrees 0., Crinell (11 and scleroscope HGE for a re-heating
temperature of 7H11 degrees 0., Crinell 7:1 and scleroscope (1.
Nic,el Steel %% !.(' Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation No. $(('". --
#he preceding remarks regarding nickel steel @o. '((1 may also be
applied to this steel which contains (.: per cent nickel and 1.(: per
cent carbon. %t will respond a little more sharply to heat treatment, and
can be forced to higher elastic limits.
Nic,el Steel %% !.*! Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation No. $(*!". --
#his steel, containing 1.H1 per cent carbon and (.: per cent nickel, is
not used e,tensively. "s the carbon content is higher than generally
used, greater hardness is obtained by uenching and as this is
accompanied by increased brittleness, the treatments must be
modi.ed to meet this condition. 0or e,ample, the .nal uenching may
be at a relatively low temperature and the .nal drawing temperature
must be determined carefully in order to produce the desired
toughness and other physical characteristics.
Nic,el%chromium Steel %% !.$! Per Cent Carbon (Specifcation
No. ($!". -- Cy referring to the accompanying table, D5. ". =.
5peci.cations for @ickel and @ickel-chromium 5teels,D it will be seen
that there are .ve nickel-chromium steels +speci.cations @os. (7'1 to
(7H1 inclusive- which di!er as to carbon content but have the same
percentage of manganese, nickel and chromium. #he nickel-chromium
steel conforming to speci.cation @o. (7'1 is intended primarily for
case-hardening, and it may also be used for structural parts if suitably
heat-treated. #his steel should not be used in a natural or untreated
condition.
#he four grades of steel conforming to speci.cation numbers (7':,
(7(1, (7(: and (7H1 are intended for structural purposes, and are
used in a heat-treated condition. 5teels @os. (7': and (7(1 may be
used for casehardening.
Heat treatment. -- %n general, the heat treatments and the properties
resulting from them are much the same for nickel-chromium steels as
for plain nickel steels, e,cept that the e!ects of heat treatment are
somewhat augmented by the chromium and increase with increasing
amounts of nickel and chromium. 5teel conforming to speci.cation @o.
(7'1 is casehardened by heat treatment 6, and when used in
structural parts is given heat treatment $ or D. $eat treatment $, D or
= is applied to steels @os. (7':, (7(1, (7(: and (7H1.
-ther Nic,el%chromium Steels. -- #he important applications of the
other nickel-chromium steels listed in the table D5. ". =. 5peci.cations
for @ickel and @ickel-chromium 5teelsD are as follows; Specifcation No.
3220. -- #his steel is intended for casehardened parts, but when this
grade of steel is reuired, very careful heat treatment is necessary,
heat treatment 6 being recommended. #his same steel may also be
used for structural purposes, in which case it should receive heat
treatment $ or D.
Specifcation No. 3230. -- #his grade of nickel-chromium steel is
intended for the most important structural parts and should be used
only in a heat-treated condition. $eat treatment $ or D is
recommended.
Specifcation No. 3240. -- #his uality of steel is suitable for structural
parts reuiring unusual strength. $igher elastic limit is possible with a
given heat treatment than in the case of a steel like @o. ('(1. #he
toughness will not be uite as great, but the steel is applicable where
strength rather than toughness is the controlling factor. $eat treatment
$ or D is recommended.
Specifcation No. 3250. -- #his steel is intended for gears reuiring
e,treme strength and hardness. =ither heat treatment 4 or O should
be applied, O giving the better results.
Specifcation No. 3415. -- #his steel is intended primarily for
casehardening. %t is considerably higher in nickel than the nickel-
chromium steels previously referred to. $eat treatment 6 should be
followed unless the steel is used for structural parts, when heat
treatment 4 is applied.
Specifcation No. 3435. -- #his steel is intended for very important
structural parts such as crankshafts, a,les, spindles, driving shafts and
transmission shafts. $eat treatment P or > is recommended. #his steel
is not intended for casehardening.
Specifcation No. 3450. -- #his uality of steel may also be used for
gears reuiring e,treme strength and hardness. $eat treatment >
should be used, although heat treatment P is also applicable.
Specifcation No. 3320. -- #he remarks made in connection with @o.
(''1 apply to this steel also. #here is no appreciable di!erence in the
physical characteristics. $eat treatment < should be used for
carburizing.
Specifcation No. 3330. -- #his steel, like ('(1, is intended for very
important structural parts. #he high nickel and chromium contents
make it e,ceedingly tough and strong when treated according to heat
treatment P or >.
Specifcation No. 3340. -- #his steel is suitable for gears to be hardened
without carburizing. #he remarks made in connection with steel @o.
('H1 and (':1 apply. $eat treatment < should be used.
Chromium Steels. -- 0our grades of chromium steels are included in
the accompanying table D5. ". =. 5peci.cations for *hromium and
*hromium-vanadium 5teelsD. *hromium steel @o. :7'1 is a
casehardening grade of much better uality than carbon steel and is
similar in this respect to nickel steel @o. '('1 and nickel-chromium
steel @o. (7'1. $eat treatment C is recommended for steel @o. :7'1.
*hromium steel @o. :7H1 is similar to nickel-chromium steel @o. (7H1.
When given heat treatment $ or D, it is suitable for high-duty shafting,
etc. #he drawing temperature should be moderately high, in order to
secure a safe degree of toughness.
!hysical !roperties of ;eat,)reated Carbon 0teels
-9rom 2eports of 3ron and 0teel 7i"ision ,, 0ociety of &utomoti"e <ngineers, 3nc.
2ange of
Carbon
Content,
!er Cent
2ange of
6anganese
Content, !er
Cent
!hysical !roperties ,, &"erage 6inimum Aalues gi"en G
;eating
)emp,
7eg 9
2e,
heating
)emp,
7eg 9
)ensile
0trength,
4bs per
0+ 3n
<lastic
43mit,
4bs
per 0+
3n
2eduction
of &rea,
!er Cent
<longation
in : 3nches,
!er Cent
015,0:5 0#0,0/0 15/0, 400 80,000 50,000 /00 :00
1580
900 $5,000 4:,500 /50 :/5
1400 $0,000 #5,000 $00 #:5
0:0,0#0 050,080
1540,
15/0
400 90,000 /0,000 550 1$0
900 8:,500 50,000 /10 :#5
1400 $5,000 40,00 /$5 #00
0#0,040 050,080
1510,
15#0
400 105,000 $5,000 4:5 150
900 94,000 /#,000 5:5 :15
1400 8:,000 50,000 /:5 :80
040,05 050,080
1490,
1510
400 1:5,000 90,000 #50 1:5
900 110,000 $5,000 450 1$5
1400 95,000 /0,000 550 ::5
I #hese values apply to round specimens varying from 7K' to 7-7K' inch
in diameter, which were heated from .fteen to thirty minutes,
uenched in oil, re-heated for thirty minutes at the temperature given
in the table, and .nally cooled in air.
Chromium%&anadium Steels. -- #he speci.cations of eight di!erent
grades are given in the table D5. ". =. 5peci.cations for *hromium and
*hromium-vanadium 5teels.D #he principal applications of these steels
are as follows;
Specifcation No. 6120. -- #his uality of steel is intended primarily for
casehardening. %t is used for the most important parts, such as
casehardened shafts, gears, etc. While this steel may be used in a
heat-treated condition for structural purposes, some of the steels
referred to in the following are preferable, particularly where greater
strength is desired. $eat treatment 5 is recommended for
casehardening and heat treatment for structural parts.
Specifcation No. 6125. -- #he di!erence between this steel and @o.
G7'1 is very slight, and they may be used interchangeably for
structural purposes. #his steel may be casehardened, but it is not .rst
choice for this purpose.
Specifcation No. 6130. -- #his steel can be used interchangeably with
@o. G7': for structural purposes, but it should not be used for
casehardening. When subLected to heat treatment #, it possesses a
high degree of combined strength and toughness.
Specifcation No. 6135. -- #his speci.cation provides an e,cellent
uality of steel for structural parts that are to be heat-treated. #he
fatigue-resisting or endurance ualities of this steel are very good.
$eat treatment # is recommended.
Specifcation No. 6140. -- #his is a very good uality of steel for use
where a high degree of strength is desired in conLunction with
considerable toughness. %ts fatigue-resisting ualities are very high,
and it is a .rst-class material for high-duty shafts. $eat treatment # is
recommended.
Specifcation No. 6145. -- #his uality of steel contains suFcient
carbon in combination with chromium and vanadium to harden to a
considerable degree when uenched at a suitable temperature, and it
may be used for gears and springs. 0or gears this steel should be
annealed after forging and before machining, the annealing being done
by following operations 7 and ' of heat treatment 9. 0or structural
parts reuiring great strength, heat treatment # is recommended.
Specifcation No. 6150. -- #he remarks regarding steel @o. G7H: apply
to this steel. %t is suitable for springs, and when given the right heat
treatment, very high elastic limits are obtained. 0or spring material,
heat treatment 9 is recommended, e,cept that the last drawing
+operation G- temperature should be higher -- probably from &11
degrees to 7711 degrees 0. -- the temperature varying with the section
of the material.
Silico%man.anese Steels. -- #he two silico-manganese steels listed
in the accompanying table of speci.cations have been standardized by
usage principally as spring steel. @o. 8'G1 is also used to some e,tent
for gears. @either steel is suitable for use without heat treatment. #he
two speci.cations are given to meet the reuirements of, .rst, those
manufacturers believing in relatively low-carbon and high-silicon steel,
and those desiring higher carbon and lower silicon.
!hysical !roperties of ;eat,treated &lloy 0teels
Bic%el 0teels
2ange of
Carbon
Content,
!er Cent
2ange of
Bic%el
Content,
!er Cent
!hysical !roperties ,, &"erage 6inimum Aalues gi"en G
;eating
)emp,
7eg 9
2e,
heating
)emp,
7eg 9
)ensile
0trength,
4bs per
0+ 3n
<lastic
43mit,
4bs per
0+ 3n
2eduction
of &rea,
!er Cent
<longation
in : 3nches,
!er Cent
015,0:5
#:5,#$5
1510,
1540
400 1$0,000 140,000 450 11
900 1#0,000 99,000 /05 :15
1400 $0,000 40,000 $50 #0
0:5,0#5
1485,
1515
400 ::0,000 190,000 #50 100
900 140,000 115,000 540 1/0
1400 80,000 50,000 $00 :50
0#5,045 15#4, 400 :40,000 :15,000 #:5 100
14/5
900 155,000 1#0,000 510 1/0
1400 90,000 /0,000 /:5 ::5
Bic%el,Chromium 0teels
015,0:5
100,150
1585,
1/15
400 1/0,000 1:0,000 5:5 150
900 111,000 84,000 /90 :10
1400 $5,000 50,000 $:5 #50
0:5,0#5
15#5,
15/5
400 190,000 155,000 #$5 100
900 1#4,000 10:,000 /#0 1$5
1400 80,000 $0,000 $00 #00
0#5,045
1485,
1515
400 :#0,000 :00,000 :$0 $5
900 15$,000 1:/,000 4/5 140
1400 90,000 $5,000 /:0 :00
!hysical !roperties of &nnealed and ;eat,treated &lloy 0teels
0&<
0pec
&nnealed ;eat,treated
Hield
!oint,
4bs per
0+ 3n
2eduction
of &rea,
!er Cent
<longation
in : in, !er
Cent
;eat
)reatment
4etter F
Hield
!oint,
4bs per
0+ 3n
2eduction
of &rea,
!er Cent
<longation
in : in, !er
Cent
Bic%el 0teels
:#15
#5,000,
45,000
/5,45 #5,:5 ; or @
40,000,
80,000
/5,40 #5,15
:#:0
40,000,
50,000
/5,40 #0,:0 ; or @
50,000,
1:5,000
/5,40 :5,10
:##0
40,000,
50,000
/0,40 #0,:0 ; or @
/0,000,
1#0,000
/0,#0 :5,10
:##5
45,000,
55,000
55,#5 :5,15 ; or @
/5,000,
1/0,000
55,:5 :5,10
:#40
55,000,
/5,000
50,#0 :5,15 ; or @
$0,000,
:00,000
55,15 :5, 5
Bic%el,Chromium 0teels
#1:0 #0,000, 55,40 #5,:5 ; or 7 40,000, /5,40 :5,15
40,000 100,000
#1:5
40,000,
55,000
50,#5 #0,:0 ;, 7 or <
50,000,
1:5,000
55,:5 :5,10
#1#0
40,000,
55,000
50,#5 #0,:0 ;, 7 or <
50,000,
1:5,000
55,:5 :5,10
#1#5
45,000,
/0,000
45,#0 :5,15 ;, 7 or <
55,000,
150,000
50,:5 :0, 5
#140
45,000,
/0,000
45,#0 :5,15 ;, 7 or <
55,000,
150,000
50,:5 :0, 5
#::0
#5,000,
45,000
/0,45 :5,:0 ; or 7
45,000,
1:0,000
/5,#0 :0, 5
#:#0
40,000,
50,000
55,40 :5,15 ; or 7
/0,000,
1$5,000
/0,#0 :0, 5
#:40
45,000,
/0,000
50,40 :5,15 ; or 7
/5,000,
:00,000
50,:0 15, :
#:50
50,000,
/0,000
50,40 :5,15 6 or >
150,000,
:00,000
:5,15 15, :
#415
#5,000,
45,000
/0,45 :5,:0 6
40,000,
100,000
/5,#0 :0, 5
#4#5
45,000,
55,000
55,40 :5,15 ! or 2
/0,000,
1$5,000
/0,#0 :0, 5
Chromium,Aanadium 0teels
/1:0
40,000,
50,000
/5,50 #0,:0 )
55,000,
100,000
/5,45 :5,10
/1:5
40,000,
50,000
/5,50 #0,:0 )
55,000,
100,000
/5,45 :5,10
/1#0
45,000,
55,000
/0,50 :5,:0 )
/0,000,
150,000
55,:5 15, 5
/1#5
45,000,
55,000
/0,50 :5,:0 )
/0,000,
150,000
55,:5 15, 5
/140
50,000,
/0,000
55,45 :5,15 )
/5,000,
1$5,000
50,15 15, :
/145
55,000,
/5,000
55,40 :5,15 5
150,000,
:00,000
:5,10 10, :
/150
/0,000,
$0,000
50,#5 :0,15 5
150,000,
::5,000
#5,15 10, :
0ilico,6anganese 0teels
9:50
55,000,
/5,000
45,#0 :5,:0 A
/0,000,
180,000
40,10 :0, 5
9:/0
55,000,
/5,000
45,#0 :5,:0 A
/0,000,
180,000
40,10 :0, 5
Hi.h%Chromium or /Stainless/ Steel. --
Heat treatment. --
Heat treatment for Valves. --
Comparison of !hysical !roperties for ;igh,Chromium 0teels of 7ifferent Carbon
Content
;eat )reatments
and
!hysical !roperties
Composition
C 0:0
6n 045
Cr 1:5/
C 0:$
6n 050
Cr 1::4
C 050
Cr 1484
>uenched in oil from degrees 9 1/00 1/00 1/50
)empered at degrees 9 11/0 1080 1100
Hield point, lb per s+ in $8#00 $5000 91/1/
)ensile strength, lb per s+ in 104/00 104:50 1:#/48
<longation in : in, per cent :50 :#5 145
2eduction of area, per cent 5:5 514 ##5
Cobaltcrom Steel. -- #his is a tungstenless alloy steel or high-speed
steel which contains appro,imately 7.: per cent carbon, 7'.: per cent
chromium, and (.: per cent cobalt. #ools such as dies, milling cutters,
etc., made from cobaltcrom steel can be cast to shape in suitable
molds, the teeth of cutters being formed so that it is necessary only to
grind them.
Cefore the blanks can be machined, they must be annealedE this
operation is performed by pack-annealing at the temperature of 7211
degrees 0., for a period of from three to si, hours, according to the size
of the castings being annealed. #he following directions are given for
the hardening of blanking and trimming dies, milling cutters, and
similar tools made from cobaltcrom steel; $eat slowly in a hardening
furnace to about 72(1 degrees 0., and hold the temperature at this
point until the tools are thoroughly soaked. #hen reduce the
temperature about :1 degrees, withdraw the tools from the furnace,
and allow them to cool in the atmosphere. "s soon as the red color
disappears from the cooling tool, place it in uenching oil until cold.
#he slight drop of :1 degrees in temperature while the tool is still in
the hardening furnace is highly important in order to obtain proper
results. #he steel will be inLured if the tool is heated above 72G1
degrees 0. %n cooling milling cutters or other rotary tools, it is
suggested that they be suspended on a wire to insure a uniform rate of
cooling.
#ools that are subLected to shocks or vibration, such as pneumatic rivet
sets, shear blades, etc., should be heated slowly to 7G:1 degrees 0.,
after which the temperature should be reduced to about 7G71 degrees
0., at which point the tool should be removed from the furnace and
permitted to cool in the atmosphere. #here is no appreciable scaling
present in the hardening of cobaltcrom steel tools.
0eneral Properties of Alloy Steels. -- "lloy or DspecialD steels are
combinations of iron and carbon with some other element, such as
nickel, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, manganese and molybdenum.
"ll of these metals give certain distinct properties to the steel, but in
all cases the principal uality is the increase in hardness and
toughness.
Nickel steel usually contains from ( to (.: per cent nickel +ordinarily
not over : per cent-, and from 1.'1 to 1.H1 per cent carbon. #his steel
is used for armor plate, ammunition, bridge construction, rails, etc.
?ne of the reasons why nickel steel is adapted for armor plate is that it
does not crack when perforated by a proLectile. #he Nrupp steel used
for armor plate contains appro,imately (.: per cent nickel, 7.: per cent
chromium and 1.': per cent carbon. #he advantages claimed for nickel
steel for railroad rails are its increased resistance to abrasion and high
elastic limit. ?n sharp curves, it has been estimated that a nickel steel
rail will outlast four ordinary rails.
!romi"m steel is well adapted for armor-piercing proLectiles, owing to
its hardness, toughness and sti!ness, and is e,tensively used for this
purpose. *hromium steel is also used in the construction of safes and
for castings subLected to unusually severe stresses, such as those used
in rock-crushing machinery, etc. #he percentage of chromium used in
chromium steels varies over uite a wide range in the low-chromium
and high-chromium steels.
T"n#sten steel is largely employed for high-speed metal cutting tools
and magnet steels. %t has also been used in the manufacture of armor
plate and armor-piercing proLectiles, in which case it is combined either
with nickel or chromium or with both of these metals. #he property that
tunsten imparts to steel is that of hardening in the air, after heating to
the reuired temperature. #his steel usually contains : to 7: per cent
tungsten +although the percentage is sometimes as high as 'H per
cent- and from 1.H to ' per cent carbon.
Vanadi"m steels ordinarily contain 1.7G to 1.': per cent vanadium.
#he e!ect of vanadium is to increase the tensile strength and elastic
limit, and it gives the steel the valuable property of resisting, to an
unusual degree, repeated stresses. Aanadium steel is especially
adapted for springs, car a,les, gears subLected to severe service, and
for all parts which must withstand constant vibration and varying
stresses.
$an#anese steel +also known as $ad.eld managanese steel- contains
about 7' per cent manganese and from 1.2 to 7.': per cent carbon. %f
there is only 7.: per cent manganese, the steel is very brittle, and
additional manganese increases this brittleness until the uantity has
reached H to :.: per cent, when the steel can be pulverized under the
hammer. With a further increase of manganese, the steel becomes
ductile and very hard, these ualities being at there highest degree
when the manganese content is 7' per cent. #he ductility of the steel
is brought out by sudden cooling, the process being opposite that
employed for carbon steel.
$ol%&den"m steels have properties similar to tungsten steels, e,cept
that a smaller uantity of molybdenum than of tungsten is reuired to
secure corresponding results.
Scre# Stoc,. -- #he composition of ordinary screw stock should be, in
general, about as follows; *arbon, from 1.12 to 1.'1 per centE
manganese, 1.(1 o 1.21 per centE phosphorus, not to e,ceed 1.7' per
centE sulphur, 1.1G to 1.7' per cent. 5crew stock is easily machined
and cheap, but lacks strength and toughness and is not safe for vital
parts. 5crews made from hot-rolled bars of this material should be
heat-treated and not used in an annealed condition. 5crews made from
cold-rolled bars are much stronger, but the best results, in either case,
are obtained by the following heat treatment; "fter machining, heat to
7:11 degrees 0.E uenchE re-heat from G11 degrees to 7(11 degrees 0.,
and cool slowly.
TEST1N0 THE HA23NESS -) META4S
is the ne't section, and 3(ll consider typing it up *ut gimme some feedbac% first
<ater -- % got some feedback, after a couple of years, from someone
who would like to see that ne,t section, and though it/s Lust one
person, %/ll guess that it would be useful to more. 5o %/ll get started
soon. +#his paragraph written GK'8K82-
0urther; HK'HK11, got another reuest. #otal of two. ?N, %/ll start on it.
$ere/s the link;#esting the $ardness of 4etals
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