HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN

PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN
Neolithic period.
A major change occurred c. 4000 BC !"h "he !n"roduc"!on o#
agr!cu$"ure %& Neo$!"h!c !mm!gran"' #rom "he coa'"' o# e'"ern and
(o''!%$& nor"he'"ern Euro(e) The& ere (a'"ora$!'"' a' e$$ a' "!$$er'
o# "he 'o!$) Too$' ere common$& o# *!n" on %& m!n!ng+ %u" a,e' o#
-o$can!c roc. ere a$'o "raded %& (ro'(ec"or' e,($o!"!ng d!'"an"
ou"cro(') The dead ere %ur!ed !n communa$ gra-e' o# "o ma!n
.!nd'/ !n "he e'"+ "om%' ere %u!$" ou" o# '"one and concea$ed under
mound' o# ru%%$e0 !n "he '"one$e'' ea'"ern area' "he dead ere
%ur!ed under $ong %arro' 1mound' o# ear"h2+ h!ch norma$$&
con"a!ned "!m%er '"ruc"ure') O"her e-!dence o# re$!g!on come' #rom
enc$o'ure' 1e.g., 3!ndm!$$ H!$$+ 3!$"'h!re2+ h!ch are no %e$!e-ed "o
ha-e %een cen"re' o# r!"ua$ and o# 'ea'ona$ "r!%a$ #ea'"!ng) From "hem
de-e$o(ed+ $a"e !n "he 4rd m!$$enn!um+ more c$ear$& ceremon!a$ d!"ch5
enc$o'ed ear"hor.' .non a' henge monumen"') Some+ $!.e
6urr!ng"on 3a$$'+ 3!$"'h!re+ are o# grea" '!7e and enc$o'e 'u%'!d!ar&
"!m%er c!rc$e') Br!"!'h Neo$!"h!c cu$"ure "hu' de-e$o(ed !"' on
!nd!-!dua$!"&)
Bronze Age.
Ear$& !n "he 8nd m!$$enn!um or (erha(' e-en ear$!er+ #rom c. 8400 BC+
change' ere !n"roduced %& "he Bea.er #o$. #rom "he Lo Coun"r!e'
and "he m!dd$e Rh!ne) The'e (eo($e %ur!ed "he!r dead !n !nd!-!dua$
gra-e'+ o#"en !"h "he dr!n.!ng -e''e$ "ha" g!-e' "he!r cu$"ure !"'
name) The ear$!e'" o# "hem '"!$$ u'ed *!n"0 $a"er grou('+ hoe-er+
%rough" a .no$edge o# me"a$$urg& and ere re'(on'!%$e #or "he
e,($o!"a"!on o# go$d and co((er de(o'!"' !n Br!"a!n and Ire$and) The&
ma& a$'o ha-e !n"roduced an Indo5Euro(ean $anguage) Trade a'
dom!na"ed %& "he ch!e#"a!n' o# 3e''e,+ ho'e r!ch gra-e' "e'"!#& "o
"he!r 'ucce'') Commerce a' #ar5*ung+ !n one d!rec"!on "o Ire$and and
Corna$$ and !n "he o"her "o cen"ra$ Euro(e and "he Ba$"!c+ hence
am%er a' !m(or"ed) Am%er %ead '(acer' #rom 3e''e, ha-e %een
#ound !n "he 'ha#" gra-e' a" 9&cenae !n Greece) I" a'+ (erha('+ "h!'
(ro'(er!"& "ha" ena%$ed "he 3e''e, ch!e#"a!n' "o con'"ruc" "he
remar.a%$e monumen" o# 'ha(ed 'ar'en' 1$arge 'and'"one'2 .non

a' S"onehenge III) Or!g!na$$& a $a"e Neo$!"h!c henge+ S"onehenge a'

un!:ue$& "ran'#ormed !n Bea.er "!me' !"h a c!rc$e o# $arge %$ue'"one
mono$!"h' "ran'(or"ed #rom 'ou"he'" 3a$e')
L!""$e !' .non !n de"a!$ o# "he ear$& and m!dd$e Bron7e Age) Becau'e
o# (re'en" !gnorance o# dome'"!c '!"e'+ "he'e (er!od' are ma!n$&
de;ned %& "echno$og!ca$ ad-ance' and change' !n "oo$' or ea(on')
In genera$+ "he 'ou"hea'" o# Br!"a!n con"!nued !n c$o'e con"ac" !"h "he
con"!nen" and "he nor"h and e'" !"h Ire$and)
From a%ou" <800 BC "here !' c$earer e-!dence #or agr!cu$"ure !n "he
'ou"h0 "he #arm' con'!'"ed o# c!rcu$ar hu"' !n grou(' !"h 'ma$$ o%$ong
;e$d' and '"oc. enc$o'ure') Th!' "&(e o# #arm %ecame '"andard !n
Br!"a!n don "o and !n"o "he Roman (er!od) From "he ="h cen"ur&
onard+ e,(an'!on o# con"!nen"a$ Urn;e$d and Ha$$'"a"" grou('
%rough" ne (eo($e 1ma!n$& "he Ce$"'2 "o Br!"a!n0 "he& came a" ;r'"+
(erha('+ !n 'ma$$ (ro'(ec"!ng grou('+ %u" 'oon "he!r !n*uence '(read+
and ne 'e""$emen"' de-e$o(ed) Some o# "he ear$!e'" h!$$ #or"' !n
Br!"a!n ere con'"ruc"ed !n "h!' (er!od 1e.g., Beacon H!$$+ near
I-!nghoe+ Buc.!ngham'h!re0 or F!na-on+ Angu'20 "hough #orma$$&
%e$ong!ng "o "he $a"e Bron7e Age+ "he& u'her !n "he 'ucceed!ng (er!od)
Iron Age.
>no$edge o# !ron+ !n"roduced !n "he ?"h cen"ur&+ a' a mere$&
!nc!den"a$ #ac"/ !" doe' no" '!gn!#& a change o# (o(u$a"!on) The
cen"ur!e' ?005400 BC 'a a 'ucce''!on o# 'ma$$ m!gra"!on'+ and "he
necomer' m!ng$ed ea'!$& !"h e,!'"!ng !nha%!"an"') Ye" "he grea"er
a-a!$a%!$!"& o# !ron #ac!$!"a"ed $and c$earance and "hu' "he gro"h o#
(o(u$a"!on) The ear$!e'" !ron'm!"h' made dagger' o# "he Ha$$'"a"" "&(e
%u" o# a d!'"!nc"!-e$& Br!"!'h #orm) The 'e""$emen"' ere a$'o o# a
d!'"!nc"!-e$& Br!"!'h "&(e+ !"h "he "rad!"!ona$ round hou'e+ "he @Ce$"!c@
'&'"em o# #arm!ng !"h !"' 'ma$$ ;e$d'+ and '"orage (!"' #or gra!n) Thu'
Br!"a!n a%'or%ed "he necomer')
The cen"ur& #o$$o!ng A00 BC 'a "he %u!$d!ng o# man& $arge h!$$ #or"'0
"he'e 'ugge'" "he e,!'"ence o# (oer#u$ ch!e#"a!n' and "he gro"h o#
'"r!#e a' !ncrea'!ng (o(u$a"!on crea"ed (re''ure' on "he $and) B& 400
BC 'ord' ere ma.!ng "he!r a((earance once more !n ($ace o#
dagger') F!na$$&+ %eg!nn!ng !n "he 4rd cen"ur&+ a Br!"!'h #orm o# La
TBne Ce$"!c ar" a' de-e$o(ed "o decora"e ar$!.e e:u!(men" 'uch a'
!
'ca%%ard'+ 'h!e$d'+ and he$me"'+ and e-en"ua$$& a$'o %ron7e m!rror'
and e-en dome'"!c (o""er&) 6ur!ng "he 8nd cen"ur& "he e,(or" o#
Corn!'h "!n+ no"ed %e#ore 400 %& C&"hea' o# 9a''a$!a+ a Gree.
e,($orer+ con"!nued0 e-!dence o# !"' de'"!na"!on !' (ro-!ded %& "he Cau$
1Corna$$2 hoard o# nor"h I"a$!an '!$-er co!n') In "he <'" cen"ur& BC "h!'
"rade a' !n "he hand' o# "he Dene"! o# Br!""an&0 "he!r con:ue'" 1EA
BC2 %& Fu$!u' Cae'ar+ ho de'"ro&ed "he!r *ee"+ 'eem' "o ha-e (u" an
end "o !")
B& 800 Br!"a!n had #u$$& de-e$o(ed !"' !n'u$ar Ce$"!c charac"er) The
emergence+ hoe-er+ o# "he Br!"!'h "r!%e' .non "o Roman h!'"or!an'
a' due "o a #ur"her (ha'e o# 'e""$emen" %& "r!%e'men #rom Be$g!c
Gau$) Co!n ;nd' 'ugge'" "ha" "he ear$!e'" mo-emen"' o# "h!' m!gra"!on
%egan %e#ore "he end o# "he 8nd cen"ur&0 "he dec!'!-e 'e""$emen"'
ere made !n "he <'" cen"ur& (ro%a%$& a' a re'u$" o# (re''ure' !n Gau$
crea"ed %& German!c and Roman e,(an'!on) The re'u$" a' a
d!'"!nc"!-e cu$"ure !n 'ou"hea'" Br!"a!n 1e'(ec!a$$& !n >en" and nor"h o#
"he Thame'2 h!ch re(re'en"ed a $a"er (ha'e o# "he con"!nen"a$ Ce$"!c
La TBne cu$"ure) I"' (eo($e u'ed co!n' and "he (o""erG' hee$ and
crema"ed "he!r dead+ and "he!r %e""er e:u!(men" ena%$ed "hem "o
%eg!n "he e,($o!"a"!on o# hea-!er 'o!$' #or agr!cu$"ure)
"elt#
The Ce$"' ere d!Heren" grou(' o# (eo($e' ho a$$ '(o.e Ce$"!c
$anguage' and $!-ed !n mo'" (ar"' o# Euro(e #rom "he Ba$.an reg!on'
"o Ire$and) 9o'" (oer#u$ dur!ng "he 4"h5c BC+ "he& (ro%a%$&
or!g!na"ed !n (re'en"5da& France+ S German&+ and adjacen" "err!"or!e'
dur!ng "he Bron7e Age) Ce$"!c5'(ea.!ng 'oc!e"!e' de-e$o(ed !n "he
$a"er ;r'" m!$$enn!um BC+ e,(and!ng "hrough armed ra!d' !n"o "he
I%er!an Cen!n'u$a+ Br!"!'h I'+ C Euro(e+ I"a$&+ Greece+ Ana"o$!a+ Eg&("+
Bu$gar!a+ Roman!a+ Thrace+ and 9acedon!a)
The& ere ;na$$& re(u$'ed %& "he Roman' and German!c "r!%e'+ and !n
Euro(e !"hdre !n"o Gau$ !n "he <'"5c BC) Ce$"!c "rad!"!on 'ur-!-ed
$
mo'" and #or $onge'" !n Ire$and and Br!"a!n) The& ere #amou' #or "he!r
%ur!a$ '!"e' and h!$$ #or"'+ and "he!r %ron7e and !ron ar" and jee$$er&)
The!r modern de'cenden"' are #ound ch!e*& !n Ire$and+ Sco"$and+ and
3a$e')
ROMAN BRITAIN
The con%&e#t.
Fu$!u' Cae'ar con:uered Gau$ %e"een E= and E0 BC and !n-aded
Br!"a!n !n EE or E4 BC+ "here%& %r!ng!ng "he !'$and !n"o c$o'e con"ac"
!"h "he Roman or$d) Cae'arG' de'cr!("!on o# Br!"a!n a" "he "!me o#
h!' !n-a'!on' !' "he ;r'" coheren" accoun" e,"an") From a%ou" 80 BC !"
!' (o''!%$e "o d!'"!ngu!'h "o (r!nc!(a$ (oer'/ "he Ca"u-e$$aun! nor"h
o# "he Thame' $ed %& Ta'c!o-anu'+ 'ucce''or o# Cae'arG' ad-er'ar&
Ca''!-e$$aunu'+ and+ 'ou"h o# "he r!-er+ "he .!ngdom o# "he A"re%a"e'
ru$ed %& Comm!u' and h!' 'on' T!ncomm!u'+ E((!$$u'+ and Der!ca)
Ta'c!o-anu' a' 'ucceeded !n a%ou" A6 E %& h!' 'on Cuno%e$!nu'+
ho+ dur!ng a $ong re!gn+ e'"a%$!'hed (oer a$$ o-er "he 'ou"hea'"+
h!ch he ru$ed #rom Camu$odunum 1Co$che'"er2) Be&ond "he'e
.!ngdom' $a& "he Icen! !n ha" !' no Nor#o$.+ "he Cor!e$"a-! !n "he
9!d$and'+ "he 6o%un! 16o%unn!2 !n "he area o# G$ouce'"er'h!re+ and
"he 6uro"r!ge' !n "ha" o# 6or'e"+ a$$ o# hom !''ued co!n' and
(ro%a%$& had Be$g!c ru$er') Beh!nd "he'e aga!n $a& #ur"her
!nde(enden" "r!%e'55"he 6umnon!! o# 6e-on+ "he Br!gan"e' !n "he
nor"h+ and "he S!$ure' and Ordo-!ce' !n 3a$e') The Be$g!c and 'em!5
Be$g!c "r!%e' $a"er #ormed "he c!-!$!7ed nuc$eu' o# "he Roman (ro-!nce
and "hu' con"r!%u"ed grea"$& "o Roman Br!"a!n)
In "he ;r'" 80 &ear' o# occu(a"!on 'ome (rogre'' had %een made !n
'(read!ng Roman c!-!$!7a"!on) Ton' had %een #ounded+ "he !m(er!a$
cu$" had %een e'"a%$!'hed+ and merchan"' ere %u'!$& !n"roduc!ng "he
Br!"on' "o ma"er!a$ %ene;"') I" a' no"+ hoe-er+ un"!$ "he F$a-!an
(er!od+ A6 AI5IA+ "ha" rea$ ad-ance' ere made !n "h!' ;e$d) 3!"h "he
occu(a"!on o# 3a$e' %& Fu$!u' Fron"!nu' 1go-ernor #rom ?4 "o ?=2 and
"he ad-ance !n"o nor"hern Sco"$and %& Gnaeu' Fu$!u' Agr!co$a 1?=5=42+
"roo(' ere remo-ed #rom 'ou"hern Br!"a!n+ and 'e$#5go-ern!ng
c!-!"a"e'+ adm!n!'"ra"!-e area' %a'ed #or "he mo'" (ar" on "he
!nd!genou' "r!%e'+ "oo. o-er $oca$ adm!n!'"ra"!on) Th!' !n-o$-ed a $arge
(rogram o# ur%an!7a"!on and a$'o o# educa"!on+ h!ch con"!nued !n"o
"he 8nd cen"ur&0 Tac!"u'+ !n h!' %!ogra(h& o# Agr!co$a+ em(ha'!7e' "he

'
encouragemen" g!-en "o !") Roman con:ue'" o# 3a$e' a' com($e"e
%& ?=+ %u" Agr!co$aG' !n-a'!on o# Sco"$and #a!$ed %ecau'e 'hor"age o#
man(oer (re-en"ed h!m #rom com($e"!ng "he occu(a"!on o# "he
ho$e !'$and) 9oreo-er+ hen "he Br!"!'h garr!'on a' reduced 1c. A6
I02 %& a $eg!on %ecau'e o# con"!nen"a$ need'+ !" %ecame e-!den" "ha"
a #ron"!er ou$d ha-e "o %e ma!n"a!ned !n "he nor"h) A#"er 'e-era$
e,(er!men"'+ "he So$a&5T&ne !'"hmu' a' cho'en+ and "here "he
em(eror Hadr!an %u!$" h!' '"one a$$ 1c. <885<402)
ANG(O-SA)ON ENG(AN*
the in+,der# ,nd their e,rl- #ettle.ent#
A$"hough German!c #oedera"!+ a$$!e' o# Roman and (o'"5
Roman au"hor!"!e'+ had 'e""$ed !n Eng$and !n "he 4"h
cen"ur& A6+ "r!%a$ m!gra"!on' !n"o Br!"a!n %egan a%ou" "he m!dd$e o#
"he E"h cen"ur&) The ;r'" arr!-a$'+ accord!ng "o "he A"h5cen"ur& Br!"!'h
r!"er G!$da'+ ere !n-!"ed %& a Br!"!'h .!ng "o de#end h!' .!ngdom
aga!n'" "he C!c"' and Sco"') A "rad!"!on reached Bede "ha" "he ;r'"
mercenar!e' ere #rom "hree "r!%e'55"he Ang$e'+ Sa,on'+ and Fu"e'55
h!ch he $oca"e' on "he C!m%r!c Cen!n'u$a+ and %& !m($!ca"!on "he
coa'"$and' o# nor"he'"ern German&) Archaeo$og&+ hoe-er+ 'ugge'"'
a more com($e, (!c"ure 'ho!ng man& "r!%a$ e$emen"'+ Fran.!'h
$eader'h!( !n "he ;r'" a-e'+ and Fr!'!an con"ac"') Re-o$" %& "he'e
mercenar!e' aga!n'" "he!r Br!"!'h em($o&er' !n "he 'ou"hea'" o#
Eng$and $ed "o $arge5'ca$e German!c 'e""$emen"' near "he coa'"' and
a$ong "he r!-er -a$$e&') The!r ad-ance a' ha$"ed #or a genera"!on %&
na"!-e re'!'"ance+ h!ch "rad!"!on a''oc!a"e' !"h "he name' o#
Am%ro'!u' Aure$!anu' and Ar"hur+ cu$m!na"!ng !n -!c"or& a%ou" E00 %&
"he Br!"on' a" "he Ba""$e o# 9on' Badon!cu' a" an un!den"!;ed
$oca"!on) Bu" a ne German!c dr!-e %egan a%ou" EE0+ and %e#ore "he
cen"ur& had ended+ "he Br!"on' had %een dr!-en e'" "o "he %order' o#
6umnon!a 1Corna$$ and 6e-on2 and "o "he 3e$'h 9arche'+ h!$e
!n-ader' ere ad-anc!ng e'" o# "he Cenn!ne' and nor"hard !n"o
Lo"h!an)
The #a"e o# "he na"!-e Br!"!'h (o(u$a"!on !' d!Jcu$" "o de"erm!ne) The
ca'e aga!n'" !"' $arge5'ca$e 'ur-!-a$ re'"' $arge$& on $!ngu!'"!c
e-!dence+ 'uch a' "he 'carc!"& o# Romano5Br!"!'h ord' con"!nu!ng !n"o
Eng$!'h and "he u'e o# Eng$!'h e-en %& Nor"hum%r!an (ea'an"') The
ca'e aga!n'" ho$e'a$e e,"erm!na"!on a$'o re'"' on $!ngu!'"!c

/
e-!dence+ 'uch a' ($ace5name' and (er'ona$ name'+ a' e$$ a' on
e-!dence (ro-!ded %& ur%an and rura$ archaeo$og&) Cer"a!n$& #e
Br!"on' !n Eng$and ere a%o-e 'er-!$e cond!"!on) B& "he end o# "he ?"h
cen"ur& (eo($e regarded "hem'e$-e' a' %e$ong!ng "o @"he na"!on o#
"he Eng$!'h+@ "hough d!-!ded !n"o 'e-era$ .!ngdom') Th!' 'en'e o#
un!"& a' '"reng"hened dur!ng $ong (er!od' hen a$$ .!ngdom' 'ou"h
o# "he Hum%er ac.no$edged "he o-er$ord'h!( 1ca$$ed %& Bede an
!m(er!um2 o# a '!ng$e ru$er+ .non a' a %re"a$da+ a ord ;r'"
recorded !n "he I"h cen"ur&)
The ;r'" 'uch o-er$ord a' Ae$$e o# Su''e,+ !n "he $a"e E"h cen"ur&0
"he 'econd a' Cea$!n o# 3e''e,+ ho d!ed !n EI4) The "h!rd
o-er$ord+ Ae"he$%erh" o# >en"+ he$d "h!' (oer !n EI? hen "he mon.
Augu'"!ne $ed a m!''!on #rom Rome "o >en"0 >en" a' "he ;r'" Eng$!'h
.!ngdom "o %e con-er"ed "o Chr!'"!an!"&) The Chr!'"!an church
(ro-!ded ano"her un!#&!ng !n*uence+ o-err!d!ng (o$!"!ca$ d!-!'!on'+
a$"hough !" a' no" un"!$ AAI "ha" "he church !n Eng$and
ac.no$edged a '!ng$e head)
The #oci,l #-#te..
The Ang$o5Sa,on' $e#" Eng$and a $and o# -!$$age'+ %u" "he con"!nu!"& o#
-!$$age de-e$o(men" !' uncer"a!n) In "he ?"h5="h cen"ur!e'+ !n ha" !'
ca$$ed "he @9!dd$e Sa,on 'huKe+@ man& ear$& -!$$age' ere
a%andoned+ and o"her'+ #rom h!ch $a"er med!e-a$ -!$$age'
de'cended+ ere #ounded) The o$de'" -!$$age' are no"+ a' (re-!ou'$&
"hough"+ "ho'e !"h name' end!ng !n -ingas %u" ra"her "ho'e end!ng !n
-ham and -ingham. Eng$!'h "rad!ng "on'+ ho'e name' o#"en end !n
-wich, #rom "he La"!n vicus 1@-!$$age@2+ de-e$o(ed !n "he 9!dd$e Sa,on
(er!od+ and o"her ur%an 'e""$emen"' gre ou" o# and da"e #rom "he
A$#red!an and $a"er de#en'e' aga!n'" D!.!ng a""ac.)
The con+er#ion to "hri#ti,nit-.
The con-er'!on reneed re$a"!on' !"h Rome and "he Con"!nen"0 %u"
"he #u$$ %ene;" o# "h!' a' de$a&ed %ecau'e much o# Eng$and a'
con-er"ed %& "he Ce$"!c church+ h!ch had $o'" con"ac" !"h Rome)
Augu'"!neG' m!''!on !n EI? con-er"ed >en"0 %u" !" had on$& "em(orar&
'ucce'' !n E''e,+ h!ch re-er"ed "o hea"hen!'m !n A<A) A m!''!on 'en"
under B!'ho( Cau$!nu' #rom >en" "o Nor"hum%r!a !n A8? con-er"ed
>!ng Ed!n and man& o# h!' 'u%jec"' !n Nor"hum%r!a and L!nd'e&) I"
0
rece!-ed a 'e"%ac. !n A48 hen Ed!n a' .!$$ed and Cau$!nu'
!"hdre "o >en") A%ou" A40 Arch%!'ho( Honor!u' o# Can"er%ur& 'en"
a Burgund!an+ Fe$!,+ "o con-er" Ea'" Ang$!a+ and "he Ea'" Ang$!an
church "hence#or"h rema!ned #a!"h#u$ "o Can"er%ur&) Soon a#"er+ "he
3e'" Sa,on' ere con-er"ed %& B!r!nu'+ ho came #rom Rome)
9eanh!$e+ >!ng O'a$d %egan "o re'"ore Chr!'"!an!"& !n Nor"hum%r!a+
%r!ng!ng Ce$"!c m!''!onar!e' #rom Iona) And !" a' "he Ce$"!c church
"ha" %egan !n AE4 "o '(read "he #a!"h among "he 9!dd$e Ang$e'+ "he
9erc!an'+ and "he (eo($e' o# "he Se-ern -a$$e&0 !" a$'o on %ac.
E''e,)
The Ang$o5Sa,on' a""r!%u"ed "he!r con-er'!on "o Co(e Gregor& I+ @"he
A(o'"$e o# "he Eng$!'h+@ ho had 'en" Augu'"!ne) Th!' ma& 'eem $e''
"han #a!r "o "he Ce$"!c m!''!on) The Ce$"!c church made a grea"
!m(re''!on %& !"' a'ce"!c!'m+ #er-our+ and '!m($!c!"&+ and !" had a
$a'"!ng !n*uence on 'cho$ar'h!() Ye" "he (er!od o# Ce$"!c dom!nance
a' on$& 40 &ear') The dec!'!on a" 3h!"%& made (o''!%$e a #orm o#
organ!7a"!on %e""er ;""ed #or (ermanen" need' "han "he $oo'er '&'"em
o# "he Ce$"!c church)
The golden ,ge o1 Bede.
3!"h!n a cen"ur& o# Augu'"!neG' $and!ng+ Eng$and a' !n "he #ore#ron"
o# 'cho$ar'h!() Th!' h!gh '"andard aro'e #rom a com%!na"!on o#
!n*uence'/ "ha" #rom Ire$and+ h!ch had e'ca(ed "he deca& cau'ed
e$'ehere %& "he %ar%ar!an !n-a'!on'+ and "ha" #rom "he
9ed!"erranean+ h!ch reached Eng$and ma!n$& "hrough Arch%!'ho(
Theodore and h!' com(an!on+ "he a%%o" Adr!an) Under Theodore and
Adr!an+ Can"er%ur& %ecame a #amou' 'choo$+ and men "ra!ned "here
"oo. "he!r $earn!ng "o o"her (ar"' o# Eng$and) One o# "he'e men a'
A$dhe$m+ ho had %een a (u(!$ o# 9a!$du%h 1"he Ir!'h #ounder o#
9a$me'%ur&20 under A$dhe$m+
9a$me'%ur& %ecame an !n*uen"!a$ cen"re o# $earn!ng) A$dhe$mG' on
or.'+ !n La"!n -er'e and (ro'e+ re-ea$ a #am!$!ar!"& !"h man& La"!n
au"hor'0 h!' r!"!ng' %ecame (o(u$ar among adm!rer' o# "he orna"e
and ar"!;c!a$ '"&$e he had $earned #rom h!' Ce$"!c "eacher') Be#ore $ong
a $!%era$ educa"!on cou$d %e had a" 'uch o"her 3e'" Sa,on
mona'"er!e' a' Nur'$!ng and 3!m%orne)
The ;ne'" cen"re o# 'cho$ar'h!( a' Nor"hum%r!a) There Ce$"!c and
c$a''!ca$ !n*uence' me"/ m!''!onar!e' %rough" %oo.' #rom Ire$and+ and
man& Eng$!'hmen en" "o Ire$and "o '"ud&) O"her Nor"hum%r!an' en"
2
a%road+ e'(ec!a$$& "o Rome0 among "hem a' Bened!c" B!'co()
Bened!c" re"urned #rom Rome !"h Theodore 1AA=5AAI2+ '(en" 'ome
"!me !n Can"er%ur&+ and "hen %rough" "he $earn!ng ac:u!red "here "o
Nor"hum%r!a) He #ounded "he mona'"er!e' a" 3earmou"h 1A?42 and
Farro 1A=82+ here Bede '(en" h!' $!#e) Bened!c" and Ceo$#r!"h+ a%%o"
o# Farro+ %rough" %oo.' #rom "he Con"!nen" and a''em%$ed "he ;ne
$!%rar& "ha" a' a-a!$a%$e "o Bede)
Bede 1c. A?85?4E2 !' remem%ered a' a grea" h!'"or!an ho'e or.
ne-er $o'" !"' -a$ue0 %u" he a' a$'o a "heo$og!an regarded "hroughou"
"he 9!dd$e Age' a' 'econd on$& "o "he Church Fa"her') None"he$e''+
e-en "hough he a' ou"'"and!ng+ he d!d no" or. !n !'o$a"!on) O"her
Nor"hum%r!an hou'e'55L!nd!'#arne+ 3h!"%&+ and R!(on55(roduced
'a!n"'G $!-e'+ and Bede a' !n "ouch !"h man& $earned men+ no" on$&
!n Nor"hum%r!a0 "here are a$'o '!gn' o# 'cho$ar$& ac"!-!"& !n London
and !n Ea'" Ang$!a)
9oreo-er+ !n "h!' (er!od re$!g!ou' (oe"r& a' com(o'ed !n "he d!c"!on
and "echn!:ue o# "he o$der 'ecu$ar (oe"r& !n "he -ernacu$ar) Beowulf,
con'!dered "he grea"e'" O$d Eng$!'h (oem+ !' 'ome"!me' a''!gned "o
"h!' age+ %u" "he da"!ng !' uncer"a!n) Ar" *our!'hed+ !"h a
com%!na"!on o# na"!-e e$emen"' and !n*uence' #rom Ire$and and "he
9ed!"erranean) The H!%erno5Sa,on 1or Ang$o5Ir!'h2 '"&$e o# manu'cr!("
!$$um!na"!on a' e-o$-ed+ !"' grea"e'" e,am($e55"he L!nd!'#arne
Go'(e$'55a$'o 'ho!ng c$a''!ca$ !n*uence) 9a'on' #rom Gau$ and
Rome %u!$" '"one churche') In Nor"hum%r!a '"one monumen"' !"h
;gure 'cu$("ure and -!ne5'cro$$ (a""ern' ere 'e" u() Churche' ere
e:u!((ed !"h (rec!ou' o%jec"'55'ome #rom a%road+ 'ome o# na"!-e
manu#ac"ure 1e-en !n hea"hen "!me' "he Eng$!'h had %een '.!$$ed
me"a$or.er'2) 9anu'cr!("' and or.' o# ar" ere "a.en a%road "o
churche' #ounded %& "he Eng$!'h m!''!on'+ and "he'e churche'+ !n
"urn+ %ecame cen"re' o# (roduc"!on) The grea" Su""on Hoo 'h!( %ur!a$+
d!'co-ered !n <I4I a" "he %ur!a$ '!"e o# "he Ea'" Ang$!an ro&a$ hou'e
and (erha(' "he ceno"a(h o# "he %re"a$da Raeda$d 1d) c. A8E2+ !'
#ur"her e-!dence o# !n*uence' #rom a%road+ re-ea$!ng !m(or"an"
Ang$o5Sa,on con"ac"' !"h Scand!na-!a+ B&7an"!um+ France+ and "he
9ed!"erranean)
ENG(AN* IN THE NORMAN PERIO*
6e'(!"e+ or (erha(' !n (ar" %ecau'e o#+ "he (o$!"!ca$ '"ra!n' o# "h!'
(er!od+ "he'e ere con'"ruc"!-e &ear') The econom&+ #or h!ch
3
6ome'da& Boo. !' a magn!;cen" 'ource+ a' e''en"!a$$& agrar!an+ "he
ma!n un!" %e!ng "he manor+ here "he $ordG' $and 1or deme'ne2 a'
or.ed %& un#ree (ea'an"' ho he$d "he!r $and !n re"urn #or
(er#orm!ng $a%our 'er-!ce') Ton'+ no"a%$& London+ *our!'hed+ and
man& rece!-ed ne (r!-!$ege' %a'ed on con"!nen"a$ (rac"!ce) The
church %ene;"ed #rom c$o'er connec"!on' !"h "he Con"!nen" !n man&
a&') One 'uch %ene;" a' "he arr!-a$ o# ne re$!g!ou' order'/ "he
;r'" C$un!ac hou'e a' e'"a%$!'hed a" Lee' !n <0??+ and "he
C!'"erc!an' came "o Eng$and !n <<8I) A grea" man& Augu'"!n!an
hou'e' ere #ounded !n "he ;r'" (ar" o# "he <8"h cen"ur&) Im(o'!ng
%u!$d!ng' 'uch a' 6urham Ca"hedra$ and "he Toer o# London g!-e
e$o:uen" "e'"!mon& "o "he arch!"ec"ura$ ach!e-emen" o# "he Norman'+
h!$e "he !$$um!na"ed 3!nche'"er B!%$e and C'a$"er+ made #or Henr& o#
B$o!'+ %ear !"ne'' "o "he ar"!'"!c e,ce$$ence o# "he age)


4
THE MI**(E AGES
To under'"and "he de-e$o(men" and "he h!'"or& o# "he Eng$!'h
$anguage+ e mu'" ;r'" '!"ua"e our'e$-e' !n "he con"e," o# "he "!me !"
or!g!na"ed) The 9!dd$e Age'+ "he (er!od !n Euro(ean h!'"or& #rom "he
co$$a('e o# Roman c!-!$!7a"!on !n "he E"h cen"ur& A6 "o "he (er!od o#
"he Rena!''ance 1-ar!ou'$& !n"er(re"ed a' %eg!nn!ng !n "he <4"h+ <4"h+
or <E"h cen"ur&+ de(end!ng on "he reg!on o# Euro(e and on o"her
#ac"or'2) The "erm and !"' con-en"!ona$ mean!ng ere !n"roduced %&
I"a$!an human!'"' !"h !n-!d!ou' !n"en"0 "he human!'"' ere engaged
!n a re-!-a$ o# c$a''!ca$ $earn!ng and cu$"ure+ and "he no"!on o# a
"hou'and5&ear (er!od o# dar.ne'' and !gnorance 'e(ara"!ng "hem
#rom "he anc!en" Gree. and Roman or$d 'er-ed "o h!gh$!gh" "he
human!'"'G on or. and !dea$') In a 'en'e+ "he human!'"' !n-en"ed
"he 9!dd$e Age' !n order "o d!'"!ngu!'h "hem'e$-e' #rom !") The 9!dd$e
Age' none"he$e'' (ro-!ded "he #ounda"!on #or "he "ran'#orma"!on' o#
"he human!'"'G on Rena!''ance)
The 'ac. o# Rome %& A$ar!c "he D!'!go"h !n A6 4<0 had enormou'
!m(ac" on "he (o$!"!ca$ '"ruc"ure and 'oc!a$ c$!ma"e o# "he 3e'"ern
or$d+ #or "he Roman Em(!re had (ro-!ded "he %a'!' o# 'oc!a$ cohe'!on
#or mo'" o# Euro(e) A$"hough "he German!c "r!%e' "ha" #orc!%$&
m!gra"ed !n"o 'ou"hern and e'"ern Euro(e !n "he E"h cen"ur& ere
u$"!ma"e$& con-er"ed "o Chr!'"!an!"&+ "he& re"a!ned man& o# "he!r
cu'"om' and a&' o# $!#e0 "he change' !n #orm' o# 'oc!a$ organ!7a"!on
"he& !n"roduced rendered cen"ra$!7ed go-ernmen" and cu$"ura$ un!"&
!m(o''!%$e) 9an& o# "he !m(ro-emen"' !n "he :ua$!"& o# $!#e !n"roduced
dur!ng "he Roman Em(!re+ 'uch a' a re$a"!-e$& eJc!en" agr!cu$"ure+
e,"en'!-e road ne"or.'+ a"er5'u(($& '&'"em'+ and 'h!((!ng rou"e'+
deca&ed 'u%'"an"!a$$&+ a' d!d ar"!'"!c and 'cho$ar$& endea-our') Th!'
dec$!ne (er'!'"ed "hroughou" "he (er!od o# "!me 'ome"!me' ca$$ed "he
6ar. Age' 1a$'o ca$$ed La"e An"!:u!"&+ or "he Ear$& 9!dd$e Age'2+ #rom
"he #a$$ o# Rome "o a%ou" "he &ear <000+ !"h a %r!e# h!a"u' dur!ng "he
*oer!ng o# "he Caro$!ng!an cour" e'"a%$!'hed %& Char$emagne) A(ar"
#rom "ha" !n"er$ude+ no $arge .!ngdom or o"her (o$!"!ca$ '"ruc"ure aro'e
!n Euro(e "o (ro-!de '"a%!$!"&) The on$& #orce ca(a%$e o# (ro-!d!ng a
%a'!' #or 'oc!a$ un!"& a' "he Roman Ca"ho$!c church) The 9!dd$e Age'
"here#ore (re'en" "he con#u'!ng and o#"en con"rad!c"or& (!c"ure o# a
'oc!e"& a""em("!ng "o '"ruc"ure !"'e$# (o$!"!ca$$& on a '(!r!"ua$ %a'!')
Th!' a""em(" came "o a de;n!"!-e end !"h "he r!'e o# ar"!'"!c+
commerc!a$+ and o"her ac"!-!"!e' anchored ;rm$& !n "he 'ecu$ar or$d
!n "he (er!od ju'" (reced!ng "he Rena!''ance)
5
A#"er "he d!''o$u"!on o# "he Roman Em(!re+ "he !dea aro'e o# Euro(e a'
one $arge church5'"a"e+ ca$$ed Chr!'"endom) Chr!'"endom a' "hough"
"o con'!'" o# "o d!'"!nc" grou(' o# #unc"!onar!e'+ "he 'acerdo"!um+ or
ecc$e'!a'"!ca$ h!erarch&+ and "he !m(er!um+ or 'ecu$ar $eader') In
"heor& "he'e "o grou(' com($emen"ed each o"her+ a""end!ng "o
(eo($eG' '(!r!"ua$ and "em(ora$ need'+ re'(ec"!-e$&) Su(reme
au"hor!"& a' !e$ded %& "he (o(e !n "he ;r'" o# "he'e area' and %&
"he em(eror !n "he 'econd) In (rac"!ce "he "o !n'"!"u"!on' ere
con'"an"$& '(arr!ng+ d!'agree!ng+ or o(en$& arr!ng !"h each o"her)
The em(eror' o#"en "r!ed "o regu$a"e church ac"!-!"!e' %& c$a!m!ng "he
r!gh" "o a((o!n" church oJc!a$' and "o !n"er-ene !n doc"r!na$ ma""er')
The church+ !n "urn+ no" on$& oned c!"!e' and arm!e' %u" o#"en
a""em("ed "o regu$a"e aHa!r' o# '"a"e)
6ur!ng "he <8"h cen"ur& a cu$"ura$ and econom!c re-!-a$ "oo. ($ace0
man& h!'"or!an' "race "he or!g!n' o# "he Rena!''ance "o "h!' "!me) The
%a$ance o# econom!c (oer '$o$& %egan "o 'h!#" #rom "he reg!on o#
"he ea'"ern 9ed!"erranean "o e'"ern Euro(e) The Go"h!c '"&$e
de-e$o(ed !n ar" and arch!"ec"ure) Ton' %egan "o *our!'h+ "ra-e$ and
commun!ca"!on %ecame #a'"er+ 'a#er+ and ea'!er+ and merchan"
c$a''e' %egan "o de-e$o() Agr!cu$"ura$ de-e$o(men"' ere one rea'on
#or "he'e de-e$o(men"'0 dur!ng "he <8"h cen"ur& "he cu$"!-a"!on o#
%ean' made a %a$anced d!e" a-a!$a%$e "o a$$ 'oc!a$ c$a''e' #or "he ;r'"
"!me !n h!'"or&) The (o(u$a"!on "here#ore ra(!d$& e,(anded+ a #ac"or
"ha" e-en"ua$$& $ed "o "he %rea.u( o# "he o$d #euda$ '"ruc"ure')
The <4"h cen"ur& a' "he a(e, o# med!e-a$ c!-!$!7a"!on) The c$a''!c
#ormu$a"!on' o# Go"h!c arch!"ec"ure and 'cu$("ure ere ach!e-ed)
9an& d!Heren" .!nd' o# 'oc!a$ un!"' (ro$!#era"ed+ !nc$ud!ng gu!$d'+
a''oc!a"!on'+ c!-!c counc!$'+ and mona'"!c cha("er'+ each eager "o
o%"a!n 'ome mea'ure o# au"onom&) The cruc!a$ $ega$ conce(" o#
re(re'en"a"!on de-e$o(ed+ re'u$"!ng !n "he (o$!"!ca$ a''em%$& ho'e
mem%er' had plena potestas55#u$$ (oer55"o ma.e dec!'!on' %!nd!ng
u(on "he commun!"!e' "ha" had 'e$ec"ed "hem) In"e$$ec"ua$ $!#e+
dom!na"ed %& "he Roman Ca"ho$!c church+ cu$m!na"ed !n "he
(h!$o'o(h!ca$ me"hod o# Scho$a'"!c!'m+ ho'e (reem!nen" e,(onen"+
S") Thoma' A:u!na'+ ach!e-ed !n h!' r!"!ng' on Ar!'"o"$e and "he
Church Fa"her' one o# "he grea"e'" '&n"he'e' !n 3e'"ern !n"e$$ec"ua$
h!'"or&)

The %rea.u( o# #euda$ '"ruc"ure'+ "he '"reng"hen!ng o# c!"&5'"a"e' !n

I"a$&+ and "he emergence o# na"!ona$ monarch!e' !n S(a!n+ France+
and Eng$and+ a' e$$ a' 'uch cu$"ura$ de-e$o(men"' a' "he r!'e o#
'ecu$ar educa"!on+ cu$m!na"ed !n "he %!r"h o# a 'e$#5con'c!ou'$&
ne age !"h a ne '(!r!"+ one "ha" $oo.ed a$$ "he a& %ac. "o
c$a''!ca$ $earn!ng #or !"' !n'(!ra"!on and "ha" came "o %e .non a'
"he Rena!''ance)
ORIGINS
IN*O-E6ROPEAN (ANG6AGES
Indo5Euro(ean !' "he name o# a #am!$& o# $anguage' "ha" %&
<000 BC ere '(o.en o-er mo'" o# Euro(e and !n much o#
Sou"he'" and Sou"h A'!a0 '!nce "he 'econd ha$# o# "he <E"h cen"ur&
"he Indo5Euro(ean $anguage' ha-e '(read "o mo'" o"her !nha%!"ed
(ar"' o# "he or$d) The "erm Indo5H!""!"e !' u'ed %& 'cho$ar' ho
%e$!e-e "ha" H!""!"e and "he o"her Ana"o$!an $anguage' are no" ju'" one
%ranch o# Indo5Euro(ean %u" ra"her a %ranch coord!na"e !"h a$$ "he
re'" (u" "oge"her0 "hu'+ Indo5H!""!"e ha' %een u'ed #or a #am!$&
con'!'"!ng o# Indo5Euro(ean (ro(er ($u' Ana"o$!an) A' $ong a' "h!'
-!e !' ne!"her de;n!"!-e$& (ro-ed nor d!'(ro-ed+ !" !' con-en!en" "o
.ee( "he "rad!"!ona$ u'e o# "he "erm Indo5Euro(ean)
!
O+er+ie7 o1 the l,ng&,ge 1,.il-
(ANG6AGES OF THE FAMI(Y
The e$$5a""e'"ed $anguage' o# "he Indo5Euro(ean #am!$& #a$$ #a!r$&
nea"$& !n"o "he <0 ma!n %ranche' $!'"ed %e$o0 "he'e are arranged
accord!ng "o "he age o# "he!r o$de'" '!7a%$e "e,"')
An,toli,n.
No e,"!nc"+ Ana"o$!an a' '(o.en dur!ng "he <'" and 8nd m!$$enn!a
BC !n ha" !' (re'en"$& A'!an Tur.e& and nor"hern S&r!a) The o$de'"
H!""!"e "e,"' da"e #rom "he <?"h cen"ur& BC+ "he $a"e'" #rom
a((ro,!ma"e$& <800 BC)
Indo-Ir,ni,n
Indo5Iran!an com(r!'e' "o ma!n 'u%%ranche'+ Indo5Ar&an 1Ind!c2 and
Iran!an) Indo5Ar&an $anguage' ha-e %een '(o.en !n ha" !' no
nor"hern and cen"ra$ Ind!a and Ca.!'"an '!nce %e#ore <000 BC) A'!de
#rom a -er& (oor$& .non d!a$ec" '(o.en !n or near nor"hern Ira:
dur!ng "he 8nd m!$$enn!um BC+ "he o$de'" record o# an Indo5Ar&an
$anguage !' "he Ded!c San'.r!" o# "he R!g-eda 1Rg-eda2+ "he o$de'" o#
"he 'acred 'cr!("ure' o# Ind!a+ da"!ng rough$& #rom <000 BC) E,am($e'
o# modern Indo5Ar&an $anguage' are H!nd!+ Benga$!+ S!nha$e'e 1'(o.en
!n Sr! Lan.a2+ and "he man& d!a$ec"' o# Roman&+ "he $anguage o# "he
G&('!e' 1Rom2) Iran!an $anguage' ere '(o.en !n "he <'" m!$$enn!um
BC !n (re'en"5da& Iran and A#ghan!'"an and a$'o !n "he '"e((e' "o "he
nor"h+ #rom modern Hungar& "o Ea'" 1Ch!ne'e2 Tur.!'"an) The on$&
e$$5.non anc!en" -ar!e"!e' o# Iran!an $anguage' are A-e'"an+ "he
'acred $anguage o# "he Loroa'"r!an' 1Car'!'2+ and O$d Cer'!an+ "he
oJc!a$ $anguage o# 6ar!u' I 1ru$ed E8854=A BC2 and Mer,e' I 14=A54AE
BC2 and "he!r 'ucce''or') Among "he modern Iran!an $anguage' are
Cer'!an 1Far'!2+ Ca'h"o 1A#ghan2+ >urd!'h+ and O''e"!c)
Gree8.
Gree.+ de'(!"e !"' numerou' d!a$ec"'+ ha' %een a '!ng$e $anguage
"hroughou" !"' h!'"or&) I" ha' %een '(o.en !n Greece '!nce a" $ea'"
<A00 BC+ and+ !n a$$ (ro%a%!$!"&+ '!nce "he end o# "he 4rd m!$$enn!um)
The ear$!e'" "e,"' are "he L!near B "a%$e"'+ 'ome o# h!ch ma& da"e
#rom a' #ar %ac. a' <400 BC 1"he da"e !' d!'(u"ed2+ and 'ome o# h!ch
cer"a!n$& da"e "o <800 BC) Th!' ma"er!a$+ -er& '(ar'e and d!Jcu$" "o
!n"er(re"+ a' no" !den"!;ed a' Gree. un"!$ <IE8) The Homer!c e(!c'55
$
"he Iliad and "he Odyssey55(ro%a%$& da"!ng #rom "he ="h cen"ur& BC+
are "he o$de'" "e,"' o# an& %u$.)
It,lic.
The (r!nc!(a$ $anguage o# "he I"a$!c grou( !' La"!n+ or!g!na$$& "he
'(eech o# "he c!"& o# Rome and "he ance'"or o# "he modern Romance
$anguage'/ I"a$!an+ Roman!an+ S(an!'h+ Cor"ugue'e+ French+ and 'o on)
The ear$!e'" La"!n !n'cr!("!on' a((aren"$& da"e #rom "he A"h cen"ur&
BC+ !"h $!"era"ure %eg!nn!ng !n "he 4rd cen"ur&) Scho$ar' are no" !n
agreemen" a' "o ho man& o"her anc!en" $anguage' o# I"a$& and S!c!$&
%e$ong !n "he 'ame %ranch a' La"!n)
'
Ger.,nic.
In "he m!dd$e o# "he <'" m!$$enn!um BC+ German!c "r!%e' $!-ed !n
'ou"hern Scand!na-!a and nor"hern German&) The!r e,(an'!on' and
m!gra"!on' #rom "he 8nd cen"ur& BC onard are $arge$& recorded !n
h!'"or&) The o$de'" Ger.,nic l,ng&,ge o# h!ch much !' .non !'
"he Go"h!c o# "he 4"h cen"ur& A6) O"her $anguage' !nc$ude Eng$!'h+
German+ 6u"ch+ 6an!'h+ Sed!'h+ Noreg!an+ and Ice$and!c)
Ar.eni,n.
Armen!an+ $!.e Gree.+ !' a '!ng$e $anguage) S(ea.er' o# Armen!an are
recorded a' %e!ng !n ha" no con'"!"u"e' ea'"ern Tur.e& and
Armen!a a' ear$& a' "he A"h cen"ur& BC+ %u" "he o$de'" Armen!an "e,"'
da"e #rom "he E"h cen"ur& A6)
Toch,ri,n.
The Toch,ri,n l,ng&,ge#+ no e,"!nc"+ ere '(o.en !n "he Tar!m
Ba'!n 1!n (re'en"5da& nor"he'"ern Ch!na2 dur!ng "he <'" m!$$enn!um
A6) To d!'"!nc" $anguage' are .non+ $a%e$ed A 1E,#t Toch,ri,n+ or
Tur#an!an2 and B 13e'" Toch,ri,n+ or >uchean2) One grou( o# "ra-e$
(erm!"' #or cara-an' can %e da"ed "o "he ear$& ?"h cen"ur&+ and !"
a((ear' "ha" o"her "e,"' da"e #rom "he 'ame or #rom ne!gh%our!ng
cen"ur!e') The'e $anguage' %ecame .non "o 'cho$ar' on$& !n "he ;r'"
decade o# "he 80"h cen"ur&0 "he& ha-e %een $e'' !m(or"an" #or Indo5
Euro(ean '"ud!e' "han ha' H!""!"e+ (ar"$& %ecau'e "he!r "e'"!mon&
a%ou" "he Indo5Euro(ean (aren" $anguage !' o%'cured %& 8+000 more
&ear' o# change and (ar"$& %ecau'e Tochar!an "e'"!mon& ;"' #a!r$& e$$
!"h "ha" o# "he (re-!ou'$& .non non5Ana"o$!an $anguage')
"eltic.
"eltic l,ng&,ge# ere '(o.en !n "he $a'" cen"ur!e' %e#ore "he
Chr!'"!an era o-er a !de area o# Euro(e+ #rom S(a!n and Br!"a!n "o "he
Ba$.an'+ !"h one grou( 1"he Ga$a"!an'2 e-en !n A'!a 9!nor) Der& $!""$e
o# "he Ce$"!c o# "ha" "!me and "he en'u!ng cen"ur!e' ha' 'ur-!-ed+ and
"h!' %ranch !' .non a$mo'" en"!re$& #rom "he In'u$ar Ce$"!c
$anguage'55Ir!'h+ 3e$'h+ and o"her'55'(o.en !n and near "he Br!"!'h
I'$e'+ a' recorded #rom "he ="h cen"ur& A6 onard)
B,lto-Sl,+ic.
/
A" "he %eg!nn!ng o# "he Chr!'"!an Era+ Ba$"!c and S$a-!c "r!%e' occu(!ed
a $arge area o# ea'"ern Euro(e+ ea'" o# "he German!c "r!%e' and nor"h
o# "he Iran!an'+ !nc$ud!ng much o# (re'en"5da& Co$and and ha" a'
#ormer$& "he e'"ern So-!e" Un!on55name$&+ Be$aru'+ U.ra!ne+ and
e'"ernmo'" Ru''!a) The S$a-!c area a' !n a$$ $!.e$!hood re$a"!-e$&
'ma$$+ (erha(' cen"red !n ha" !' no 'ou"hern Co$and) Bu" !n "he E"h
cen"ur& A6 "he S$a-' %egan e,(and!ng !n a$$ d!rec"!on') B& "he end o#
"he 80"h cen"ur& "he Sl,+ic l,ng&,ge# ere '(o.en "hroughou"
much o# ea'"ern Euro(e and nor"hern A'!a) The Ba$"!c5'(ea.!ng area+
hoe-er+ con"rac"ed+ and %& "he end o# "he 80"h cen"ur& B,ltic
l,ng&,ge# ere con;ned "o L!"huan!a and La"-!a)
Al9,ni,n.
A$%an!an+ "he $anguage o# "he (re'en"5da& re(u%$!c o# A$%an!a+ !'
.non #rom "he <E"h cen"ur& A6) I" (re'uma%$& con"!nue' one o# "he
-er& (oor$& a""e'"ed anc!en" Indo5Euro(ean $anguage' o# "he Ba$.an
Cen!n'u$a+ %u" h!ch one !' no" c$ear)
In add!"!on "o "he (r!nc!(a$ %ranche' ju'" $!'"ed+ "here are 'e-era$
(oor$& documen"ed e,"!nc" $anguage' o# h!ch enough !' .non "o %e
'ure "ha" "he& ere Indo5Euro(ean and "ha" "he& d!d no" %e$ong !n an&
o# "he grou(' enumera"ed a%o-e 1e.g., Chr&g!an+ 9acedon!an2) O# a
#e+ "oo $!""$e !' .non "o %e 'ure he"her "he& ere Indo5Euro(ean or
no" 1e.g., L!gur!an2)
ENG(ISH (ANG6AGE
ENG(ISH
NAng$e5!'hO %e$ong!ng "o "he Ang$e'
NEng$5O Ang$e' N5!'hO %e$ong!ng "o
IN6O5EUROCEAN LANGUAGES
BROTHER
broeder 16u"ch2+ Bruder 1German2+ phrater 1Gree.2+ brat 1Ru''!an2+
brthair 1Ir!'h2+ bhratar 1San'.r!"2
the language was brought to Britain by Germanic tribes, the ngles,
!a"ons, and #utes, in$uenced by %atin and Gree& when !t ugustine
0
converted 'ngland to (hristianity, enriched by the )anes, and *nally
transformed by the +rench-spea&ing ,ormans-
The "rue Br!"on' '(o.e Ce$"!c) Ce$"!c $anguage' '(o.en
"oda& !nc$ude Ir!'h+ 3e$'h+ and Sco""!'h Gae$!c+ a$$ #ound !n Grea"
Br!"a!n and Bre"on+ "he na"!-e $anguage o# Br!""an&+ on "he nor"he'"
coa'" o# France)
HISTORI"A( BA":GRO6N*
The h!'"or& o# "he Eng$!'h $anguage %eg!n' !"h "he m!gra"!on o# "he
Fu"e'+ Ang$e'+ and Sa,on' #rom German& and 6enmar. "o Br!"a!n !n
"he E"h and A"h cen"ur!e') The!r Ang$o5Sa,on $anguage !' .non a'
O$d Eng$!'h) The #orma"!on o# 'e(ara"e .!ngdom' !n Br!"a!n "o 'ome
e,"en" co!nc!ded !"h "he de-e$o(men" o# "he O$d Eng$!'h d!a$ec"' o#
Nor"hum%r!an+ 9erc!an+ 3e'" Sa,on+ and >en"!'h) Nor"hum%r!an a'
!n a (o'!"!on o# cu$"ura$ 'u(er!or!"& un"!$ "he de'"ruc"!-e D!.!ng ra!d' o#
"he I"h cen"ur& cau'ed cu$"ura$ $eader'h!( "o (a'' "o "he 3e'" Sa,on
.!ngdom o# 3e''e,)
The Norman Con:ue'" o# <0AA 'e" !n mo"!on "he "ran'!"!on "o 9!dd$e
Eng$!'h) For "he ;r'" cen"ur& a#"er "he Con:ue'"+ a -a'" num%er o#
$oanord' en"ered "he Eng$!'h $anguage #rom "he d!a$ec"' o# nor"hern
France) The Con:ue'" a$'o 'er-ed "o ($ace a$$ #our O$d Eng$!'h d!a$ec"'
on "he 'ame cu$"ura$ $e-e$ and "o a$$o "hem "o de-e$o(
!nde(enden"$&) So 3e'" Sa,on $o'" !"' 'u(remac&+ and "he cen"re o#
cu$"ure gradua$$& 'h!#"ed "o London) 6ur!ng "h!' 9!dd$e Eng$!'h (er!od
"he Nor"hum%r!an d!a$ec" '($!" !n"o Sco""!'h and Nor"hern+ and 9erc!an
%ecame Ea'" and 3e'" 9!d$and) Ano"her ou"come o# "he Norman
Con:ue'" a' "he ado("!on o# "he Caro$!ng!an 'cr!("+ "hen !n u'e on
"he Euro(ean con"!nen"+ and change' !n '(e$$!ng)
Among h!gh$!gh"' !n "he h!'"or& o# "he Eng$!'h $anguage+ "he #o$$o!ng
'"and ou" mo'" c$ear$&/ "he 'e""$emen" !n Br!"a!n o# Fu"e'+ Sa,on'+ and
Ang$e' !n "he E"h and A"h cen"ur!e'0 "he arr!-a$ o# S") Augu'"!ne !n EI?
2
and "he 'u%'e:uen" con-er'!on o# Eng$and "o La"!n Chr!'"!an!"&0 "he
D!.!ng !n-a'!on' o# "he I"h cen"ur&0 "he Norman Con:ue'" o# <0AA0
"he S"a"u"e o# C$ead!ng !n <4A8 1"h!' re:u!red "ha" cour" (roceed!ng'
%e conduc"ed !n Eng$!'h20 "he 'e""!ng u( o# Ca,"onG' (r!n"!ng (re'' a"
3e'"m!n'"er !n <4?A0 "he #u$$ *oer!ng o# "he Rena!''ance !n "he <A"h
cen"ur&0 "he (u%$!'h!ng o# "he >!ng Fame' B!%$e !n <A<<0 "he
com($e"!on o# Fohn'onG' )ictionary o# <?EE0 and "he e,(an'!on "o
Nor"h Amer!ca and Sou"h A#r!ca !n "he <?"h cen"ur& and "o Ind!a+
Au'"ra$!a+ and Ne Lea$and !n "he <="h)
O(* ENG(ISH
O$d Eng$!'h $anguage+ a$'o ca$$ed ANGLO5SAMON+ $anguage '(o.en
and r!""en !n Eng$and %e#ore <<000 !" !' "he ance'"or o# 9!dd$e
Eng$!'h and 9odern Eng$!'h) Scho$ar' ($ace O$d Eng$!'h !n "he Ang$o5
Fr!'!an grou( o# 3e'" German!c $anguage')
Four d!a$ec"' o# "he O$d Eng$!'h $anguage are .non/ Nor"hum%r!an !n
nor"hern Eng$and and 'ou"hea'"ern Sco"$and0 9erc!an !n cen"ra$
Eng$and0 >en"!'h !n 'ou"hea'"ern Eng$and0 and 3e'" Sa,on !n
'ou"hern and 'ou"he'"ern Eng$and) 9erc!an and Nor"hum%r!an are
o#"en c$a''ed "oge"her a' "he Ang$!an d!a$ec"') 9o'" e,"an" O$d Eng$!'h
r!"!ng' are !n "he 3e'" Sa,on d!a$ec"0 "he ;r'" grea" (er!od o# $!"erar&
ac"!-!"& occurred dur!ng "he re!gn o# >!ng A$#red "he Grea" !n "he I"h
cen"ur&)
In con"ra'" "o 9odern Eng$!'h+ O$d Eng$!'h had "hree gender'
1ma'cu$!ne+ #em!n!ne+ neu"er2 !n "he noun and adjec"!-e+ and noun'+
(ronoun'+ and adjec"!-e' ere !n*ec"ed #or ca'e) Noun and adjec"!-e
(arad!gm' con"a!ned #our ca'e'55nom!na"!-e+ gen!"!-e+ da"!-e+ and
accu'a"!-e55h!$e (ronoun' a$'o had #orm' #or "he !n'"rumen"a$ ca'e)
O$d Eng$!'h had a grea"er (ro(or"!on o# '"rong -er%' 1'ome"!me'
ca$$ed !rregu$ar -er%' !n con"em(orar& grammar'2 "han doe' 9odern
Eng$!'h) 9an& -er%' "ha" ere '"rong !n O$d Eng$!'h are ea. 1regu$ar2
-er%' !n 9odern Eng$!'h 1e.g., O$d Eng$!'h helpan, (re'en" !n;n!"!-e o#
"he -er% help. healp, (a'" '!ngu$ar0 hulpon, (a'" ($ura$0 holpen, (a'"
(ar"!c!($e -er'u' 9odern Eng$!'h help, helped, helped, helped,
re'(ec"!-e$&2)
3
MI**(E ENG(ISH
9!dd$e Eng$!'h $anguage+ "he -ernacu$ar '(o.en and r!""en !n
Eng$and #rom a%ou" <<00 "o a%ou" <E00+ "he de'cendan" o# "he O$d
Eng$!'h $anguage and "he ance'"or o# 9odern Eng$!'h)
The h!'"or& o# 9!dd$e Eng$!'h !' o#"en d!-!ded !n"o "hree (er!od'/ 1<2
Ear$& 9!dd$e Eng$!'h+ #rom a%ou" <<00 "o a%ou" <8E0+ dur!ng h!ch
"he O$d Eng$!'h '&'"em o# r!"!ng a' '"!$$ !n u'e0 182 "he Cen"ra$
9!dd$e Eng$!'h (er!od #rom a%ou" <8E0 "o a%ou" <400+ h!ch a'
mar.ed %& "he gradua$ #orma"!on o# $!"erar& d!a$ec"'+ "he u'e o# an
or"hogra(h& grea"$& !n*uenced %& "he Ang$o5Norman r!"!ng '&'"em+
"he $o'' o# (ronunc!a"!on o# ;na$ unaccen"ed -e+ and "he %orro!ng o#
$arge num%er' o# Ang$o5Norman ord'0 "he (er!od a' e'(ec!a$$&
mar.ed %& "he r!'e o# "he London d!a$ec"+ !n "he hand' o# 'uch r!"er'
a' Fohn Goer and GeoHre& Chaucer0 and 142 La"e 9!dd$e Eng$!'h+
#rom a%ou" <400 "o a%ou" <E00+ h!ch a' mar.ed %& "he '(read o#
"he London $!"erar& d!a$ec" and "he gradua$ c$ea-age %e"een "he
Sco""!'h d!a$ec" and "he o"her nor"hern d!a$ec"') 6ur!ng "h!' (er!od "he
%a'!c $!ne' o# !n*ec"!on a' "he& a((ear !n 9odern Eng$!'h ere ;r'"
e'"a%$!'hed) Among "he ch!e# charac"er!'"!c d!Herence' %e"een O$d
and 9!dd$e Eng$!'h ere "he 'u%'"!"u"!on o# na"ura$ gender !n 9!dd$e
Eng$!'h #or gramma"!ca$ gender and "he $o'' o# "he o$d '&'"em o#
dec$en'!on' !n "he noun and adjec"!-e and+ $arge$&+ !n "he (ronoun)
The d!a$ec"' o# 9!dd$e Eng$!'h are u'ua$$& d!-!ded !n"o "hree $arge
grou('/ 1<2 Sou"hern 1'u%d!-!ded !n"o Sou"hea'"ern+ or >en"!'h+ and
Sou"he'"ern2+ ch!e*& !n "he coun"!e' 'ou"h o# "he R!-er Thame'0 182
9!d$and 1corre'(ond!ng rough$& "o "he 9erc!an d!a$ec" area o# O$d
Eng$!'h "!me'2 !n "he area #rom "he Thame' "o 'ou"hern Sou"h
Yor.'h!re and nor"hern Lanca'h!re0 and 142 Nor"hern+ !n "he Sco""!'h
Lo$and'+ Nor"hum%er$and+ Cum%r!a+ 6urham+ nor"hern Lanca'h!re+
and mo'" o# Hum%er'!de and 3e'" and Nor"h Yor.'h!re)
EAR(Y MO*ERN ENG(ISH
The "ran'!"!on #rom 9!dd$e "o 9odern Eng$!'h '"ar"ed a" "he %eg!nn!ng
o# "he <E"h cen"ur&) Th!' cen"ur& !"ne''ed "hree !m(or"an"
de-e$o(men"'/ "he r!'e o# London Eng$!'h+ "he !n-en"!on o# (r!n"!ng+
and "he '(read o# ne $earn!ng) The Rena!''ance !n Eng$and (roduced
man& more 'cho$ar' ho ere .no$edgea%$e !n #ore!gn $anguage'+
4
e'(ec!a$$& Gree. and C$a''!ca$ La"!n) The!r $!%era$ a""!"ude "oard
$anguage made (o''!%$e "he !n"roduc"!on o# a grea" num%er o# ord'
!n"o Eng$!'h) Scho$ar' genera$$& da"e "he %eg!nn!ng o# "he 9odern
Eng$!'h (er!od a" <E00) The $anguage a' 'u%'e:uen"$& '"andard!7ed
"hrough "he or. o# grammar!an' and "he (u%$!ca"!on o# d!c"!onar!e'+
and !"' -oca%u$ar& underen" ano"her -a'" e,(an'!on !n "he <I"h and
80"h cen"ur!e' "o accommoda"e de-e$o(men"' !n "he 'c!ence' and
"echno$og&)
Eng$!'h $anguage+ $anguage "ha" or!g!na"ed !n Eng$and and !' no
!de$& '(o.en on '!, con"!nen"') I" !' "he (r!mar& $anguage o# "he
Un!"ed S"a"e'+ "he Un!"ed >!ngdom+ Canada+ Au'"ra$!a+ Ire$and+ Ne
Lea$and+ and -ar!ou' 'ma$$ !'$and na"!on' !n "he Car!%%ean Sea and
"he Cac!;c Ocean) I" !' a$'o an oJc!a$ $anguage o# Ind!a+ "he
Ch!$!((!ne'+ and man& coun"r!e' !n 'u%5Saharan A#r!ca+ !nc$ud!ng Sou"h
A#r!ca) Eng$!'h !' a mem%er o# "he e'"ern grou( o# "he German!c
$anguage' 1!"'e$# (ar" o# "he Indo5Euro(ean $anguage #am!$&2 and !'
c$o'e$& re$a"ed "o Fr!'!an+ German+ and Ne"her$and!c 16u"ch and
F$em!'h2)
"HARA"TERISTI"S OF THE ENG(ISH (ANG6AGE
In "he <A"h cen"ur&+ Eng$!'h a' "he mo"her "ongue o# on$& a #e
m!$$!on (eo($e $!-!ng !n Eng$and+ %u" o!ng "o "ha" na"!onG'
co$on!7a"!on o# o"her (ar"' o# "he g$o%e and o"her h!'"or!ca$ #ac"or'+
Eng$!'h a' "he na"!-e $anguage o# more "han 4E0 m!$$!on (eo($e %&
"he $a"e 80"h cen"ur&) I" !' "hu' "he mo"her "ongue o# more (eo($e
"han an& o"her $anguage e,ce(" 9andar!n Ch!ne'e) Eng$!'h !' "he
mo'" !de$& "augh" #ore!gn $anguage and !' a$'o "he mo'" !de$& u'ed
'econd $anguage55i.e., one "ha" "o (eo($e commun!ca"e !n hen "he&
canno" under'"and each o"herG' na"!-e '(eech) I" %ecame "he
!n"erna"!ona$ $anguage o# 'c!en"!;c and "echn!ca$ d!'cour'e !n "he 80"h
cen"ur& and a' a$'o !de$& ado("ed #or u'e !n %u'!ne'' and
d!($omac&) In "he en"!re or$d+ one (er'on !n 'e-en '(ea.' Eng$!'h a'
e!"her a (r!mar& or 'econdar& $anguage)
Eng$!'h !' an ana$&"!c 1i.e., re$a"!-e$& un !n*ec"ed2 $anguage+ herea'
Cro"o5Indo5Euro(ean+ "he ance'"ra$ "ongue o# mo'" Euro(ean+ Iran!an+
and Nor"h Ind!an $anguage'+ !' '&n"he"!c+ or !n*ec"ed) 1In*ec"!on' are
!5
change' !n "he #orm o# ord' "o !nd!ca"e 'uch d!'"!nc"!on' a' "en'e+
(er'on+ num%er+ and gender)2 O-er "hou'and' o# &ear'+ Eng$!'h ha'
$o'" mo'" o# !"' !n*ec"!on'+ h!$e o"her Euro(ean $anguage' ha-e
re"a!ned more o# "he!r') Indeed+ Eng$!'h !' "he on$& Euro(ean $anguage
!n h!ch adjec"!-e' ha-e no d!'"!nc"!-e end!ng'+ a'!de #rom
de"erm!ner' and end!ng' deno"!ng degree' o# com(ar!'on)
Ano"her charac"er!'"!c !' *e,!%!$!"& o# #unc"!on) Th!' mean' "ha" one
ord can #unc"!on a' -ar!ou' (ar"' o# '(eech !n d!Heren" con"e,"') For
e,am($e+ "he ord @%oo.@ can %e an adjec"!-e !n @%oo. re-!e+@ a
noun !n @read a %oo.+@ or a -er% !n @%oo. a room)@ Becau'e o"her
Euro(ean $anguage' re"a!n more !n*ec"!ona$ end!ng' "han doe'
Eng$!'h+ "he& a$mo'" ne-er ha-e "h!' charac"er!'"!c) A "h!rd #ea"ure+
o(enne'' o# -oca%u$ar&+ a$$o' Eng$!'h "o adm!" ord' #ree$& #rom
o"her $anguage' and "o crea"e com(ound' and der!-a"!-e')
In Eng$and+ Br!"!'h Rece!-ed Cronunc!a"!on 1RC2 !' "he u'ua$ '(eech o#
educa"ed (eo($e) In "he Un!"ed S"a"e'+ In$and Nor"hern 1(o(u$ar$&
.non a' Genera$ Amer!can2 !' common$& u'ed) In %o"h coun"r!e'+
hoe-er+ o"her (ronunc!a"!on' are acce("a%$e)
Br!"!'h Rece!-ed Cronunc!a"!on and Amer!can In$and Nor"hern 'ho
'e-era$ d!-ergence'/ 1<2 A#"er 'ome -oe$' Amer!can ha' a
'em!con'onan"a$ g$!de) 182 The -oe$ !n @cod+@ @%o,+@ and @doc.@ !'
(ronounced $!.e @a@ !n Br!"!'h and a 'ound '!m!$ar "o @ah@ !n
Amer!can) 142 The -oe$ !n @%u"+@ @cu"+@ and @rung+@ !' cen"ra$ !n
Amer!can %u" !' #ron"ed !n Br!"!'h) 142 The -oe$' !n "he Amer!can
@%a"h@ and @%ad@ and !n "he Br!"!'h @%ad@ are a$$ (ronounced "he
'ame+ %u" "he -oe$ !n "he Br!"!'h @%a"h@ !' (ronounced $!.e @ah+@
'!nce !" !' %e#ore one o# "he #r!ca"!-e' s+ f+ or th 1a' !n @"h!n@2) 1E2 3hen
a h!gh %ac. -oe$ !' (receded %& t+ d+ or n !n Br!"!'h+ a g$!de
1con'onan"a$ y2 !' !n'er"ed %e"een "hem 1e.g., @"u$!(+@ @ne'@20 !n
Amer!can "he g$!de !' om!""ed)
The 84 con'onan"a$ 'ound' com(r!'e '!, '"o(' 1($o'!-e'2/ p+ b+ t+ d+ &+
g0 "he #r!ca"!-e' f+ v+ th 1a' !n @"h!n@2+ th 1a' !n @"hen@2+ s+ /+ sh 1a' !n
@'h!(@2+ /h 1a' !n @a7ure@2+ and h0 "o aHr!ca"!-e'+ ch 1a' !n @church@2
and 0 1a' !n @jam@20 "he na'a$' m+ n+ and ng 1a' !n @&oung@20 "he $a"era$
l0 "he -!%ran" or re"ro*e, r0 and "he 'em!-oe$' y and w) Amer!can
and Br!"!'h con'onan"' ha-e "he 'ame (ronunc!a"!on !"h "o
e,ce("!on'/ 1<2 3hen r occur' a#"er a -oe$+ !" !' dro((ed !n Br!"!'h %u"
!
(ronounced !n Amer!can) 182 A t %e"een "o -oe$' !' (ronounced
$!.e t !n @"o(@ !n Br!"!'h+ %u" !n Amer!can "he 'ound !' c$o'e "o "ha" o# a
d)
Eng$!'h !' a '"rong$& '"re''ed $anguage+ !"h #our degree' o# '"re''/
(r!mar&+ 'econdar&+ "er"!ar&+ and ea.) A change !n '"re'' can change
"he mean!ng o# a 'en"ence or a (hra'e) A$"hough !n com(ar!'on !"h
o"her $anguage' Eng$!'h '"re'' !' $e'' (red!c"a%$e+ "here !' a "endenc&
"oard an"e(enu$"!ma"e 1"h!rd '&$$a%$e #rom "he $a'"2 (r!mar& '"re'')
Th!' !' a((aren" !n 'uch ;-e5'&$$a%$e ord' a' e:uanPm!"&+
$ong!"Qd!na$+ and no"orPe"&) French '"re'' !' o#"en 'u'"a!ned !n
%orroed ord'+ e.g., %!7Rrre+ cr!"P:ue+ and ho"S$)
C!"ch+ or mu'!ca$ "one+ ma& %e #a$$!ng+ r!'!ng+ or #a$$!ng5r!'!ng) 3ord
"one+ h!ch !' a$'o ca$$ed (!"ch+ can !n*uence "he mean!ng o# a ord)
Sen"ence "one !' ca$$ed !n"ona"!on and !' e'(ec!a$$& !m(or"an" a" "he
end o# a 'en"ence) There are "hree !m(or"an" end5o#5'en"ence
!n"ona"!on'/ #a$$!ng+ r!'!ng+ and #a$$!ng5r!'!ng) The #a$$!ng !n"ona"!on !'
u'ed !n com($e"ed '"a"emen"'+ command'+ and 'ome :ue'"!on'
ca$$!ng #or @&e'@ or @no@ an'er') R!'!ng !n"ona"!on !' u'ed !n
'"a"emen"' made !"h 'ome re'er-a"!on+ !n (o$!"e re:ue'"'+ and !n
cer"a!n :ue'"!on' an'era%$e %& @&e'@ or @no)@ The "h!rd "&(e o#
!n"ona"!on+ ;r'" #a$$!ng and "hen r!'!ng (!"ch+ !' u'ed !n 'en"ence' "ha"
!m($& conce''!on' or con"ra'"') Amer!can !n"ona"!on !' $e'' '!ng'ong
and '"a&' !n a narroer range "han doe' Br!"!'h)
The ord' o# "he Eng$!'h $anguage can %e d!-!ded accord!ng "o "he!r
#unc"!on or #orm !n"o rough$& e!gh" ca"egor!e'+ or (ar"' o# '(eech/
noun'+ (ronoun'+ adjec"!-e'+ -er%'+ ad-er%'+ (re(o'!"!on'+
conjunc"!on'+ and !n"erjec"!on') 9odern Eng$!'h noun'+ (ronoun'+ and
-er%' are !n*ec"ed+ %u" adjec"!-e'+ ad-er%'+ (re(o'!"!on'+
conjunc"!on'+ and !n"erjec"!on' are no") 9o'" Eng$!'h noun' ha-e "he
($ura$ !n*ec"!on 15e2s+ "hough 'ome rema!n unchanged 1e.g., deer2)
F!-e o# "he 'e-en (er'ona$ (ronoun' ha-e 'e(ara"e #orm' #or 'u%jec"
and o%jec") Eng$!'h -er%' are no" com($e,) Regu$ar or ea. -er%'
ha-e on$& #our #orm'+ '"rong -er%' ha-e ;-e+ and @"o %e@ ha' e!gh")
Some -er%' end!ng !n t or d ha-e on$& "hree #orm')
Be'!de' em($o&!ng !n*ec"!on+ Eng$!'h e,h!%!"' "o o"her ma!n
mor(ho$og!ca$ 1'"ruc"ura$2 (roce''e'55 aJ,a"!on and com(o'!"!on55and
"o 'u%'!d!ar& one'55%ac.5#orma"!on and %$end) AJ,e'+ ord
!!
e$emen"' a""ached "o a ord+ ma& e!"her (recede a' (re;,e' 1(re5+
d!'52 or #o$$o a' 'uJ,e' 15a%$e+ 5er2) The& can %e na"!-e 1o-er5+ 5ne''2+
Gree. 1h&(er52+ or La"!n 15men"2) Eng$!'h ma.e' -ar!ed u'e o# aJ,e'0
o#"en+ man& d!Heren" one' ha-e "he 'ame mean!ng+ or "he 'ame one
ha' man& mean!ng') SuJ,e' are a""ached more c$o'e$& "o "he '"em
"han are (re;,e' and o#"en rema!n (ermanen")
Com(o'!"!on+ or com(ound!ng+ de'cr!%e' (u""!ng "o #ree #orm'
"oge"her "o #orm a ne ord) The ne ord can d!Her #rom "he
(re-!ou' #orm' !n (hono$og&+ '"re''+ and junc"ure) F!-e "&(e' o#
com(ound' are de;ned %& de'cr!%!ng "he re$a"!on'h!( o# "he #ree
#orm' "o each o"her/ 1<2 a com(ound !n h!ch "he ;r'" com(onen"
noun !' a""r!%u"!-e and mod!;e' "he 'econd noun 1e.g., c$o-er$ea#+
%eeh!-e+ -!ne&ard20 182 one made u( o# a noun ($u' an agen" noun+
!"'e$# con'!'"!ng o# a -er%5($u'5agen" 'uJ, 1e.g., !ce%rea.er+
$andoner+ "!me.ee(er20 142 a -er% ($u' an o%jec" 1e.g., (a'"!me+
'carecro+ darede-!$20 142 an a""r!%u"!-e adjec"!-e ($u' a noun 1e.g.,
%$ue%e$$+ grand'on+ 'hor"hand20 and 1E2 a noun and a (re'en"
(ar"!c!($e 1e.g., #ac"5;nd!ng+ hear"rend!ng+ $!#e5g!-!ng2)
Bac.5#orma"!on+ "he re-er'e o# aJ,a"!on+ !' "he ana$og!ca$ #orma"!on
o# a ne ord #a$'e$& a''umed "o %e !"' der!-a"!on) The -er%' @"o ed!"@
and @"o ac"@ ha-e %een #ormed #rom "he noun' @ed!"or@ and @ac"or+@
re'(ec"!-e$&) B$end' #a$$ !n"o "o grou('/ 1<2 coa$e'cence'+ 'uch a'
@%a'h@ #rom @%ang@ and @'ma'h+@ and 182 "e$e'co(ed #orm'+ ca$$ed
(or"man"eau ord'+ 'uch a' @mo"orcade@ #rom @mo"or ca-a$cade)@
In Eng$!'h '&n"a,+ "he ma!n de-!ce #or !nd!ca"!ng "he re$a"!on'h!(
%e"een ord' !' ord order) In "he 'en"ence @The g!r$ $o-e' "he %o&+@
"he 'u%jec" !' !n !n!"!a$ (o'!"!on+ and "he o%jec" #o$$o' "he -er%0
"ran'(o'!ng "he order o# @%o&@ and @g!r$@ ou$d change "he mean!ng)
In con"ra'" "o "h!' '&'"em+ mo'" o"her $anguage' u'e !n*ec"!on' "o
!nd!ca"e gramma"!ca$ re$a"!on'h!(') In puerum puella amat, h!ch !'
"he La"!n e:u!-a$en" o# @The g!r$ $o-e' "he %o&+@ "he ord' can %e
g!-en !n an& order 1#or e,am($e+ amat puella puerum2 %ecau'e "he
-um end!ng on "he #orm #or @%o&@ 1puerum2 !nd!ca"e' "he o%jec" o# "he
-er% regard$e'' o# !"' (o'!"!on !n "he 'en"ence)
Eng$!'h 'en"ence' genera$$& '"ar" !"h "he 'u%jec" ;r'"+ #o$$oed %&
"he -er% and "hen %& "he o%jec") Adjec"!-e' or o"her '!ng$e ord' "ha"
mod!#& noun' are ($aced %e#ore "he noun+ h!$e ho$e (hra'e' ac"!ng
a' mod!;er' are u'ua$$& ($aced a#"er "he noun) Ad-er%' are norma$$&
more mo%!$e "han adjec"!-e'+ and "he& can occur e!"her %e#ore or a#"er
!$
"he -er% "he& mod!#&) A' "he!r e"&mo$og& !m($!e'+ (re(o'!"!on' u'ua$$&
(recede noun'+ %u" "here are a #e e,ce("!on'+ e.g., @"he ho$e or$d
o-er)@ Becau'e o# "he $a,!"& o# '&n"ac"!c (r!nc!($e'+ Eng$!'h !' a -er&
ea'& $anguage "o '(ea. (oor$&)
Eng$!'h ha' "he $arge'" -oca%u$ar& o# an& $anguage !n "he or$d+
ch!e*& %ecau'e o# !"' (ro(en'!"& #or %orro!ng and %ecau'e "he
Norman Con:ue'" o# Eng$and !n "he <<"h cen"ur& !n"roduced -a'"
num%er' o# French ord' !n"o "he $anguage) The -oca%u$ar& o#
9odern Eng$!'h !' "hu' a((ro,!ma"e$& ha$# German!c 1O$d Eng$!'h and
Scand!na-!an2 and ha$# Romance or I"a$!c 1French and La"!n2+ !"h
co(!ou' !m(or"a"!on' #rom Gree. !n 'c!ence and %orro!ng' #rom
man& o"her $anguage') A$mo'" a$$ %a'!c conce("' and "h!ng' come
#rom O$d Eng$!'h+ or Ang$o5Sa,on+ a' do mo'" (er'ona$ (ronoun'+ a$$
au,!$!ar& -er%'+ mo'" '!m($e (re(o'!"!on'+ a$$ conjunc"!on'+ and a$mo'"
a$$ num%er') 9an& common noun'+ adjec"!-e'+ and -er%' are o#
Scand!na-!an or!g!n+ a #ac" due "o "he Scand!na-!an !n-a'!on' o#
Br!"a!n) The Eng$!'h $anguage oe' a grea" de%" "o French+ h!ch ga-e
!" man& "erm' re$a"!ng "o dre'' and #a'h!on+ cu!'!ne+ (o$!"!c'+ $a+
'oc!e"&+ $!"era"ure+ and ar") Com(ar!'on %e"een French and Eng$!'h
'&non&m' re-ea$' "he #ormer "o %e more !n"e$$ec"ua$ and a%'"rac"+
and "he $a""er more human and concre"e) 9an& o# "he Gree.
com(ound' and der!-a"!-e' !n Eng$!'h ha-e La"!n e:u!-a$en"' !"h
e!"her '!m!$ar or con'!dera%$& d!Heren" mean!ng')
The Eng$!'h ado("ed "he 845$e""er La"!n a$(ha%e"+ "o h!ch "he& added
"he $e""er' 1+ #+ and 2. For "he mo'" (ar"+ Eng$!'h '(e$$!ng !' %a'ed on
"ha" o# "he <E"h cen"ur&) Cronunc!a"!on+ hoe-er+ ha' changed grea"$&
'!nce "hen) 6ur!ng "he <?"h and <="h cen"ur!e'+ ;,ed '(e$$!ng' ere
ado("ed+ a$"hough "here ha-e %een a #e change' '!nce "ha" "!me)
Numerou' a""em("' ha-e %een made "o re#orm Eng$!'h '(e$$!ng+ mo'"
o# "hem un'ucce''#u$)
Orthogr,ph-.
The La"!n a$(ha%e" or!g!na$$& had 80 $e""er'+ "he (re'en" Eng$!'h
a$(ha%e" m!nu' #, 3, 2, 1, 4, and 5. The Roman' "hem'e$-e' added 3
#or u'e !n a%%re-!a"!on' and 4 and 5 !n ord' "ran'cr!%ed #rom Gree.)
A#"er !"' ado("!on %& "he Eng$!'h+ "h!' 845$e""er a$(ha%e" de-e$o(ed 1
a' a $!ga"ured dou%$!ng o# 6 and $a"er # and 2 a' con'onan"a$ -ar!an"'
!'
o# I and 6. The re'u$"an" a$(ha%e" o# 8A $e""er' ha' %o"h u((erca'e+ or
ca(!"a$+ and $oerca'e+ or 'ma$$+ $e""er')
Eng$!'h '(e$$!ng !' %a'ed #or "he mo'" (ar" on "ha" o# "he <E"h cen"ur&+
%u" (ronunc!a"!on ha' changed con'!dera%$& '!nce "hen+ e'(ec!a$$&
"ha" o# $ong -oe$' and d!(h"hong') The e,"en'!-e change !n "he
(ronunc!a"!on o# -oe$'+ .non a' "he Grea" Doe$ Sh!#"+ aHec"ed a$$
o# GeoHre& ChaucerG' 'e-en $ong -oe$'+ and #or cen"ur!e' '(e$$!ng
rema!ned un"!d&) I# "he mean!ng o# "he me''age a' c$ear+ "he
'(e$$!ng o# !nd!-!dua$ ord' 'eemed un!m(or"an") In "he <?"h cen"ur&
dur!ng "he Eng$!'h C!-!$ 3ar+ com(o'!"or' ado("ed ;,ed '(e$$!ng' #or
(rac"!ca$ rea'on'+ and !n "he order5$o-!ng <="h cen"ur& un!#orm!"&
%ecame more and more #a'h!ona%$e) S!nce Samue$ Fohn'onG'
)ictionary of the 'nglish %anguage 1<?EE2+ or"hogra(h& ha' rema!ned
#a!r$& '"a%$e) Numerou' "ac!" change'+ 'uch a' @mu'!c@ #or @mu'!c.@ 1c.
<==02 and @#an"a'&@ #or @(han"a'&@ 1c. <I802+ ha-e %een acce("ed+
%u" '(e$$!ng ha' ne-er"he$e'' con"!nued "o %e !n (ar" un(hone"!c)
A""em("' ha-e %een made a" re#orm) Indeed+ e-er& cen"ur& ha' had
!"' re#ormer' '!nce "he <4"h+ hen an Augu'"!n!an canon named Orm
de-!'ed h!' on me"hod o# d!Heren"!a"!ng 'hor" -oe$' #rom $ong %&
dou%$!ng "he 'ucceed!ng con'onan"' or+ hen "h!' a' no" #ea'!%$e+ %&
mar.!ng 'hor" -oe$' !"h a 'u(er!m(o'ed %re-e mar. 12) 3!$$!am
Ca,"on+ ho 'e" u( h!' ooden (r!n"!ng (re'' a" 3e'"m!n'"er !n <4?A+
a' much concerned !"h '(e$$!ng (ro%$em' "hroughou" h!' or.!ng
$!#e) Noah 3e%'"er (roduced h!' !pelling Boo&, !n <?=4+ a' a (recur'or
"o "he ;r'" ed!"!on 1<=8=2 o# h!' merican )ictionary of the 'nglish
%anguage. The 80"h cen"ur& ha' (roduced man& 7ea$ou' re#ormer')
Three '&'"em'+ 'u(($emen"ar& "o "rad!"!ona$ '(e$$!ng+ are ac"ua$$& !n
u'e #or d!Heren" (ur(o'e'/ 1<2 "he In!"!a$ Teach!ng 1Augmen"ed Roman2
A$(ha%e" 1ITA2 o# 44 $e""er' u'ed %& educa"!on!'"' !n "he "each!ng o#
ch!$dren under 'e-en0 182 "he Sha a$(ha%e" o# 4= $e""er'+ de'!gned !n
!m($emen"a"!on o# "he !$$ o# George Bernard Sha0 and 142 "he
In"erna"!ona$ Chone"!c A$(ha%e" 1ICA2+ con'"ruc"ed on "he %a'!' o# one
'&m%o$ #or one !nd!-!dua$ 'ound and u'ed %& man& "ra!ned $!ngu!'"')
Coun"$e'' o"her '&'"em' ha-e %een or.ed ou" #rom "!me "o "!me+ o#
h!ch R)E) Lachr!''onG' @Ang$!c@ 1<I402 and A,e$ 3!j.G' 7egulari/ed
'nglish 1<IEI2 ma& %e "he %e'")
9eanh!$e+ "he grea" (u%$!'h!ng hou'e' con"!nue un(er"ur%ed
%ecau'e dra'"!c re#orm rema!n' !m(rac"!ca%$e+ unde'!ra%$e+ and
un$!.e$&) Th!' !' %ecau'e "here !' no $onger one cr!"er!on o# correc"
(ronunc!a"!on %u" 'e-era$ '"andard' "hroughou" "he or$d0 reg!ona$
!/
'"andard' are "hem'e$-e' no" '"a"!c+ %u" chang!ng !"h each ne
genera"!on0 and+ !# '(e$$!ng ere changed dra'"!ca$$&+ a$$ "he %oo.' !n
Eng$!'h !n "he or$dG' (u%$!c and (r!-a"e $!%rar!e' ou$d %ecome
!nacce''!%$e "o reader' !"hou" '(ec!a$ '"ud&)
;oc,9&l,r-
The -oca%u$ar& o# 9odern Eng$!'h !' a((ro,!ma"e$& ha$# German!c 1O$d
Eng$!'h and Scand!na-!an2 and ha$# I"a$!c or Romance 1French and
La"!n2+ !"h co(!ou' and !ncrea'!ng !m(or"a"!on' #rom Gree. !n 'c!ence
and "echno$og& and !"h con'!dera%$e %orro!ng' #rom 6u"ch+ Lo
German+ I"a$!an+ S(an!'h+ German+ Ara%!c+ and man& o"her $anguage')
Name' o# %a'!c conce("' and "h!ng' come #rom O$d Eng$!'h or Ang$o5
Sa,on/ hea-en and ear"h+ $o-e and ha"e+ $!#e and dea"h+ %eg!nn!ng and
end+ da& and n!gh"+ mon"h and &ear+ hea" and co$d+ a& and (a"h+
meado and '"ream) Card!na$ numera$' come #rom O$d Eng$!'h+ a' do
a$$ "he ord!na$ numera$' e,ce(" @'econd@ 1O$d Eng$!'h other, h!ch '"!$$
re"a!n' !"' o$der mean!ng !n @e-er& o"her da&@2) @Second@ come' #rom
La"!n secundus @#o$$o!ng+@ "hrough French second, re$a"ed "o La"!n
se8ui @"o #o$$o+@ a' !n Eng$!'h @'e:uence)@ From O$d Eng$!'h come a$$
"he (er'ona$ (ronoun' 1e,ce(" @"he&+@ @"he!r+@ and @"hem+@ h!ch are
#rom Scand!na-!an2+ "he au,!$!ar& -er%' 1e,ce(" "he marg!na$ @u'ed+@
h!ch !' #rom French2+ mo'" '!m($e (re(o'!"!on'+ and a$$ conjunc"!on')
Numerou' noun' ou$d %e !den"!ca$ he"her "he& came #rom O$d
Eng$!'h or Scand!na-!an/ #a"her+ mo"her+ %ro"her 1%u" no" '!'"er20 man+
!#e0 ground+ $and+ "ree+ gra''0 'ummer+ !n"er0 c$!H+ da$e) 9an& -er%'
ou$d a$'o %e !den"!ca$+ e'(ec!a$$& mono'&$$a%!c -er%'55%r!ng+ come+
ge"+ hear+ mee"+ 'ee+ 'e"+ '!"+ '(!n+ '"and+ "h!n.) The 'ame !' "rue o#
"he adjec"!-e' #u$$ and !'e0 "he co$our name' gra&+ green+ and h!"e0
"he d!'junc"!-e (o''e''!-e' m!ne and "h!ne 1%u" no" our' and &our'20
"he "erm' nor"h and e'" 1%u" no" 'ou"h and ea'"20 and "he
(re(o'!"!on' o-er and under) Fu'" a #e Eng$!'h and Scand!na-!an
dou%$e"' coe,!'" !n curren" '(eech/ no and na&+ &ea and a&+ #rom and
#ro+ rear 1i.e., "o %r!ng u(2 and ra!'e+ 'h!r" and '.!r" 1%o"h re$a"ed "o "he
adjec"!-e 'hor"2+ $e'' and $oo'e) From Scand!na-!an+ @$a@ a'
%orroed ear$&+ hence @%&$a+@ mean!ng @-!$$age $a+@ and @ou"$a+@
mean!ng @man ou"'!de "he $a)@ @Hu'%and@ 1hus-bondi2 mean"
@hou'eho$der+@ he"her '!ng$e or marr!ed+ herea' @#e$$o@ 1fe-lagi2
mean" one ho @$a&' #ee@ or 'hare' (ro(er"& !"h ano"her+ and 'o
@(ar"ner+ 'hareho$der)@ From Scand!na-!an come "he common noun'
a,$e 1"ree2+ %and+ %!r"h+ %$oom+ croo.+ d!r"+ egg+ ga!"+ ga(+ g!r"h+ .n!#e+
!0
$oan+ race+ r!#"+ roo"+ 'core+ 'ea"+ '.!$$+ '.&+ 'nare+ "hr!#"+ and !ndo0
"he adjec"!-e' a.ard+ *a"+ ha((&+ !$$+ $oo'e+ ro""en+ rugged+ '$&+
"!gh"+ ug$&+ ea.+ and rong0 and man& -er%'+ !nc$ud!ng ca$$+ ca'"+
c$a'(+ c$!(+ cra-e+ d!e+ droo(+ dron+ *!"+ ga(e+ ga'(+ g$!""er+ $!#e+ ra.e+
r!d+ 'care+ 'co$+ '.u$.+ 'nu%+ '(r!n"+ "hr!-e+ "hru'"+ and an")
The de%" o# "he Eng$!'h $anguage "o French !' $arge) The "erm'
(re'!den"+ re(re'en"a"!-e+ $eg!'$a"ure+ congre''+ con'"!"u"!on+ and
(ar$!amen" are a$$ French) So+ "oo+ are du.e+ mar:u!'+ -!'coun"+ and
%aron0 %u" .!ng+ :ueen+ $ord+ $ad&+ ear$+ and .n!gh" are Eng$!'h) C!"&+
-!$$age+ cour"+ (a$ace+ manor+ man'!on+ re'!dence+ and dom!c!$e are
French0 %u" "on+ %orough+ ha$$+ hou'e+ %oer+ room+ and home are
Eng$!'h) Com(ar!'on %e"een Eng$!'h and French '&non&m' 'ho'
"ha" "he #ormer are more human and concre"e+ "he $a""er more
!n"e$$ec"ua$ and a%'"rac"0 e.g., "he "erm' #reedom and $!%er"&+
#r!end'h!( and am!"&+ ha"red and enm!"&+ $o-e and aHec"!on+ $!.e$!hood
and (ro%a%!$!"&+ "ru"h and -erac!"&+ $&!ng and mendac!"&) The
'u(er!or!"& o# French coo.!ng !' du$& recogn!7ed %& "he ado("!on o#
'uch cu$!nar& "erm' a' %o!$+ %ro!$+ #r&+ gr!$$+ roa'"+ 'ou'e+ and "oa'")
@Brea.#a'"@ !' Eng$!'h+ %u" @d!nner@ and @'u((er@ are French) @Hun"@ !'
Eng$!'h+ %u" @cha'e+@ @:uarr&+@ @'cen"+@ and @"rac.@ are French)
Cra#"'men %ear name' o# Eng$!'h or!g!n/ %a.er+ %u!$der+ ;'her 1man2+
hedger+ m!$$er+ 'he(herd+ 'hoema.er+ a!nr!gh"+ and ea-er+ or
e%%er) Name' o# '.!$$ed ar"!'an'+ hoe-er+ are French/ car(en"er+
dra(er+ ha%erda'her+ jo!ner+ ma'on+ (a!n"er+ ($um%er+ and "a!$or) 9an&
"erm' re$a"!ng "o dre'' and #a'h!on+ cu!'!ne and -!n!cu$"ure+ (o$!"!c'
and d!($omac&+ drama and $!"era"ure+ ar" and %a$$e" come #rom French)
In "he '(here' o# 'c!ence and "echno$og& man& "erm' come #rom
C$a''!ca$ Gree. "hrough French or d!rec"$& #rom Gree.) C!oneer' !n
re'earch and de-e$o(men" no regard Gree. a' a .!nd o#
!ne,hau'"!%$e :uarr& #rom h!ch "he& can dra $!ngu!'"!c ma"er!a$ a"
!$$) B& (re;,!ng "he Gree. ad-er% tele @#ar aa&+ d!'"an"@ "o "he
e,!'"!ng com(ound (ho"ogra(h&+ @$!gh" r!"!ng+@ "he& crea"e "he
(rec!'e "erm @"e$e(ho"ogra(h&@ "o deno"e "he (ho"ogra(h!ng o#
d!'"an" o%jec"' %& mean' o# a '(ec!a$ $en') B& !n'er"!ng "he (re;,
micro- @'ma$$@ !n"o "h!' 'ame com(ound+ "he& ma.e "he ne "erm
@(ho"om!crogra(h&+@ deno"!ng "he e$ec"ron!c (ho"ogra(h!ng o#
%ac"er!a and -!ru'e') Such neo5He$$en!c der!-a"!-e' ou$d (ro%a%$&
ha-e %een un!n"e$$!g!%$e "o C$a"o and Ar!'"o"$e) 9an& Gree.
!2
com(ound' and der!-a"!-e' ha-e La"!n e:u!-a$en"' !"h '$!gh" or
con'!dera%$e d!Heren"!a"!on' !n mean!ng
A" ;r'" '!gh" !" m!gh" a((ear "ha" 'ome o# "he'e e:u!-a$en"'+ 'uch a'
@me"amor(ho'!'@ and @"ran'#orma"!on+@ are 'uJc!en"$& '&non&mou'
"o ma.e one or "he o"her redundan") In #ac"+ hoe-er+
@me"amor(ho'!'@ !' more "echn!ca$ and "here#ore more re'"r!c"ed "han
@"ran'#orma"!on)@ In m&"ho$og& !" '!gn!;e' a mag!ca$ 'ha(e chang!ng0
!n na"ure !" deno"e' a (o'"em%r&on!c de-e$o(men" 'uch a' "ha" o# a
"ad(o$e !n"o a #rog+ a cocoon !n"o a '!$.orm+ or a chr&'a$!' !n"o a
%u""er*&) Tran'#orma"!on+ on "he o"her hand+ mean' an& .!nd o#
change #rom one '"a"e "o ano"her)
E-er '!nce "he <8"h cen"ur&+ hen merchan"' #rom "he Ne"her$and'
made home' !n Ea'" Ang$!a+ 6u"ch ord' ha-e !n;$"ra"ed !n"o 9!d$and
'(eech) For cen"ur!e' a #orm o# Lo German a' u'ed %& 'ea#ar!ng
men !n Nor"h Sea (or"') O$d nau"!ca$ "erm' '"!$$ !n u'e !nc$ude %uo&+
dec.+ doc.+ #ree%oo"er+ ho!'"+ $ea.+ (um(+ '.!((er+ and &ach") The
6u"ch !n Ne Am'"erdam 1$a"er Ne Yor.2 and adjacen" 'e""$emen"'
ga-e "he ord' %o''+ coo.!e+ do(e+ 'noo(+ and aKe "o Amer!can
'(eech) The 6u"ch !n Ca(e Cro-!nce ga-e "he "erm' a(ar"he!d+
commandeer+ commando+ '(oor+ and "re. "o Sou"h A#r!can '(eech)
The con"r!%u"!on o# H!gh German ha' %een on a d!Heren" $e-e$) In "he
<="h and <I"h cen"ur!e' !" $a& !n "echn!ca$!"!e' o# geo$og& and
m!nera$og& and !n a%'"rac"!on' re$a"!ng "o $!"era"ure+ (h!$o'o(h&+ and
('&cho$og&) In "he 80"h cen"ur& "h!' con"r!%u"!on ha' 'ome"!me' %een
!nd!rec") @Unc$ear@ and @mean!ng#u$@ echoed German un&lar and
bedeutungsvoll, or sinnvoll. @R!ng road@ 1a Br!"!'h "erm a(($!ed "o
road' enc!rc$!ng c!"!e' or (ar"' o# c!"!e'2 "ran'$a"ed 7ingstrasse. @round
"r!(+@ 7undfahrt. and @"he "urn o# "he cen"ur&+@ die #ahrhundertwende.
The "erm' @c$a''$e'' 'oc!e"&+@ @!n#er!or!"& com($e,+@ and @!'h#u$
"h!n.!ng@ echoed die &lassenl9se Gesellschaft, der
:inderwertig&eits&omple", and das 1unschden&en.
A$ong !"h "he re'" o# "he 3e'"ern or$d+ Eng$!'h ha' acce("ed I"a$!an
a' "he $anguage o# mu'!c) The name' o# -o!ce'+ (ar"'+ (er#ormer'+
!n'"rumen"'+ #orm' o# com(o'!"!on+ and "echn!ca$ d!rec"!on' are a$$
I"a$!an) 9an& o# "he $a""er55a$$egro+ andan"e+ can"a%!$e+ cre'cendo+
d!m!nuendo+ $ega"o+ mae'"o'o+ o%%$!ga"o+ (!77!ca"o+ '"acca"o+ and
-!%ra"o55are a$'o u'ed me"a(hor!ca$$&) In arch!"ec"ure+ "he "erm'
!3
%e$-edere+ corr!dor+ cu(o$a+ gro""o+ (ede'"a$+ (ergo$a+ (!a77a+ (!$a'"er+
and ro"unda are acce("ed0 !n $!"era"ure+ %ur$e':ue+ can"o+
e,"ra-agan7a+ '"an7a+ and man& more are u'ed)
From S(an!'h+ Eng$!'h ha' ac:u!red "he ord' armada+ cann!%a$+ c!gar+
ga$$eon+ guerr!$$a+ ma"ador+ mo':u!"o+ :uadroon+ "ornado+ and -an!$$a+
'ome o# "he'e $oanord' go!ng %ac. "o "he <A"h cen"ur&+ hen 'ea
dog' encoun"ered h!da$go' on "he h!gh 'ea') 9an& name' o# an!ma$'
and ($an"' ha-e en"ered Eng$!'h #rom !nd!genou' $anguage' "hrough
S(an!'h/ @(o"a"o@ "hrough S(an!'h patata #rom Ta!no batata, and
@"oma"o@ "hrough S(an!'h tomate #rom Nahua"$ tomatl. O"her ord'
ha-e en"ered #rom La"!n Amer!ca %& a& o# Te,a'+ Ne 9e,!co+
Ar!7ona+ and Ca$!#orn!a0 e.g., 'uch ord' a' can&on+ c!gar+ e'"anc!a+
$a''o+ mu'"ang+ (ue%$o+ and rodeo) Some ha-e ga"hered ne
conno"a"!on'/ %onan7a+ or!g!na$$& deno"!ng @goodne''+@ came "hrough
m!ner'G '$ang "o mean @'(ec"acu$ar !nd#a$$+ (ro'(er!"&@0 maTana+
@"omorro+@ ac:u!red an under"one o# m&'"er!ou' un(red!c"a%!$!"&)
From Ara%!c "hrough Euro(ean S(an!'h+ "hrough French #rom S(an!'h+
"hrough La"!n+ or occa'!ona$$& "hrough Gree.+ Eng$!'h ha' o%"a!ned "he
"erm' a$chem&+ a$coho$+ a$em%!c+ a$ge%ra+ a$.a$!+ a$manac+ ar'ena$+
a''a''!n+ a""ar+ a7!mu"h+ c!(her+ e$!,!r+ mo':ue+ nad!r+ na(h"ha+ 'ugar+
'&ru(+ 7en!"h+ and 7ero) From Eg&("!an Ara%!c+ Eng$!'h ha' recen"$&
%orroed "he "erm $oo#ah 1a$'o '(e$$ed $uHa2) From He%re+ d!rec"$& or
%& a& o# Du$ga"e La"!n+ come "he "erm' amen+ cheru%+ ha$$e$ujah+
manna+ me''!ah+ (har!'ee+ ra%%!+ 'a%%a"h+ and 'era(h0 ju%!$ee+
$e-!a"han+ and 'h!%%o$e"h0 and+ more recen"$&+ .o'her+ and .!%%u"7
Eng$!'h ha' #ree$& ado("ed and ada("ed ord' #rom man& o"her
$anguage'+ ac:u!r!ng "hem 'ome"!me' d!rec"$& and 'ome"!me' %&
de-!ou' rou"e') Each ord ha' !"' on h!'"or&) The #o$$o!ng $!'"'
!nd!ca"e "he or!g!n' o# a num%er o# Eng$!'h ord'/ 3e$'h55*anne$+
corac$e+ crom$ech+ (engu!n+ e!'"edd#od0 Corn!'h55gu$$+ %r!$$+ do$men0
Gae$!c and Ir!'h55'hamroc.+ %rogue+ $e(rechaun+ ogham+ Tor&+ ga$ore+
%$arne&+ hoo$!gan+ c$an+ c$a&more+ %og+ ($a!d+ '$ogan+ '(orran+ ca!rn+
h!'.&+ (!%roch0 Bre"on55menh!r0 Noreg!an55'.!+ om%ud'man0
F!nn!'h55'auna0 Ru''!an55.-a''+ ru%$e+ "'ar+ -er'"+ mammo"h+ u.a'e+
a'"ra.han+ -od.a+ 'amo-ar+ "undra 1#rom Sam!2+ "ro!.a+ (ogrom+
duma+ 'o-!e"+ %o$'he-!.+ !n"e$$!gen"'!a 1#rom La"!n "hrough Co$!'h2+
%or'ch"+ %a$a$a!.a+ '(u"n!.+ 'o&u7+ 'a$&u"+ $uno.hod0 Co$!'h55ma7ur.a0
C7ech55ro%o"0 Hungar!an55gou$a'h+ (a(r!.a0 Cor"ugue'e55marma$ade+
!4
*am!ngo+ mo$a''e'+ -eranda+ (or" 1!ne2+ dodo0 Ba':ue55%!7arre0
Tur.!'h55jan!''ar&+ "ur%an+ coHee+ .!o'.+ ca-!ar+ (a'ha+ oda$!':ue+ #e7+
%o'h0 H!nd!55na%o%+ guru+ 'ah!%+ maharajah+ maha"ma+ (und!"+ (unch
1dr!n.2+ juggernau"+ cu'h&+ jung$e+ "hug+ chee"ah+ 'ham(oo+ ch!"+
dungaree+ (uc.a+ g&m.hana+ man"ra+ $oo"+ (ajama'+ d!ngh&+ (o$o0
Cer'!an55(arad!'e+ d!-an+ (urdah+ $!$ac+ %a7aar+ 'hah+ cara-an+ che''+
'a$amander+ "aHe"a+ 'ha$+ .ha.!0 Tam!$55(ar!ah+ curr&+ ca"amaran+
mu$$!ga"an&0 Ch!ne'e55"ea 1Amo&2+ 'am(an0 Fa(ane'e55'hogun+
.!mono+ m!.ado+ "&coon+ hara5.!r!+ go%ang+ judo+ juj!"'u+ %u'h!do+
'amura!+ %an7a!+ "'unam!+ 'a"'uma+ No 1"he dance drama2+ .ara"e+
>a%u.!0 9a$a&55.e"chu(+ 'ago+ %am%oo+ jun.+ amuc.+ orangu"an+
com(ound 1#enced area2+ raJa0 Co$&ne'!an55"a%oo+ "a""oo0 Haa!!an55
u.u$e$e0 A#r!can $anguage'55ch!m(an7ee+ goo%er+ mum%o jum%o+
-oodoo0 Inu!"55.a&a.+ !g$oo+ anora.0 Yu(!.55mu.$u.0 A$gon:u!an55"o"em0
Nahua"$55me'ca$0 $anguage' o# "he Car!%%ean55hammoc.+ hurr!cane+
"o%acco+ ma!7e+ !guana0 A%or!g!na$ Au'"ra$!an55.angaroo+ corro%oree+
a$$a%&+ om%a"+ %oomerang+ (arama""a+ %udger!gar)

;ARIETIES OF ENG(ISH
Briti#h Engli#h.
The a%%re-!a"!on RC 1Rece!-ed Cronunc!a"!on2 deno"e' "he '(eech o#
educa"ed (eo($e $!-!ng !n London and "he 'ou"hea'" o# Eng$and and o#
o"her (eo($e e$'ehere ho '(ea. !n "h!' a&) I# "he :ua$!;er
educa"ed %e a''umed+ RC !' "hen a reg!ona$ 1geogra(h!ca$2 d!a$ec"+ a'
con"ra'"ed !"h London Coc.ne&+ h!ch !' a c$a'' 1'oc!a$2 d!a$ec") RC !'
no" !n"r!n'!ca$$& 'u(er!or "o o"her -ar!e"!e' o# Eng$!'h0 !" !' !"'e$# on$&
one (ar"!cu$ar reg!ona$ d!a$ec" "ha" ha'+ "hrough "he acc!den"' o#
h!'"or&+ ach!e-ed more e,"en'!-e u'e "han o"her') A$"hough ac:u!r!ng
!"' un!:ue '"a"u' !"hou" "he a!d o# an& e'"a%$!'hed au"hor!"&+ !" ma&
ha-e %een #o'"ered %& "he (u%$!c 'choo$' 13!nche'"er+ E"on+ Harro+
Rug%&+ and 'o on2 and "he anc!en" un!-er'!"!e' 1O,#ord and
Cam%r!dge2) O"her -ar!e"!e' o# Eng$!'h are e$$ (re'er-ed !n '(!"e o#
"he $e-e$$!ng !n*uence' o# ;$m+ "e$e-!'!on+ and rad!o) In "he Nor"hern
d!a$ec" RC Ua/U 1"he ;r'" -oe$ 'ound !n @#a"her@2 !' '"!$$ (ronounced UVU
1a 'ound $!.e "he a !n @#a"@2 !n ord' 'uch a' $augh+ #a'"+ and (a"h0 "h!'
(ronunc!a"!on ha' %een carr!ed acro'' "he A"$an"!c)
Eng$!'h d!a$ec"') In (ar"' o# Nor"hum%er$and+ RC @!"@ !' '"!$$ (ronounced
@h!"+@ a' !n O$d Eng$!'h) In -ar!ou' Nor"hern d!a$ec"' "he de;n!"e ar"!c$e
$5
@"he@ !' heard a' t, th, or d. In "ho'e d!a$ec"' !n h!ch !" %ecome' %o"h
t and th, t !' u'ed %e#ore con'onan"' and th %e#ore -oe$') Thu'+ one
hear' @"G%oo.@ %u" @"hGa(($e)@ 3hen+ hoe-er+ "he de;n!"e ar"!c$e !'
reduced "o t and "he #o$$o!ng ord %eg!n' !"h t or d, a' !n @"G"a!$@ or
@"Gdog+@ !" !' re($aced %& a '$!gh" (au'e a' !n "he RC ar"!cu$a"!on o# "he
;r'" t !n @ha" "r!c.)@ The RC U"U+ "he 'ound o# "he ch !n @church+@
%ecome' &, a' !n @"hac.+@ 1@"ha"ch+ roo#@2 and @.!r.@ 1@church@2) In
man& Nor"hern d!a$ec"' '"rong -er%' re"a!n "he o$d (a'"5"en'e '!ngu$ar
#orm' %and+ %ra.+ #and+ '(a. #or RC #orm' %ound+ %ro.e+ #ound+ and
'(o.e) S"rong -er%' a$'o re"a!n "he (a'" (ar"!c!($e !n*ec"!on -en a' !n
@comen+@ @'hu""en+@ @'!""en+@ and @ge""en@ or @go""en@ #or RC @come+@
@'hu"+@ @'a"+@ and @go")@
In 'ome 9!d$and d!a$ec"' "he d!(h"hong' !n @"hroa"@ and @'"one@ ha-e
%een .e(" a(ar"+ herea' !n RC "he& ha-e #a$$en "oge"her) In Che'h!re+
6er%&+ S"aHord+ and 3ar!c.+ RC @'!ng!ng@ !' (ronounced !"h a g
'ounded a#"er "he -e$ar na'a$ 'ound 1a' !n RC @;nger@2) In Nor#o$. one
hear' @'.e$$!ng"on@ and @'o$!n"ar&@ #or @'.e$e"on@ and @'o$!"ar&+@
'ho!ng an !n"ru'!-e n ju'" a' doe' @me''enger@ !n RC #rom French
messager, @(a''enger@ #rom French passager, and @n!gh"!nga$e@ #rom
O$d Eng$!'h nihtegala. O"her Ea'" Ang$!an ord' 'ho con'onan"a$
me"a"he'!' 1'!"ch (o'!"!on2+ a' !n @'!ng!#&+@ and 'u%'"!"u"!on o# one
$!:u!d or na'a$ #or ano"her+ a' !n @ch!m%$&@ #or @ch!mne&+@ and
@'&nna%$e@ #or @'&$$a%$e)@ @Han"$e@ #or @hand#u$@ 'ho' '&nco(e
1d!'a((earance2 o# an un'"re''ed -oe$+ (ar"!a$ a''!m!$a"!on o# d "o t
%e#ore -o!ce$e'' f, and 'u%'e:uen" $o'' o# f !n a "r!($e con'onan"
grou()
In Sou"h 3e'"ern d!a$ec"'+ !n!"!a$ f and s are o#"en -o!ced+ %ecom!ng v
and /. To ord' !"h !n!"!a$ v ha-e #ound "he!r a& !n"o RC/ @-a"@
#rom @#a"@ and @-!,en@ #rom @;,en@ 1#ema$e #o,2) Ano"her Sou"h
3e'"ern #ea"ure !' "he de-e$o(men" o# a d %e"een l or n and r, a' !n
@(ar$der@ #or @(ar$our@ and @carnder@ #or @corner)@ The %!$a%!a$
'em!-oe$ w ha' de-e$o(ed %e#ore o !n @o$d@ #or @o$d+@ and !n @om@
#or @home+@ !$$u'"ra"!ng a '!m!$ar de-e$o(men" !n RC %& h!ch O$d
Eng$!'h an ha' %ecome @one+@ and O$d Eng$!'h hal ha' come "o %e
'(e$$ed @ho$e+@ a' com(ared !"h Nor"hern hale. In Sou"h 3e'"ern
d!a$ec"' @&a"@ come' #rom "he o$d '!ngu$ar geat, herea' RC @ga"e@
come' #rom "he ($ura$ gatu. L!.e!'e+ @c$ee@ come' #rom "he o$d
nom!na"!-e clea, herea' RC @c$a@ come' #rom "he o%$!:ue ca'e')
The -er%' .ee$ and .em% ha-e de-e$o(ed regu$ar$& #rom O$d Eng$!'h
$
celan @"o ma.e coo$@ and &emban @"o u'e a com%+@ herea' "he
corre'(ond!ng RC -er%' coo$ and com% come #rom "he adjec"!-e and
"he noun+ re'(ec"!-e$&)
In 3a$e'+ (eo($e o#"en '(ea. a c$ear and mea'ured #orm o# Eng$!'h
!"h a mu'!ca$ !n"ona"!on !nher!"ed #rom ance'"ra$ Ce$"!c) The& "end "o
a'(!ra"e %o"h ($o'!-e' 1'"o('2 and #r!ca"!-e con'onan"' -er& #orc!%$&0
"hu'+ @"rue@ !' (ronounced !"h an aud!%$e (uH o# %rea"h a#"er "he
!n!"!a$ t)
Lo$and Sco""!'h a' once a (ar" o# Nor"hern Eng$!'h+ %u" "o d!a$ec"'
%egan "o d!-erge !n "he <4"h cen"ur&) Toda& Lo$and Sco"' "r!$$ "he!r
rG'+ 'hor"en -oe$'+ and '!m($!#& d!(h"hong') A #e Sco""!'h ord'+
'uch a' %a!rn+ %rae+ cann&+ dour+ and (a.&+ ha-e made "he!r a&
!n"o RC) Lo$and Sco""!'h !' no" "o %e con#u'ed !"h Sco""!'h Gae$!c+ a
Ce$"!c $anguage '"!$$ '(o.en %& a%ou" I0+?00 (eo($e 1a$mo'" a$$
%!$!ngua$2 mo'"$& !n "he H!gh$and' and "he 3e'"ern I'$e') Than.' "o
Ro%er" Burn' and S!r 3a$"er Sco""+ man& Sco""!'h Gae$!c ord' ha-e
%een (re'er-ed !n Eng$!'h $!"era"ure)
Nor"hern Ire$and ha' d!a$ec"' re$a"ed !n (ar" "o Lo$and Sco""!'h and !n
(ar" "o "he 'ou"hern Ir!'h d!a$ec" o# Eng$!'h) Ir!'h (ronunc!a"!on !'
con'er-a"!-e and !' c$earer and more ea'!$& !n"e$$!g!%$e "han man&
o"her d!a$ec"') I"' $!"era"ure ha' reached or$d!de aud!ence'+
he"her r!""en %& Eng$!'hmen %orn !n Ire$and+ 'uch a' Fona"han
S!#"+ Laurence S"erne+ O$!-er Go$d'm!"h+ S!r R!chard S"ee$e+ Edmund
Bur.e+ O'car 3!$de+ and George Bernard Sha+ or %& au"hen"!c Ir!'h+
'uch a' Fame' Fo&ce+ 3!$$!am Bu"$er Yea"'+ and Fohn 9!$$!ng"on S&nge)
The !n*uence o# Ir!'h Gae$!c on "he '(eech o# 6u%$!n !' mo'" e-!den" !n
"he '&n"a, o# drama and !n "he 'ur-!-a$ o# 'uch (!c"ure':ue
e,(re''!on' a' @3e are a#"er ;n!'h!ng+@ @I"G' 'orr& &ou !$$ %e+@ and
@Fame' do %e cu""!ng corn e-er& da&)@
B& "he "!me "he Eng$!'h $anguage %egan "o '(read o-er'ea' !n "he
a.e o# Br!"!'h m!$!"ar& and mercan"!$e e,(an'!on+ "he r!""en
$anguage a' a$read& on "he a& "o '"andard!7a"!on) Lea-!ng a'!de
'ome d!Herence' !n -oca%u$ar&55and 'ome m!nor -ar!a"!on' !n
'(e$$!ng+ 'uch a' Br!"!'h colour and Amer!can color55e''en"!a$$& "he
'ame r!""en #orm ha' %een ado("ed or$d!de) In "he a%'ence o# a
"rue '"andard o# (ronunc!a"!on+ correc" '(o.en Eng$!'h a' a''umed
$!
"o %e "he (re'er-e o# (o$!"e London 'oc!e"&+ a -!e "ha" a'
e-en"ua$$& #orma$!7ed !n "he Br!"!'h Rece!-ed Cronunc!a"!on o# "he
ear$& 80"h cen"ur&)
In Amer!ca+ and $a"er Au'"ra$!a and Ne Lea$and and Sou"h A#r!ca+
ne -ar!e"!e' o# Eng$!'h ere de-e$o(ed %& na"!-e '(ea.er' com!ng
#rom "he Br!"!'h I'$e') Ear$& co$on!'"' ou$d no" !n genera$ ha-e mo-ed
!n #a'h!ona%$e c!rc$e' !n London+ and con'e:uen"$& co$on!a$ '(eech
a' genera$$& regarded %& Londoner' a' an !n#er!or #orm o# Eng$!'h)
The ;r'" Amer!can!'m "o %e condemned a' "he u'e o# blu; a'
@head$and+@ ;r'" recorded !n <?4E) E-en among :u!"e ad-anced
anc!en" A'!an c!-!$!7a"!on'+ <I"h5cen"ur& co$on!a$ adm!n!'"ra"or'
'ough" "o !m(o'e "he Eng$!'h $anguage and cu$"ure) In <=<4 "he
oJc!a$ educa"!on (o$!c& !n Ind!a a' "o !m(ar" @"o "he Na"!-e
(o(u$a"!on .no$edge o# Eng$!'h $!"era"ure and 'c!ence "hrough "he
med!um o# "he Eng$!'h $anguage)@ Eng$!'h came "o %e u'ed a' an
oJc!a$ $anguage no" on$& !n 'ou"hern A'!a %u" a$'o !n S!nga(ore and
Hong >ong+ 9a$a&a and "he Ea'" Ind!e'+ and $a"er !n Ea'" A#r!ca)
A -er& d!Heren" '!"ua"!on de-e$o(ed !n 3e'" A#r!ca) There '(ec!a$ "rade
$anguage'+ or (!dg!n'+ had $ong %een !n u'e #or commun!ca"!on !"h
Cor"ugue'e "rader'+ and "he& u'ed e$emen"' #rom Cor"ugue'e and
A#r!can $anguage') 3hen "he Br!"!'h arr!-ed+ "he& %egan "o
!ncor(ora"e e$emen"' #rom Eng$!'h) 9!,ed grou(' o# A#r!can'
"ran'(or"ed "o "he Car!%%ean %& '$a-e "rader' ou$d no" ha-e a
$anguage !n common+ and (!dg!n' ou$d #orm "he mo'" eHec"!-e
mean' o# commun!ca"!on) E-en"ua$$& "he& ou$d %e ado("ed a' a
na"!-e $anguage+ ca$$ed a creo$e)
A.eric,n ,nd ",n,di,n Engli#h.
The d!a$ec" reg!on' o# "he Un!"ed S"a"e' are mo'" c$ear$& mar.ed a$ong
"he A"$an"!c $!""ora$+ here "he ear$!er 'e""$emen"' ere made) Three
d!a$ec"' can %e de;ned/ Nor"hern+ 9!d$and+ and Sou"hern) Each ha' !"'
'u%d!a$ec"')
The Nor"hern d!a$ec" !' '(o.en !n Ne Eng$and) I"' '!, ch!e#
'u%d!a$ec"' com(r!'e nor"hea'"ern Ne Eng$and 19a!ne+ Ne
Ham('h!re+ and ea'"ern Dermon"2+ 'ou"hea'"ern Ne Eng$and
1ea'"ern 9a''achu'e""'+ ea'"ern Connec"!cu"+ and Rhode I'$and2+
$$
'ou"he'"ern Ne Eng$and 1e'"ern 9a''achu'e""' and e'"ern
Connec"!cu"2+ "he !n$and nor"h 1e'"ern Dermon" and u('"a"e Ne
Yor.2+ "he Hud'on Da$$e&+ and me"ro(o$!"an Ne Yor. 1F!gure <E2)
The 9!d$and d!a$ec" !' '(o.en !n "he coa'"a$ reg!on #rom Co!n"
C$ea'an"+ !n Ne Fer'e&+ "o 6o-er+ !n 6e$aare) I"' 'e-en major
'u%d!a$ec"' com(r!'e "he 6e$aare Da$$e&+ "he Su':uehanna Da$$e&+
"he U((er Oh!o Da$$e&+ nor"hern 3e'" D!rg!n!a+ "he U((er Co"omac and
Shenandoah+ 'ou"hern 3e'" D!rg!n!a and ea'"ern >en"uc.&+ e'"ern
Caro$!na+ and ea'"ern Tenne''ee)
The Sou"hern d!a$ec" area co-er' "he coa'"a$ reg!on #rom 6e$aare "o
Sou"h Caro$!na) I"' ;-e ch!e# 'u%d!a$ec"' com(r!'e "he 6e$mar-a
Cen!n'u$a+ "he D!rg!n!a C!edmon"+ nor"hea'"ern Nor"h Caro$!na
1A$%emar$e Sound and Neu'e Da$$e&2+ Ca(e Fear and Cee 6ee -a$$e&'+
and "he Sou"h Caro$!na Lo Coun"r&+ around Char$e'"on)
The'e %oundar!e'+ %a'ed on "ho'e o# "he %inguistic tlas of the 6nited
!tates and (anada, are h!gh$& "en"a"!-e) To 'ome e,"en" "he'e reg!on'
(re'er-e "he "rad!"!ona$ '(eech o# 'ou"hea'"ern and 'ou"hern
Eng$and+ here mo'" o# "he ear$& co$on!'"' ere %orn) The ;r'"
'e""$er' ho came "o D!rg!n!a 1<A0?2 and 9a''achu'e""' 1<A802 'oon
$earned "o ada(" o$d ord' "o ne u'e'+ %u" "he& ere con"en" "o
%orro name' #rom "he $oca$ Ind!an $anguage' #or un.non "ree'+
'uch a' h!c.or& and (er'!mmon+ and #or un#am!$!ar an!ma$'+ 'uch a'
raccoon' and oodchuc.') La"er "he& "oo. ord' #rom #ore!gn
'e""$er'/ @choder@ and @(ra!r!e@ #rom "he French+ @'co@ and @'$e!gh@
#rom "he 6u"ch) The& made ne com(ound'+ 'uch a' @%ac.ood'@
and @%u$$#rog+@ and ga-e ne mean!ng' "o 'uch ord' a' @$um%er@
1h!ch !n Br!"!'h Eng$!'h deno"e' d!'u'ed #urn!"ure+ or jun.2 and @corn@
1h!ch !n Br!"!'h Eng$!'h '!gn!;e' an& gra!n+ e'(ec!a$$& hea"2)
Be#ore "he 6ec$ara"!on o# Inde(endence 1<??A2+ "o5"h!rd' o# "he
!mm!gran"' had come #rom Eng$and+ %u" a#"er "ha" da"e "he& arr!-ed
!n $arge num%er' #rom Ire$and) The (o"a"o #am!ne o# <=4E dro-e
<+E00+000 Ir!'h "o 'ee. home' !n "he Ne 3or$d+ and "he Euro(ean
re-o$u"!on' o# <=4= dro-e a' man& German' "o 'e""$e !n Cenn'&$-an!a
and "he 9!dd$e 3e'") A#"er "he c$o'e o# "he Amer!can C!-!$ 3ar+
m!$$!on' o# Scand!na-!an'+ S$a-'+ and I"a$!an' cro''ed "he ocean and
e-en"ua$$& 'e""$ed mo'"$& !n "he Nor"h Cen"ra$ and U((er 9!de'"
'"a"e') In 'ome area' o# Sou"h Caro$!na and Georg!a "he Amer!can
Negroe' ho had %een !m(or"ed "o or. "he r!ce and co""on
($an"a"!on' de-e$o(ed a con"ac" $anguage ca$$ed Gu$$ah+ or Geechee+
"ha" made u'e o# man& '"ruc"ura$ and $e,!ca$ #ea"ure' o# "he!r na"!-e
$'
$anguage') Th!' remar.a%$e -ar!e"& o# Eng$!'h !' com(ara%$e "o 'uch
@con"ac" $anguage'@ a' Sranan 1Ta.!5Ta.!2 and 9e$ane'!an C!dg!n) The
'(eech o# "he A"$an"!c Sea%oard 'ho' #ar grea"er d!Herence' !n
(ronunc!a"!on+ grammar+ and -oca%u$ar& "han "ha" o# an& area !n "he
Nor"h Cen"ra$ S"a"e'+ "he U((er 9!de'"+ "he Roc.& 9oun"a!n'+ or "he
Cac!;c Coa'") Toda&+ ur%an!7a"!on+ :u!c. "ran'(or"+ and "e$e-!'!on ha-e
"ended "o $e-e$ ou" 'ome d!a$ec"a$ d!Herence' !n "he Un!"ed S"a"e')
The %oundar& !"h Canada nohere corre'(ond' "o an& %oundar&
%e"een d!a$ec"'+ and "he !n*uence o# Un!"ed S"a"e' Eng$!'h !' '"rong+
%e!ng #e$" $ea'" !n "he 9ar!"!me Cro-!nce' and Ne#ound$and)
Ne-er"he$e''+ !n '(!"e o# "he eHec" o# "h!' (ro,!m!"& "o "he Un!"ed
S"a"e'+ Br!"!'h !n*uence' are '"!$$ (o"en" !n 'ome o# "he $arger c!"!e'0
Sco""!'h !n*uence' are e$$ 'u'"a!ned !n On"ar!o) Canada rema!n'
%!$!ngua$) One5#our"h o# !"' (eo($e+ $!-!ng mo'"$& !n "he (ro-!nce o#
Wue%ec+ ha-e French a' "he!r mo"her "ongue) Tho'e (ro-!nce' !n
h!ch French !' '(o.en a' a mo"her "ongue %& <0 (ercen" or more o#
"he (o(u$a"!on are de'cr!%ed a' @#edera$ %!$!ngua$ d!'"r!c"'@ !n "he
OJc!a$ Language' B!$$ o# <IA=)
(ANG6AGES AN* "6(T6RES IN "ONTA"T
Con'!dered #rom "he (o!n" o# -!e o# -oca%u$ar&+ "here are #e+ !# an&+
N(ureO $anguage') H!'"or!ca$$&+ Eng$!'h ha' %een no"or!u' a' a ord
%orroer+ %u" !" !' e:ua$$& "rue "ha" e-er& 3e'"ern Euro(ean $anguage
ha' 'u(($emen"ed !"' $e,!con %& ado("!on' #rom o"her $anguage') In
"h!' re'(ec" "hen+ Eng$!'h a' $!.e "he o"her !mm!gran" $anguage'
$/
%rough" "o "he Ne 3or$d+ and !n a %roader 'en'e+ $!.e e-er& o"her
$anguage "ha" ha' e-er e,!'"ed) Loan ord' occur e-en !n "he
$anguage' o# a%or!g!na$ (eo($e') E-en Indo5Euro(ean+ "he
h&(o"he"!ca$ (aren" o# mo'" $anguage' #ound !n Euro(e "oda& and
man& o# "ho'e !n 3e'"ern A'!a+ a((ear' "o ha-e %orroed ord' 'ome
4000 &ear' ago #rom F!nno5Ugr!c+ and ha-e #urn!'hed o"her' !n re"urn)
In "he 'ame manner+ Amer!can Ind!an $anguage' 'oon (!c.ed u( "he
Euro(ean ord $!.e &abay 1 a -a!an" o# Romance $anguage+ ca%a$$o+
che-a$+ e"c)2 #or Nhor'eO+ and "he !n"erna"!ona$ Euro(ean -oca%u$ar&
'oon had ord' $!.e canoe+ tobacco, and hammoc& #rom "he Ind!an')
One grea" !m(e"u' "oard ord %orro!ng ar!'e' #rom "he nece''!"& o#
"a$.!ng a%ou" ne "h!ng'+ :ua$!"!e'+ o(era"!on'+ conce("' and !dea')
Ine-!"a%$& "he mo-emen" o# a (eo($e "o a mar.ed$& d!Heren"
en-!romen" no" on$& crea"e' a (ro%$em o# commun!ca"!on %u" ma.e' !"
an urgen" re:u!remen") A$mo'" a' 'oon a' he '"ruc. $and+ Co$um%u'
N'e!7ed %& #orce 'e-era$ Ind!an' on "he ;r'" !'$and !n order "ha" "he&
m!gh" $earn #rom u'+ and !n $!.e manner "e$$ u' a%ou" "ho'e "h!ng' !n
"he'e $and' o# h!ch "he& "hem'e$-e' had .no$edge0 and "he (a$n
'ucceeded+ #or !n a 'hor" "!me e under'"ood "hem and "he&
under'"ood u'+ 'ome"!me' %& ge'"ure and '!gn'+ 'ome"!me' %& ord'0
and !" a' a grea" ad-an"age "o u'O) None o# "he ear$& re(or"er' "e$$
u'+ hoe-er+ "he an'er "o "he mo'" !n"ere'"!ng :ue'"!on #or $anguage
h!'"or!an'/ 3ha" ere "ho'e ord' 1and ge'"ure'2+ and ho d!d "he
!n"er$ocu"or' (u" "hem "oge"herX
3e do .no "ha" "he m!gra"!on o# "he Eng$!'h "o Nor"h Amer!ca+ "he
;r'" '"age !n ha" a' "o cu$m!na"e !n a drama"!c 'ee( acro'' "he
con"!nen"+ (o'ed :u!"e "he 'ame (ro%$em' and crea"ed "he 'ame
-oca%u$ar& need "ha" Co$um%u' and h!' men e,(er!enced) 3e .no
"oo "ha"+ e-en ear$!er "han Co$um%u'+ 9ed!"erranean 'a!$or' had #aced
"he 'ame (ro%$em' and had or.ed ou" a 'o$u"!on %& crea"!ng a
common $anguage+ "he L!ngua Franca) The mem%er' o# "he Sm!"h and
Brad#ord com(an!e' ho (u" "hem'e$-e' a'hore !n D!rg!n!a and
9a''achu'e""'+ re'(ec"!-e$&+ encoun"ered no" on$& ($an"'+ ;'h and
an!ma$' ne "o "hem %u" #ound "hem'e$-e' among "r!%e' o#
!nd!genou' (eo($e' ho '(o.e '"range $anguage'+ ore '"range
c$o"h!ng+ (re(ared '"range #ood' 1$!.e hom!n&2+ and ma!n"a!ned "r!%a$
cu'"om' :u!"e d!Heren" #rom an&"h!ng "he Eng$!'h had (re-!ou'$&
encoun"ered) E-en "he $and'ca(e a' d!Heren" #rom "he nea"$&
$0
"a!$ored Eng$!'h coun"r&'!de) Name' had "o %e (ro-!ded #or a$$ "he'e
un#am!$!ar a'(ec"' o# "he!r ne $!#e)
The 'ame '!"ua"!on a' con'"an"$& re(ea"ed+ #or a$$ Euro(ean 'e""$er'+
a' co$on!7a"!on (roceeded e'"ard 1or nor"hard2) The *ora and
#auna o# "he (ra!r!e '"a"e'+ "he dee( Sou"h+ "he Roc.& 9oun"a!n area+
"he Sou"he'"+ and "he Cac!;c coa'" (re'en"ed a d!Heren" a((earance
and "here#ore re:u!red ne name') The Ind!an "r!%e'+ "he!r $anguage'+
and "he!r cu'"om' a$'o (re'en"ed nam!ng (ro%$em'+ a' d!d o"her
#ea"ure' o# co$on!a$ and #ron"!er $!#e) Among "he re$a"!-e$& ear$&
e,(ed!"!on' "o "he e'"+ "he Le!' and C$arc. e,(ed!"!on+ o'"en'!%$&
(o$!"!ca$ and econom!c !n (ur(o'e+ a$'o had a 'c!en"!;c a!m) Cre'!den"
FeHer'on+ a man o# !de cur!o'!"&+ a' eager "o $earn a' much a'
(o''!%$e a%ou" "he ne$& ac:u!red Lou'!ana Curcha'e+ and "here#ore
a''!gned "he $eader' "he "a'. o# a'cer"a!n!ng "he geogra(h& o# "he
coun"r&+ "he na"ure and cu'"om' o# "he Ind!an na"!on'+ "he ($an"'+
an!ma$'+ m!nera$ re'ource'+ and "he c$!ma"e) I" a' :u!"e na"ura$ "hen
"o ;nd !n "he no"e%oo.' o# "he e,(ed!"!on (ar"& 'uch '"a"emen"' a'
NThe'e na"!-e' ha-e a $arge :uan"a"& o# "h!' roo" %read h!ch "he&
ca$$ comma'' 1cama''2+O and "ha" 'u%'e:uen" re#erence' "o "he ($an"
ou$d em($o& "he 'ame ord)
(ANG6AGES OF THE AMERI"AS
Language' !nd!genou' "o "he Amer!ca' ere %rough" #rom A'!a %& "he
#ore%ear' o# modern Amer!can Ind!an' 1!nc$ud!ng E'.!mo'2+ ho $e#"
A'!a a#"er "he dog a' dome'"!ca"ed %u" %e#ore o"her an!ma$' ere
dome'"!ca"ed) Some"h!ng !' .non a%ou" "he cu$"ure o# "he'e (eo($e'
%u" no"h!ng a%ou" "he!r $anguage'+ h!ch are .non on$& a#"er con"ac"
!"h Euro(ean $anguage')
Toda& "here are '!, Euro(ean $anguage' !n "he Amer!ca' "ha" 'er-e a'
$anguage' o# %o"h educa"!on and go-ernmen" adm!n!'"ra"!on) 1Se-era$
Ind!an $anguage'+ hoe-er+ #unc"!on !n "h!' dua$ ro$e55GuaranP o#
Caragua&+ Green$and!c o# Green$and+ and Wuechua and A&mara o#
Ceru)2 The'e oJc!a$ $anguage' and "he!r num%er o# (r!mar& (o$!"!ca$
d!-!'!on' are S(an!'h 1<=20 Cor"ugue'e 1<20 6u"ch 18255< !n La"!n
Amer!ca and < !n "he Car!%%ean0 Eng$!'h 18 !n Nor"h Amer!ca and << !n
"he Car!%%ean20 French 1< !n Nor"h Amer!ca and 4 !n "he Car!%%ean20
and 6an!'h 1< !n Green$and2) Be#ore "he co$on!a$ (er!od !n La"!n
Amer!ca and dur!ng "he ;r'" cen"ur& or "o o# "ha" (er!od+ "he
$2
#o$$o!ng Amer!can Ind!an $anguage' cou$d a$'o %e c$a''ed a' oJc!a$
or 'em!oJc!a$/ Nahua"$ 1Nahua2+ "he $anguage o# "he A7"ec !n 9e,!co
and Cen"ra$ Amer!ca0 Ch!%cha59u!'ca !n Co$om%!a0 Wuechua+ "he
$anguage o# "he Inca+ !n "he Andean area0 Tu(P !n Bra7!$0 and GuaranP
!n and around Caragua&) In add!"!on "o Amer!can Ind!an $anguage'+
"o (!dg!n5creo$e $anguage' are oJc!a$ !n "he!r on (o$!"!ca$ d!-!'!on'+
Sranan 1Ta.!5Ta.!2 !n Sur!name and Ca(!amen"o !n CuraYao) O"her
(!dg!n5creo$e' !n "he Car!%%ean+ 'uch a' Ha!"!an Creo$e+ are %e!ng
!ncrea'!ng$& r!""en)
Gene"!c d!-er'!"& among $anguage' o# con"!nen"a$5'!7ed area' can %e
e,(re''ed !n "erm' o# "he num%er o# m!n!mum gene"!c c$a''e' "a.en
a' "he u'ua$ %a'!' #or d!'cu''!on %& '(ec!a$!'"' o# "ha" area) Re'earch
ma& $ead "o a donard 1or u(ard2 re-!'!on+ and a ne num%er o#
m!n!mum gene"!c c$a''e' !' u'ed a' a %a'!' #or #ur"her d!'cu''!on) For
Nor"h Amer!ca 1nor"h o# 9e,!co2 and #or "he 80"h cen"ur&+ "he %a'!'
#or d!'cu''!on ha' 'h!#"ed "hree "!me' 'o #ar/ #rom a%ou" E0 #am!$!e' !n
"he c$a''!;ca"!on o# "he U)S) 'cho$ar F)3) Coe$$ "o '!, (h&$a !n "he
c$a''!;ca"!on o# "he U)S) an"hro(o$og!ca$ $!ngu!'" Edard Sa(!r+ h!ch
a' re-!'ed a" "he <IA4 Con#erence on Nor"h Amer!can Ind!an
Language' %& '($!""!ng and rec$a''!;ca"!on 1e.g., o# Sa(!rG' Ho.an5
S!ouan2 and %& merg!ng 1e.g., "he 9u'.ogean #am!$& and a #e
!'o$a"e' ere added "o A$gon:u!an ZA$gon.!an[ !n "he 9acro5
A$gon:u!an (h&$um2) Th!' "h!rd c$a''!;ca"!on !' 'ummar!7ed %e$o)
Cro(o'a$' #or a m!n!mum num%er o# gene"!c c$a''e' !n Sou"h Amer!ca
range #rom more "han <00 #am!$!e' "o "hree (h&$a 1!n a recen" $!%era$
c$a''!;ca"!on2)
The C$a!n' Ind!an '!gn $anguage 1hand "a$.!ng2 !' '"!$$ .non+ %u"
Ch!noo. Fargon and o"her (!dg!n5creo$e' !n Nor"h Amer!ca #e$$ !n"o
d!'u'e a' 'oon a' Amer!can Ind!an' %ecame %!$!ngua$ !n Eng$!'h+
French+ or S(an!'h)
SO"IO(ING6ISTI"S
Soci,l di.en#ion#.
Language !' (ro%a%$& "he mo'" !m(or"an" !n'"rumen" o# 'oc!a$!7a"!on
"ha" e,!'"' !n a$$ human 'oc!e"!e' and cu$"ure') I" !' $arge$& %& mean'
o# $anguage "ha" one genera"!on (a''e' on "o "he ne," !"' m&"h'+ $a'+
cu'"om'+ and %e$!e#'+ and !" !' $arge$& %& mean' o# $anguage "ha" "he
$3
ch!$d come' "o a((rec!a"e "he '"ruc"ure o# "he 'oc!e"& !n"o h!ch he !'
%orn and h!' on ($ace !n "ha" 'oc!e"&)
A' a 'oc!a$ #orce+ $anguage 'er-e' %o"h "o '"reng"hen "he $!n.' "ha"
%!nd "he mem%er' o# "he 'ame grou( and "o d!Heren"!a"e "he
mem%er' o# one grou( #rom "ho'e o# ano"her) In man& coun"r!e' "here
are 'oc!a$ d!a$ec"' a' e$$ a' reg!ona$ d!a$ec"'+ 'o "ha" !" !' (o''!%$e "o
"e$$ #rom a (er'onG' '(eech no" on$& here he come' #rom %u" ha"
c$a'' he %e$ong' "o) In 'ome !n'"ance' 'oc!a$ d!a$ec"' can "ran'cend
reg!ona$ d!a$ec"') Th!' !' no"a%$e !n Eng$and+ here '"andard Eng$!'h !n
"he 'o5ca$$ed Rece!-ed Cronunc!a"!on 1RC2 can %e heard #rom mem%er'
o# "he u((er c$a'' and u((er m!dd$e c$a'' !n a$$ (ar"' o# "he coun"r&)
The e,am($e o# Eng$and !' %u" an e,"reme man!#e'"a"!on o# a
"endenc& "ha" !' #ound !n a$$ coun"r!e'/ "here !' $e'' reg!ona$ -ar!a"!on
!n "he '(eech o# "he h!gher "han !n "ha" o# "he $oer 'oc!oeconom!c
c$a''e') In Br!"a!n and "he Un!"ed S"a"e' and !n mo'" o# "he o"her
Eng$!'h5'(ea.!ng coun"r!e'+ (eo($e !$$ a$mo'" a$a&' u'e "he 'ame
d!a$ec"+ reg!ona$ or 'oc!a$+ hoe-er #orma$ or !n#orma$ "he '!"ua"!on
and regard$e'' o# he"her "he!r $!'"ener' '(ea. "he 'ame d!a$ec" or
no") 1Re$a"!-e$& m!nor adju'"men"' o# -oca%u$ar& ma&+ hoe-er+ %e
made/ an Eng$!'hman '(ea.!ng "o an Amer!can ma& em($o& "he ord
@e$e-a"or@ ra"her "han @$!#"@ and 'o on)2 In man& commun!"!e'
"hroughou" "he or$d+ !" !' common #or mem%er' "o '(ea. "o or more
d!Heren" d!a$ec"' and "o u'e one d!a$ec" ra"her "han ano"her !n
(ar"!cu$ar 'oc!a$ '!"ua"!on') Th!' !' common$& re#erred "o a' code5
'!"ch!ng) Code5'!"ch!ng ma& o(era"e %e"een "o d!'"!nc"
$anguage' 1e.g., S(an!'h and Eng$!'h among Cuer"o R!can' !n Ne
Yor.2 a' e$$ a' %e"een "o d!a$ec"' o# "he 'ame $anguage) The "erm
d!g$o''!a 1ra"her "han %!$!ngua$!'m2 !' #re:uen"$& u'ed %& 'oc!o$!ngu!'"'
"o re#er "o "h!' %& no mean' uncommon (henomenon)
In e-er& '!"ua"!on+ ha" one 'a&' and ho one 'a&' !" de(end' u(on
"he na"ure o# "ha" '!"ua"!on+ "he 'oc!a$ ro$e %e!ng ($a&ed a" "he "!me+
oneG' '"a"u' -!'5\5-!' "ha" o# "he (er'on addre''ed+ oneG' a""!"ude
"oard' h!m+ and 'o on) Language !n"erac"' !"h non-er%a$ %eha-!our
!n 'oc!a$ '!"ua"!on' and 'er-e' "o c$ar!#& and re!n#orce "he -ar!ou' ro$e'
and re$a"!on'h!(' !m(or"an" !n a (ar"!cu$ar cu$"ure) Soc!o$!ngu!'"!c' !'
#ar #rom ha-!ng 'a"!'#ac"or!$& ana$&7ed or e-en !den"!;ed a$$ "he
#ac"or' !n-o$-ed !n "he 'e$ec"!on o# one $anguage #ea"ure ra"her "han
ano"her !n (ar"!cu$ar '!"ua"!on')
$4
Among "ho'e "ha" ha-e %een d!'cu''ed !n re$a"!on "o -ar!ou'
$anguage' are/ "he #orma$!"& or !n#orma$!"& o# "he '!"ua"!on0 (oer and
'o$!dar!"& re$a"!on'h!(' %e"een "he (ar"!c!(an"'0 d!Herence' o# 'e,+
age+ occu(a"!on+ 'oc!oeconom!c c$a''+ and educa"!ona$ %ac.ground0
and (er'ona$ or "ran'ac"!ona$ '!"ua"!on') Term' 'uch a' '"&$e and
reg!'"er 1a' e$$ a' a -ar!e"& o# o"her'2 are em($o&ed %& man&
$!ngu!'"' "o re#er "o "he 'oc!a$$& re$e-an" d!men'!on' o# (hono$og!ca$+
gramma"!ca$+ and $e,!ca$ -ar!a"!on !"h!n one $anguage) So #ar "here !'
-er& $!""$e agreemen" a' "o "he (rec!'e a(($!ca"!on o# 'uch "erm')
SO"IA( *IA(E"TO(OGY
The me"hodo$og& o# genera"!-e grammar a' ;r'" a(($!ed "o
d!a$ec"o$og& !n "he <IA0'+ hen "he u'e o# '"a"!'"!ca$ mean' "o
mea'ure "he '!m!$ar!"& or d!Herence %e"een d!a$ec"' a$'o %ecame
!ncrea'!ng$& common) The mo'" !m(or"an" de-e$o(men" o# "ha" "!me+
hoe-er+ a' "he ra(!d gro"h o# me"hod' #or !n-e'"!ga"!ng "he 'oc!a$
-ar!a"!on o# d!a$ec"'0 'oc!a$ -ar!a"!on+ !n con"ra'" "o geogra(h!c
-ar!a"!on+ !' (rom!nen" !n "he Un!"ed S"a"e'+ a%o-e a$$ !n $arge ur%an
cen"re') In c!"!e' 'uch a' Ne Yor.+ a ho$e 'ca$e o# '(eech -ar!a"!on
can %e #ound "o corre$a"e !"h "he 'oc!a$ '"a"u' and educa"!ona$ $e-e$
o# "he '(ea.er') In add!"!on+ age grou(' e,h!%!" d!Heren" (a""ern'+ %u"
'uch (a""ern' o# -ar!a"!on d!Her #rom one 'oc!a$ '"ra"um "o ano"her)
S"!$$ ano"her d!men'!on o# -ar!a"!on+ e'(ec!a$$& !m(or"an" !n "he Un!"ed
S"a"e'+ !' connec"ed !"h "he race and e"hn!c or!g!n o# a '(ea.er a'
e$$ a' !"h "he '(ea.erG' da"e o# !mm!gra"!on) So5ca$$ed B$ac. Eng$!'h
ha' %een !n*uenced %& "he 'ou"hea'"ern U)S) or!g!n o# mo'" o# "he
%$ac. (o(u$a"!on o# non5'ou"hern U)S) reg!on'/ man& B$ac. Eng$!'h
(ecu$!ar!"!e' are !n rea$!"& "ran'($an"ed 'ou"hea'"ern d!a$ec"a$ "ra!"')
Norma$$&+ '(ea.er' o# one o# "he 'oc!a$ d!a$ec"' o# a c!"& (o''e'' a"
$ea'" 'ome aarene'' o# "he o"her d!a$ec"') In "h!' a&+ '(eech
charac"er!'"!c' a$'o %ecome 'u%jec"!-e$& !n"egra"ed !n"o "he '&'"em o#
'!gn' !nd!ca"!ng 'oc!a$ '"a"u') And+ !n 'ee.!ng "o enhance "he!r 'oc!a$
'"a"u'+ (oorer and $e'' educa"ed '(ea.er' ma& "r& "o ac:u!re "he
d!a$ec" o# "he 'oc!a$$& (re'"!g!ou') Cer"a!n grou('55e.g., %$ac.' and "he
or.!ng c$a''55hoe-er+ !$$+ under cer"a!n cond!"!on'+ 'ho a
con'c!ou'ne'' o# 'o$!dar!"& and a "endenc& "o rejec" mem%er' ho
'5
!m!"a"e e!"her "he '(eech or o"her "&(e' o# %eha-!our o# mode$'
ou"'!de "he!r on 'oc!a$ grou()
A' a con'e:uence o# an !nd!-!dua$G' da!$& con"ac"' !"h '(ea.er' o#
"he -ar!ou' 'oc!a$ d!a$ec"' o# a c!"&+ e$emen"' o# "he o"her d!a$ec"' are
!m(erce("!%$& dran !n"o h!' d!a$ec") The co$$ec"!-e re'u$" o# 'uch
e,(er!ence' !' "he '(read o# $!ngu!'"!c -ar!a%$e'55i.e., grou(' o#
-ar!an"' 1'ound' or gramma"!ca$ (henomena2 (r!mar!$& de"erm!ned %&
'oc!a$ 1educa"!ona$+ rac!a$+ age+ c$a''2 !n*uence'+ an e,am($e %e!ng
"he e,!'"ence o# "he "o #orm' @He donG" .no@ and "he '"andard @He
doe'nG" .no)@ Tra!"' re(re'en"!ng -ar!a%$e' !n !n"ergrou( re$a"!on' can
%ecome -ar!a%$e #ea"ure' !n "he '(eech o# !nd!-!dua$' a' e$$0 i.e., an
!nd!-!dua$ ma& em($o& "o or more -ar!an"' #or "he 'ame #ea"ure !n
h!' on '(eech+ 'uch a' @'ee!ng@ and @'ee!nG @ or @he donG"@ and @he
doe'nG")@ The #re:uenc& o# u'age #or each -ar!a%$e -ar!e' !"h "he
!nd!-!dua$ '(ea.er a' e$$ a' !"h "he 'oc!a$ grou() There are
!n"ermed!a"e '"age' o# #re:uenc& %e"een d!Heren" 'oc!a$ grou(' and
en"!re 'ca$e' o# "ran'!"!on' %e"een d!Heren" age grou('+ "hu'
crea"!ng e-en grea"er -ar!a"!on !"h!n "he d!a$ec" o# an !nd!-!dua$) The
-ar!a%$e' a$'o %eha-e d!Heren"$& !n "he -ar!ou' '"&$e' o# r!""en or
'(o.en $anguage u'ed %& each '(ea.er)
The '"ud& o# -ar!a%$e' !' one o# "he cen"ra$ "a'.' o# an& !n-e'"!ga"!on
o# "he d!a$ec"' o# Amer!can c!"!e') A(($&!ng "he '"a"!'"!ca$ me"hod' o#
modern 'oc!o$og&+ $!ngu!'"' ha-e or.ed ou" !n-e'"!ga"!-e (rocedure'
'har($& d!Heren" #rom "ho'e o# "rad!"!ona$ d!a$ec"o$og&) The ch!e#
con"r!%u"or ha' %een 3!$$!am La%o-+ "he (!oneer o# 'oc!a$ d!a$ec"o$og&
!n "he U)S) The %a'!c "a'. !' "o de"erm!ne "he corre$a"!on %e"een a
grou( o# $!ngu!'"!c -ar!a%$e'55'uch a' "he d!Heren" a&' o#
(ronounc!ng a cer"a!n -oe$55and e,"ra$!ngu!'"!c -ar!a%$e'+ 'uch a'
educa"!on+ 'oc!a$ '"a"u'+ age+ and race) For a rea'ona%$e degree o#
'"a"!'"!ca$ re$!a%!$!"&+ one mu'" record a grea" num%er o# '(ea.er') In
genera$+ 'e-era$ e,am($e' o# "he 'ame -ar!a%$e mu'" %e e$!c!"ed #rom
each !nd!-!dua$ !n order "o e,am!ne "he #re:uenc& and (ro%a%!$!"& o#
!"' u'age) Accord!ng$&+ "he num%er o# $!ngu!'"!c -ar!a%$e' "ha" can %e
e,am!ned !' :u!"e $!m!"ed+ !n com(ar!'on !"h "he num%er o# d!a$ec"a$
#ea"ure' norma$$& recorded %& "rad!"!ona$ ;e$dor.er' !n rura$
commun!"!e'0 !n "he'e '!"ua"!on'+ "he !n-e'"!ga"or !' o#"en 'a"!';ed
!"h one or "o re'(on'e' #or each #ea"ure)
A com($e"e$& ne+ *e,!%$e+ and !mag!na"!-e me"hod o# !n"er-!e!ng !'
needed #or 'uch or. !n ur%an cen"re'+ a' e$$ a' ne a&' o# ;nd!ng
'
and ma.!ng con"ac" !"h !n#orman"') One e,am($e !' La%o-G' me"hod
#or "e'"!ng "he #a"e o# ;na$ and (recon'onan"a$ r !n '(ea.er' o#
d!Heren" 'oc!a$ $e-e$') Choo'!ng "hree Ne Yor. C!"& de(ar"men"
'"ore'+ each or!en"ed "o a com($e"e$& d!Heren" 'oc!a$ '"ra"um+ he
a((roached a $arge num%er o# 'a$e'$ad!e'+ a'.!ng each o# "hem a%ou"
"he $oca"!on o# a cer"a!n de(ar"men" "ha" he .ne "o %e on "he #our"h
*oor) Thu'+ "he!r an'er' a$a&' con"a!ned "o ord' !"h (o"en"!a$
r<'55@#our"h@ and @*oor)@ Th!' 'hor"cu" ena%$ed La%o- "o e'"a%$!'h !n a
re$a"!-e$& 'hor" "!me "ha" "he 'a$e'$ad!e' !n "he '"ore !"h r!cher
cu'"omer' c$ear$& "ended "o u'e @r5#u$$@ #orm'+ herea' "ho'e !n "he
'"ore' geared "o "he (oorer 'oc!a$ '"ra"a more common$& u'ed @r5$e''@
#orm')
Soc!a$ d!a$ec"o$og& ha' #ocu'ed on "he 'u%jec"!-e e-a$ua"!on o#
$!ngu!'"!c #ea"ure' and "he degree o# an !nd!-!dua$G' $!ngu!'"!c 'ecur!"&+
(henomena "ha" ha-e con'!dera%$e !n*uence on $!ngu!'"!c change)
L!ngu!'"!c 'c!en"!'"'+ !n '"ud&!ng "he mechan!'m o# 'uch change+ ha-e
#ound "ha" !" 'eem' "o (roceed gradua$$& #rom one 'oc!a$ grou( "o
ano"her+ a$a&' a""a!n!ng grea"er #re:uenc& among "he &oung) Soc!a$
d!a$ec"o$og& a$'o ha' grea" re$e-ance #or a 'oc!e"& a' a ho$e+ !n "ha"
"he da"a !" #urn!'he' !$$ he$( dea$ !"h "he e,"reme$& com($e,
(ro%$em' connec"ed !"h "he '(eech o# "he 'oc!a$$& under(r!-!$eged+
e'(ec!a$$& o# m!nor!"& grou(') Thu'+ "he recen" em(ha'!' on "he
'(eech o# m!nor!"& grou('+ 'uch a' "he B$ac. Eng$!'h o# Amer!can
c!"!e'+ !' no" a chance (henomenon) S(ec!;c me"hod' #or 'uch
!n-e'"!ga"!on are %e!ng de-e$o(ed+ a' e$$ a' a&' o# a(($&!ng "he
re'u$"' o# 'uch !n-e'"!ga"!on "o educa"!ona$ (o$!c!e')
*EFINITIONS OF (ING6A FRAN"A< PI*GIN< AN* "REO(E.
3hen a $anguage !' u'ed a' a mean' o# commun!ca"!on %e"een
(er'on' ha-!ng no o"her $anguage !n common 1e.g., French !n <="h5
cen"ur& d!($omac&2+ !" !' a $!ngua #ranca) A $!ngua #ranca na"!-e "o
none o# "ho'e u'!ng !" and !"h a 'har($& reduced grammar and
-oca%u$ar& !' ca$$ed a (!dg!n) 1Th!' de;n!"!on o# (!dg!n e,c$ude' %o"h
"he %ro.en Eng$!'h o# a %eg!nn!ng $earner and "he '.!$$#u$ %u"
nonna"!-e u'e o# Eng$!'h !n 'uch coun"r!e' a' Ind!a)2 3hen a ho$e
'(eech commun!"& g!-e' u( !"' #ormer $anguage or $anguage' and
"a.e' a (!dg!n a' !"' mo"her "ongue+ "he (!dg!n %ecome' a creo$e 1!'
creo$!7ed2)
'!
Pidgin# ,nd creole#.
Some '(ec!a$!7ed $anguage' ere de-e$o(ed "o .ee( "he ou"'!der a"
%a&) In o"her c!rcum'"ance'+ $anguage' ha-e %een de$!%era"e$&
crea"ed "o #ac!$!"a"e commun!ca"!on !"h ou"'!der') Th!' ha((en'
hen (eo($e '(ea.!ng "o d!Heren" $anguage' ha-e "o or. "oge"her+
u'ua$$& !n 'ome #orm o# "rade re$a"!on or adm!n!'"ra"!-e rou"!ne) In
'uch '!"ua"!on' "he 'o5ca$$ed (!dg!n' ar!'e+ more or $e'' (ur(o'!-e$&
made u( o# -oca%u$ar& !"em' #rom each $anguage+ !"h mu"ua$
a%andonmen" o# gramma"!ca$ com($e,!"!e' "ha" ou$d cau'e
con#u'!on "o e!"her (ar"&) C!dg!n' ha-e %een (ar"!cu$ar$& a''oc!a"ed
!"h area' 'e""$ed %& Euro(ean "rader'0 e,am($e' ha-e %een Ch!noo.
Fargon+ a $!ngua #ranca %a'ed on an Amer!can Ind!an $anguage and
Eng$!'h and #ormer$& u'ed !n 3a'h!ng"on and Oregon+ and Beach5$a5
mar+ an Eng$!'h5%a'ed (!dg!n o# (ar"' o# "he Sou"h Sea')
Some"!me'+ a' "he re'u$" o# re$a"!-e$& (ermanen" 'e""$emen" and "he
!n"erm!,"ure o# "o '(eech commun!"!e'+ a (!dg!n %ecome' "he ;r'"
$anguage+ or mo"her "ongue+ o# $a"er genera"!on'+ u$"!ma"e$&
d!'($ac!ng %o"h "he or!g!na$ $anguage') F!r'" $anguage' ar!'!ng !n "h!'
a& #rom ar"!;c!a$$& crea"ed (!dg!n' are ca$$ed creo$e') No"a%$e among
creo$e' !' "he $anguage o# Ha!"!+ Ha!"!an Creo$e+ %u!$" u( #rom "he
French o# "he 'e""$er' and "he A#r!can $anguage o# "he #ormer '$a-e'0 !"
'ho' $e,!ca$ and gramma"!ca$ #ea"ure' o# %o"h 'ource')
Creo$e' d!Her #rom (!dg!n' !n "ha"+ a' ;r'" $anguage'+ "he& are 'u%jec"
"o "he na"ura$ (roce''e' o# change $!.e an& o"her $anguage 1'ee %e$o
%inguistic change 20 and+ de'(!"e "he de$!%era"e$& '!m($!;ed #orm o#
"he or!g!na$ (!dg!n+ !n "he cour'e o# genera"!on' creo$e' de-e$o( "he!r
on com($e,!"!e') The rea'on !' ($a!n "o 'ee) The re'"r!c"ed u'e' "o
h!ch (!dg!n' ere ;r'" (u" and #or h!ch "he& ere de-!'ed d!d no"
re:u!re an& grea" *e,!%!$!"&) Once 'uch a $anguage %ecome' "he ;r'"
or on$& $anguage o# man& (eo($e+ !" mu'" (er#orce ac:u!re "he
re'ource' 1i.e., "he com($e,!"&2 "o re'(ond ade:ua"e$& "o a$$ "he
re:u!remen"' o# a na"ura$ $anguage)
'$
(o&i#i,n, "reole<
Lou!'!ana creo$e !' "he $anguage '(o.en !n Lou!'!ana %& (er'on' o#
m!,ed French+ A#r!can+ and Ind!an de'cen") Lou!'!ana Creo$e+ h!ch !'
c$o'e$& re$a"ed "o Ha!"!an Creo$e+ 'hou$d no" %e con#u'ed !"h e!"her
Lou!'!ana (ro-!nc!a$ '"andard French+ '(o.en %& "he de'cendan"' o#
"he French u((er c$a''e' !n and around Ne Or$ean'+ nor !"h "he
$anguage o# "he Cajun'0 %o"h o# "he $a""er are d!a$ec"' o# French+ !"h
'ome archa!c or (ro-!nc!a$ #ea"ure'+ herea' Lou!'!ana Creo$e !' a
creo$e $anguage %a'ed on French)
ENG(ISH IMPERIA(ISM
The "o"a$ num%er o# Eng$!'h '(ea.er' a' 'ma$$ %e#ore <=00+ %u"
'!nce "hen "he num%er ha' gron ra(!d$&) Grea" Br!"a!n a'
!nd!'(u"a%$& "he dom!nan" Eng$!'h5'(ea.!ng (oer !n "he <I"h
cen"ur&+ %u" !" a' a$read& %e!ng o-er"a.en %& "he Un!"ed S"a"e' %o"h
!n (o(u$a"!on and a' an econom!c (oer) In"erna"!ona$ Eng$!'h !n "he
80"h cen"ur& ha' con'e:uen"$& %een dom!na"ed %& Amer!can ra"her
"han Br!"!'h Eng$!'h) The u'e o# Eng$!'h ha' '(read #ar %e&ond "he o$d
Br!"!'h Em(!re) I" ha' e-en %egun "o re($ace French !n Franco(hone
A#r!ca55e.g., A$ger!a and "he #ormer La!re) Eng$!'h ha' 'ome '(ec!a$
'"a"u' a' oJc!a$ or 'econd $anguage !n more "han ?0 coun"r!e') 1!ee
9a()2 B& "he <II0' !mm!gra"!on and na"ura$ gro"h !n "he #ormer
co$on!e' had crea"ed a (o(u$a"!on o# 'ome 4E0 m!$$!on (eo($e ho
'(o.e Eng$!'h a' "he!r mo"her "ongue+ mo'" o# "hem !n "he Un!"ed
S"a"e') A #ur"her 8E0 m!$$!on "o 4E0 m!$$!on (eo($e u'e Eng$!'h !n 'ome
a& a' a 'econd $anguage) The num%er o# (eo($e u'!ng Eng$!'h a' a
#ore!gn $anguage !' !m(o''!%$e "o a''e''+ '!nce !" !' ar%!"rar& a" ha"
(o!n" 'omeone !"h a $!m!"ed .no$edge coun"' a' an Eng$!'h '(ea.er)
Some"h!ng $!.e a :uar"er o# "he or$dG' (o(u$a"!on ha' 'ome
com(e"ence !n Eng$!'h+ and "he -a'" major!"& are no" na"!-e '(ea.er'
o# "he $anguage)
The demand #or Eng$!'h #rom nonna"!-e '(ea.er' ha' crea"ed a huge
!n"erna"!ona$ Eng$!'h5$anguage5"each!ng !ndu'"r&) A$"hough Amer!can
''
Eng$!'h ha' %een "he dom!nan" (ar"ner+ "he Br!"!'h Counc!$ a' 'e" u(
a#"er <I4E "o (romo"e "he Eng$!'h $anguage and Br!"!'h cu$"ure) B& "he
<II0' "he counc!$ had 'ome <80+000 '"uden"' $earn!ng Eng$!'h
"hrough !"' oJce' a%road and 'ome 400+000 cand!da"e' #or !"' Eng$!'h
e,am')
U( "o "he $a"e <I"h cen"ur&+ de-e$o(men"' !n ma'' commun!ca"!on'55
(r!n"!ng+ ne'(a(er'+ and "he "e$egra(h55had !n-o$-ed "he r!""en
$anguage) For "he ne," cen"ur&+ %eg!nn!ng !"h "he "e$e(hone and "he
(honogra(h+ de-e$o(men"' ere "o !n-o$-e "he '(o.en $anguage) The
;$m !ndu'"r& gre ra(!d$& !n !m(or"ance a#"er "he add!"!on o# 'ound "o
mo-!ng (!c"ure+ and '!nce "he ma!n cen"re a' !n Ho$$&ood ra"her
"han London+ !" a' Amer!can Eng$!'h "ha" a' '(read !"h "he ne
med!um) A" a%ou" "he 'ame "!me+ "he %roadca'"!ng !ndu'"r&55!n!"!a$$&
rad!o and $a"er "e$e-!'!on55de-e$o(ed ;r'" !n Grea" Br!"a!n %u" a'
'oon dar#ed %& !"' Amer!can coun"er(ar") Ceo($eG' $!-e' %egan "o %e
con"ro$$ed+ !n Eng$!'h5'(ea.!ng coun"r!e' and e$'ehere+ %& "he
Amer!can5dom!na"ed ad-er"!'!ng !ndu'"r&) Co(u$ar mu'!c #ound !"' a&
on"o "he a!ra-e'+ %u" #o$$o!ng "he !n"roduc"!on o# roc. and ro$$ !n "he
<IE0'+ %roadca'"er' %egan "o de"erm!ne ha" .!nd o# mu'!c a'
(o(u$ar) The dom!nan" $anguage !n "h!' med!um ha' a$a&' %een
Amer!can Eng$!'h)
The e,!'"ence o# modern ma'' commun!ca"!on' ha' made !" (o''!%$e
"o 'e" u( !n"erna"!ona$ %od!e' and organ!7e e-en"' on a g$o%a$ 'ca$e)
The Un!"ed Na"!on'+ "he 3or$d Ban.+ and "he Euro(ean Un!on a$$ ha-e
'e-era$ oJc!a$ $anguage'+ a' do !n"erna"!ona$ con#erence' and $earned
journa$') Crac"!ca$ rea$!"!e' near$& a$a&' d!c"a"e "ha" Eng$!'h %e one o#
"he oJc!a$ $anguage' and a$'o "he one mo'" u'ed) The u'e o# 'e-era$
oJc!a$ $anguage' mean' "ha" documen"' ha-e "o %e "ran'$a"ed #rom
"he or!g!na$ $anguage !n"o o"her oJc!a$ $anguage'+ %u" "h!' !' o#"en
-!eed a' a a'"e o# "!me and mone&) There !' "hu' a "en'!on
%e"een "he demand' o# e:u!"&+ $ead!ng "o "he recogn!"!on o# "he
!m(or"ance o# 'e-era$ $anguage'+ and "he con-en!ence o# u'!ng on$&
one)
Com(u"er5%a'ed "echno$og& ha' $ed "o a ma''!-e e,"en'!on !n "he u'e
o# Eng$!'h+ %o"h !n com(u"er 'o#"are and on "he In"erne") Com(u"er
$anguage' are %a'ed on Eng$!'h+ and Eng$!'h !' "he $anguage norma$$&
u'ed "o commun!ca"e !"h "he u'er) So#"are can+ o# cour'e+ u'e o"her
$anguage'+ %u" !" !$$ dou%"$e'' ma.e u'e o# Eng$!'h5%a'ed command')
'/
Te,"' !n o"her $anguage' can %e #ound on "he In"erne"+ !nc$ud!ng
Ara%!c and Fa(ane'e+ %u" "he'e #e e,ce("!on' on$& under$!ne "he
%a'!c #ac" "ha" "he -a'" major!"& 1a%ou" =E]+ accord!ng "o one recen"
French '"ud&2 are !n Eng$!'h) An&%od& can !n (r!nc!($e con"ac"
an&%od& e$'e an&here !n "he or$d+ %u" !n (rac"!ce "he& can do "h!'
on$& !# "he& are 'uJc!en"$& (ro;c!en" !n Eng$!'h)
Eng$!'h !' no u'ed %& 'o man& (eo($e on an !n"erna"!ona$ 'ca$e and
!n 'o man& area' o# e-er&da& $!#e "ha" !"' ro$e a' "he $anguage o# "he
or$d m!gh" 'eem a''ured and (ermanen") A$read& !"h!n "he $a'" E0
&ear'+ hoe-er+ "here ha-e %een '!gn' o# a reac"!on aga!n'" Eng$!'h
and !n #a-our o# a $oca$ $anguage+ (ar"!cu$ar$& here Eng$!'h a'
!n"roduced a' an !m(er!a$ $anguage) One da& (eo($e e-er&here
m!gh" an" "o u'e "he!r on $anguage') Era'mu' ro"e !n La"!n and
modern 6u"ch !n"e$$ec"ua$' r!"e !n Eng$!'h+ %u" !n "he #u"ure 6u"ch
'cho$ar' m!gh" an" "o r!"e !n 6u"ch)
9oreo-er+ "he con"ro$ e,erc!'ed %& "he ma'' med!a !' h!gh$& $!.e$& "o
(ro-o.e a reac"!on) The med!a !ncrea'!ng$& de"erm!ne "he de"a!$' o#
(eo($eG' $!-e'/ "he a& "he& '(ea. "o each o"her+ ho "he& ear a
%a'e%a$$ ca(+ and e-en ho "he& %$o "he!r no'e') There cou$d come
a "!me hen (eo($e o%jec" "o ha-!ng "he!r cu$"ure and "he!r 'oc!a$
!den"!"!e' con'"ruc"ed %& "he ma'' med!a) A' "he mean' "hrough
h!ch "ha" (oer o# "he med!a !' e,erc!'ed+ 'uch a reac"!on ou$d !n
a$$ (ro%a%!$!"& $ead "o a rejec"!on o# Eng$!'h+ much a' "he reac"!on
aga!n'" church con"ro$ once $ed "o "he rejec"!on o# La"!n)
F!na$$&+ "here !' an o%-!ou' "hrea" #rom com(u"er "echno$og& "o "he
'"a"u' o# Eng$!'h a' an !n"erna"!ona$ $!ngua #ranca) 9ach!ne
"ran'$a"!on+ !# !" can %e #u$$& au"oma"ed+ !$$ ma.e !" (o''!%$e #or u'er'
o# an& $anguage "o acce'' !n#orma"!on) Tran'$a"!on $!n.ed "o "he
"echno$og& "ha" ena%$e' com(u"er' "o recogn!7e and (roduce '(eech
!$$ $ead "o au"oma"!c !n"er(re"a"!on) Some au"oma"!c "e$$er mach!ne'
a$read& g!-e "he u'er a cho!ce o# $anguage+ and 3e% '!"e' are
%eg!nn!ng "o a((ear on "he In"erne" !"h a cho!ce o# $anguage') In "h!'
a&+ a$"hough com(u"er "echno$og& ha' !n "he 'hor" "erm g!-en a
ma''!-e %oo'" "o "he u'e o# Eng$!'h+ !" !' $!.e$& !n "he $onger "erm "o
ma.e $anguage u'e a ma""er o# cho!ce) O# cour'e+ no%od& can 'ee
!n"o "he #u"ure+ %u" 'ooner or $a"er "he dom!nan" (o'!"!on o# "he
Eng$!'h $anguage !' go!ng "o %e 'ucce''#u$$& cha$$enged)
'0
A((end!, <
THE CELTS
HISTORY
The ear$!e'" archaeo$og!ca$ e-!dence a''oc!a"ed !"h "he Ce$"' ($ace'
"hem !n ha" !' no France and e'"ern German& !n "he $a"e Bron7e
Age+ around <800BC) In "he ear$& Iron Age+ "he& are a''oc!a"ed !"h
"he Ha$$'"a"" cu$"ure 1="h cen"ur& "o A"h cen"ur& BC2+ named #or an
archaeo$og!ca$ '!"e !n ha" !' no O%er^'"erre!ch 1U((er Au'"r!a2)
The& (ro%a%$& %egan "o 'e""$e !n "he Br!"!'h I'$e' dur!ng "h!' (er!od)
Be"een "he E"h and <'" cen"ur!e' BC+ "he!r !n*uence e,"ended #rom
ha" !' no S(a!n "o "he 'hore' o# "he B$ac. Sea) Th!' $a"er Iron Age
(ha'e !' ca$$ed La TBne+ a#"er a '!"e !n S!"7er$and)
The ord (elt !' der!-ed #rom >e$"o!+ "he name g!-en "o "he'e (eo($e
%& Herodo"u' and o"her Gree. r!"er') To "he Roman'+ "he
Con"!nen"a$ Ce$"' ere .non a' Ga$$!+ or Gau$'0 "ho'e !n "he Br!"!'h
I'$e' ere ca$$ed Br!"ann!)
In "he 4"h cen"ur& BC+ "he Ce$"' !n-aded "he Greco5Roman or$d+
'2
con:uer!ng nor"hern I"a$&+ 9acedon!a+ and The''a$& 1The''a$!a2)
The& ($undered Rome !n 4I0+ 'ac.ed 6e$(h! !n 8?I+ and (ene"ra"ed
A'!a 9!nor+ here "he& ere .non a' Ga$a"!an') The @C!'a$(!ne
Gau$'@ o# nor"hern I"a$& ere con:uered %& "he Roman' !n "he 8nd
cen"ur& BC0 Tran'a$(!ne Gau$ 1modern France and "he Rh!ne$and2 a'
'u%dued %& Fu$!u' Cae'ar !n "he <'" cen"ur& BC+ and mo'" o# Br!"a!n
came under Roman ru$e !n "he <'" cen"ur& A6) In "he 'ame (er!od+
"he Ce$"' o# cen"ra$ Euro(e ere dom!na"ed %& "he German!c
(eo($e') In med!e-a$ and modern "!me' "he Ce$"!c "rad!"!on and
$anguage' 'ur-!-ed !n Bre"agne 1!n e'"ern France2+ 3a$e'+ "he
Sco""!'h H!gh$and'+ and Ire$and)
3AY OF LIFE
The -ar!ou' Ce$"!c "r!%e' ere %ound "oge"her %& common '(eech+
cu'"om'+ and re$!g!on+ ra"her "han %& an& e$$5de;ned cen"ra$
go-ernmen"') The a%'ence o# (o$!"!ca$ un!"& con"r!%u"ed 'u%'"an"!a$$&
"o "he e,"!nc"!on o# "he!r a& o# $!#e+ ma.!ng "hem -u$nera%$e "o "he!r
enem!e') The!r econom& a' (a'"ora$ and agr!cu$"ura$+ and "he& had
no rea$ ur%an $!#e) Each "r!%e a' headed %& a .!ng and a' d!-!ded
%& c$a'' !n"o 6ru!d' 1(r!e'"'2+ arr!or no%$e'+ and commoner' 1see
6ru!d!'m2) The no%$e' #ough" on #oo" !"h 'ord' and '(ear' and
ere #ond o# #ea'"!ng and dr!n.!ng) Ce$"!c m&"ho$og&+ h!ch !nc$uded
ear"h god'+ -ar!ou' ood$and '(!r!"'+ and 'un de!"!e'+ a'
(ar"!cu$ar$& r!ch !n e$;n demon' and "u"e$ar!e'+ %e!ng' "ha" '"!$$
(er-ade "he $ore o# (eo($e' o# Ce$"!c ance'"r&)
CELTIC CHRISTIANITY
The Chr!'"!an #a!"h a' e$$ e'"a%$!'hed !n Ce$"!c Br!"a!n %& "he 4"h
cen"ur& A6+ %u" !n "he E"h cen"ur& "he Sa,on' and o"her German!c
(eo($e' !n-aded "he coun"r&+ dr!-!ng mo'" o# "he Ce$"!c Chr!'"!an'
!n"o 3a$e' and Corna$$) A" "he 'ame "!me+ Sa!n" Ca"r!c. and o"her
Br!"!'h m!''!onar!e' #ounded a ne church !n Ire$and+ h!ch "hen
'3
%ecame "he cen"er o# Ce$"!c Chr!'"!an!"&) The Ir!'h church de-e$o(ed
a d!'"!nc"!-e organ!7a"!on !n h!ch %!'ho(' ere 'u%ord!na"e "o "he
a%%o"' o# mona'"er!e' 1see Co$um%a+ Sa!n"2) The Ir!'h mon.'+
de-o"ed "o $earn!ng a' e$$ a' re$!g!on+ d!d much "o (re'er-e a
.no$edge o# anc!en" Roman $!"era"ure !n ear$& med!e-a$ Euro(e)
Be"een "he $a"e A"h and "he ear$& ="h cen"ur!e'+ Ir!'h m!''!onar!e'
ere ac"!-e !n Chr!'"!an!7!ng "he German!c (eo($e' "ha" had
con:uered "he 3e'"ern Roman Em(!re+ and "he& #ounded numerou'
mona'"er!e' !n (re'en"5da& France+ German&+ S!"7er$and+ and I"a$&)
Ce$"!c Chr!'"!an!"& !n Ire$and a' ea.ened %& "he D!.!ng !n-a'!on' o#
"he I"h and <0"h cen"ur!e'+ and %& "he <8"h cen"ur& !"' charac"er!'"!c
!n'"!"u"!on'+ h!ch ere !ncom(a"!%$e !"h "ho'e o# "he dom!nan"
Roman church+ had $arge$& d!'a((eared #rom Euro(e)
ART
Ce$"!c ar" !' con'!dered "he ;r'" grea" con"r!%u"!on "o Euro(ean ar"
made %& non59ed!"erranean (eo($e') I"' roo"' go %ac. "o "he
ar"!'an' o# "he Urn;e$d cu$"ure and "he Ha$$'"a"" cu$"ure 1="h5A"h
cen"ur& BC2 a" "he %eg!nn!ng o# "he Iron Age) I" *oered !n "he
(er!od o# "he La TBne cu$"ure) A$"hough Ce$"!c ar" a' !n*uenced %&
anc!en" Cer'!an+ Gree.+ E"ru'can+ and Roman ar" and %& "ha" o# "he
nomad' o# "he Eura'!an '"e((e'+ !" de-e$o(ed d!'"!nc"!-e
charac"er!'"!c') The'e are e-!den" !n !"' major ar"!#ac"'_ea(on'+
-e''e$'+ and jee$r& !n %ron7e+ go$d+ and occa'!ona$$& '!$-er) 9an& o#
"he'e o%jec"' ere made #or ch!e#"a!n' !n 'ou"hern German& and
France and ere reco-ered #rom "he!r "om%')
The Ce$"!c '"&$e !' mar.ed %& a (re#erence #or '"&$!7ed ($an" mo"!#'+
u'ua$$& o# Gree. or!g!n+ and #an"a'"!c an!ma$'+ der!-ed #rom "he
Sc&"h!an' and o"her '"e((e (eo($e'0 "he human ;gure ($a&' a
'econdar& ro$e) O"her #a-or!"e mo"!#' are e$$!("!ca$ cur-e' and
'4
o((o'!ng cur-e'+ '(!ra$'+ and che-ron'+ a$'o der!-ed #rom '"e((e ar")
The'e e$emen"' ere com%!ned !n d&nam!c &e" %a$anced+ !n"r!ca"e
geome"r!ca$ (a""ern' carr!ed ou" !n re$!e#+ engra-!ng+ or red+ &e$$o+
%$ue+ and green cham($e-S ename$ on 'h!e$d'+ 'ord'+ 'hea"h'+
he$me"'+ %o$'+ and jee$r&) The& a$'o a((eared on (a!n"ed (o""er&
c!nerar& urn'+ #ood -e''e$'+ !ncen'e %o$'+ and dr!n.!ng cu(')
E,am($e' o# Ce$"!c ar" !nc$ude torcs, or nec. r!ng'+ !"h "he "o o(en
end' ornamen"ed !"h an!ma$ head'0 "he '!$-er re(ou''S Gunde'"or(
cau$dron 1c!rca <00BC+ Na"!ona$ 9u'eum+ Co(enhagen20 a %ron7e
$o7enge5'ha(ed 'h!e$d !"h c!rcu$ar meda$$!on' and 'ma$$ ename$
c!rc$e' 1<'" cen"ur& BC5<'" cen"ur& A620 and a %ron7e m!rror !"h
ename$ed decora"!on 1<'" cen"ur& BC2 1%o"h Br!"!'h 9u'eum+
London2) A$'o 'ur-!-!ng are rough$& car-ed '"one monumen"' and
ooden o%jec"')
6ur!ng "he (er!od o# Roman dom!na"!on o# 3e'"ern Euro(e !n and
a#"er "he <'" cen"ur& BC+ "he ar" o# Ce$"!c (eo($e' on "he Con"!nen"
gradua$$& $o'" !"' d!'"!nc"!-e '"&$e) The Ce$"' o# Ire$and con"!nued "o
or. !"h "rad!"!ona$ mo"!#'+ %u"+ a' Chr!'"!an!"& "oo. ho$d+ "he&
com%!ned "hem !"h Chr!'"!an mo"!#' and em($o&ed "he!r '.!$$' !n
"he 'er-!ce o# "he church)
CELTS
The Ha$$'"a"" (eo($e ere e,(er" %ron7e and !ron or.er' ho
co$on!7ed #ormer Urn;e$d area' o# cen"ra$ and e'"ern Euro(e !n
"he ear$& ;r'" m!$$enn!um B)C)E) Ce$"!c '(ea.er' !"h a d!'"!nc"!-e
and h!gh$& 'o(h!'"!ca"ed La Tene "echno$og& '(read nor"h #rom "he
Rh!ne and 6anu%e Da$$e&' !n"o "he Lo Coun"r!e' and Br!"a!n !n "he
4"h cen"ur& B)C)E) The Ce$"' ere #orm!da%$e arr!or'+ ho %u!$"
$arge h!$$ #or"' and !n"roduced "he Roman' "o "he 'hor" 'ord+
'ac.!ng Rome
L&'!machu'+ ho ru$ed 9acedon+ Thrace+ and A'!a 9!nor+ a'
de#ea"ed and .!$$ed a" "he Ba""$e o# Coru(ed!um !n L&d!a %&
/5
Se$eucu'+ ho %ecame ma'"er o# A'!a 9!nor) 3hen he "r!ed "o
'e!7e 9acedon+ hoe-er+ he a' "reacherou'$& a''a''!na"ed %&
"he d!'!nher!"ed 'on o# C"o$em&+ C"o$em& Ceraunu'+ ho "hen ru$ed
9acedon un"!$ he a' .!$$ed o((o'!ng "he Ce$"!c !n-a'!on !n 8?I)
The Ce$"' ra-aged 9acedon+ de#ea"ed "he Gree.' a"
Thermo(&$ae+ and ere "urned %ac. a" 6e$(h!) Ce$"!c ru$e a' "hen
e'"a%$!'hed !n Thrace+ $a'"!ng un"!$ 8<0) In cen"ra$ A'!a 9!nor "he
Ce$"!c .!ngdom o# Ga$a"!a a' e'"a%$!'hed)
9eanh!$e 6eme"r!u'G' 'on+ An"!gonu' Gona"a'+ reco-ered
9acedon #rom "he Ce$"' and e'"a%$!'hed "he An"!gon!d d&na'"&
h!ch $a'"ed un"!$ <A=)
The ad-en" o# CELTIC (eo($e' !n"o "he A$(!ne reg!on' o# I"a$&
occurred dur!ng "he h!'"or!ca$ (er!od) S!nce "he!r mo-emen"' ere
nomad!c and "he& m!,ed !"h (re-!ou' !nha%!"an"' o# reg!on'+ !" !'
d!Jcu$" "o da"e "he ear$!er Ce$"!c (re'ence+ %u" %& "he E"h cen"ur&
"he& had %egun "o d!'($ace "he E"ru'can' !n "he Co Da$$e&)
Loca"ed !n "he Co Da$$e&+ C!'a$(!ne Gau$ had a con"!nen"a$ c$!ma"e
!"h 'ummer' "ha" ere coo$er+ and !n"er' "ha" ere har'her+ %u"
no" a' e" a' "ho'e o# (en!n'u$ar I"a$&) A$"hough ra!n#a$$ a' e$$
d!'"r!%u"ed o-er "he 'ea'on'+ me$"!ng 'no cau'ed #re:uen"
*ood!ng and (ermanen" 'am('+ e'(ec!a$$& !n "he ea'") The reg!on
a' co-ered !"h den'e #ore'"' "ha" (ro-!ded "!m%er a' e$$ a' a
home "o $arge herd' o# (!g') Fore'" c$ear!ng and dra!nage made
C!'a$(!ne Gau$ !n"o an enormou'$& #er"!$e $and+ (roduc!ng
(rod!g!ou' &!e$d' o# gra!n and+ !n "he 'ou"hern reg!on'+ a%undan"
!ne har-e'"') Good gra7!ng $and (ro-!ded a !de -ar!e"& o# ;ne
oo$') Once dra!ned+ "he *a" ($a!n #ac!$!"a"ed road %u!$d!ng and
o-er$and "rade+ h!$e na-!ga"!on on "he Co R!-er a' (o''!%$e a'
#ar a' Tur!n) The Co Da$$e& a' !nha%!"ed %& "hree (r!nc!(a$ Ce$"!c
"r!%e'/ "he Bo!! !n "he 'ou"h+ "he Cenoman! !n "he cen"er+ and "he
In'u%re' !n "he nor"h) To "he ea'" !n Dene"!a $!-ed "he Dene"!+ and "o
"he e'" !n "he A(enn!ne' $!-ed "he L!gur!an'+ %o"h non5Ce$"!c
(eo($e')
Or!g!n' o# "he !n-ader') The German!c (eo($e' ere e'"a%$!'hed
!n Scand!na-!a 16enmar.2 and %e"een "he E$%e and Oder a' ear$&
/
a' "he 8nd m!$$enn!um B)C)E) Ea'"ard $a& "he Ba$"' 1Le""'2+ and
"he e'" o# "he E$%e ere "he Ce$"')
E,(an'!on) The e'"ern German' 1Teu"on'2 d!'($aced 1c) <000
B)C)E)2 "he Ce$"'+ mo-!ng u( "he E$%e and Rh!ne 1"he 9a!n reached
c) 800 B)C)E)2) Sou"h German& a' occu(!ed 1c) <00 B)C)E)20 Gau$
"hrea"ened 1c#) Cae'arG' Commen"ar!e'2) The'e !n-ader' ere a
(a'"ora$+ agr!cu$"ura$ #o$.+ "end!ng "o 'e""$e don) B& "he "!me o#
Tac!"u'G' 1c) EE5c) <<? C)E)2 German!a "he& ere ho$$&
agr!cu$"ura$) La"er ne "r!%a$ name' and a ne .!nd o# #edera"ed
organ!7a"!on a((eared) The ea'"ern German' 1Scand!na-!an'2
cro''ed "he Ba$"!c 1c) A005400 B)C)E)2 and (u'hed u( "he D!'"u$a "o
"he Car(a"h!an') The nor"hern German' rema!ned !n Scand!na-!a)
Creh!'"or!c Br!"a!n) The (reh!'"or!c !nha%!"an"' o# Br!"a!n 1ca$$ed
Ce$"' on "he %a'!' o# "he!r $anguage2 ere a((aren"$& a #u'!on o#
9ed!"erranean+ A$(!ne+ and Nord!c '"ra!n' "ha" !nc$uded a dar.
I%er!an and a $!gh"5ha!red '"oc.) Archaeo$og!ca$ e-!dence (o!n"' "o
con"ac"' !"h "he I%er!an Cen!n'u$a 18E00 B)C)E)2 and Eg&(" 1<400
B)C)E)2
The "rue Ce$"' are re(re'en"ed %& "o '"oc.'/ Go!de$' 1Gae$'2+
'ur-!-!ng !n nor"hern Ire$and and h!gh Sco"$and+ and C&mr! and
Br&"hon' 1Br!"on'2+ '"!$$ re(re'en"ed !n 3a$e') The Br&"hon' ere
c$o'e .!n "o "he Gau$'+ (ar"!cu$ar$& "he Be$g!) The!r re$!g!on a'
dom!na"ed %& a (oer#u$+ organ!7ed+ (r!e'"$& ca'"e+ "he dru!d' o#
Gau$ and Br!"a!n+ ho mono(o$!7ed re$!g!on+ educa"!on+ and ju'"!ce)
3!"hdraa$ o# "he Roman $eg!on' and "he end o# "he Roman
adm!n!'"ra"!on co!nc!ded !"h an !n"en'!;ca"!on o# Nord!c (re''ure
and "he !n*u, o# Fu"e'+ Ang$e'+ and Sa,on'+ h!ch (ermanen"$&
a$"ered "he rac!a$ %a'e o# "he !'$and) B& c) A<E "he Ang$e' and Fu"e'
had reached "he Ir!'h Channe$ and ere ma'"er' o# ha" !'
-!r"ua$$& modern Eng$and) A Ce$"!c recrude'cence a((eared !n "he
h!gh$and' o# "he e'" and nor"he'") The h!'"or& o# Br!"a!n #or "o
cen"ur!e' 1c) 4E05EI?2 !' o%'cure)
O'a$d o# Nor"hum%r!a ca$$ed A!dan #rom Iona+ a mona'"er& on
an !'$and oH "he e'" coa'" o# Sco"$and) H!' m!''!on %egan "he
/!
grea" !n*uence o# Ce$"!c Chr!'"!an!"&+ h!ch #or a "!me "hrea"ened
"o re($ace "he Roman Church)
A%%e'' H!$da o# 3h!"%&+ a oman o# grea" (!e"& and
adm!n!'"ra"!-e a%!$!"&+ ru$ed a dou%$e mona'"er& 1hou'!ng %o"h
men and omen !n "o adjo!n!ng e'"a%$!'hmen"'2+ 'hared !n "he
or. o# Chr!'"!an e-ange$!7a"!on+ and ho'"ed "he AA4 S&nod o#
3h!"%& a" h!ch re(re'en"a"!-e' o# "he Ce$"!c Church !n nor"hern
Eng$and agreed "o "he Roman da"e o# Ea'"er and cer"a!n
d!'c!($!nar& (rac"!ce'+ and "hu' %rough" Br!"a!n %ac. !n"o "he
Roman and Con"!nen"a$ re$!g!ou' and !n"e$$ec"ua$ or%!")
E"he$'"an+ A$#redG' grand'on) The de'cendan"' o# A$#red ere "he
;r'" "rue .!ng' o# Eng$and0 h!' grea"5grand'on Edgar 1IEI5?E2 a'
recogn!7ed a' 'uch) Arch%!'ho( 6un'"an+ EdgarG' ch!e# coun'e$or+
a' a grea" ecc$e'!a'"!ca$ re#ormer 1'!mon& and mora$'2 o# "he
Church and "he (eo($e) He #o$$oed a (o$!c& o# #u'!on and
conc!$!a"!on "oard "he 6ane'+ and Oda+ a #u$$5%$ooded 6ane+
%ecame 1I482 arch%!'ho( o# Can"er%ur&) The a%'or("!on o# "he
6ane$a %& 3e''e, $e#" "he Ce$"!c #r!nge !n Sco"$and and 3a$e'
!nde(enden" under a -ague .!nd o# -a''a$age "o "he .!ng)
A a-e o# Neo$!"h!c (eo($e' #rom "he 9ed!"erranean a' #o$$oed
%& Ce$"'+ Go!de$'+ Br&"hon'+ Sa,on' !n "he A"h cen"ur& B)C)E)+ and
"hen %& C!c"') The Roman' arr!-ed a" "he end o# "he <'" cen"ur&
C)E)+ %u" made no (ermanen" !m(re''!on)
Neo$!"h!c !nha%!"an"'+ #o$$oed %& Ce$"' and Go!de$' 1c) A005E00
B)C)E)2) The N;#"h'O 1U$'"er+ Le!n'"er+ Connaugh"+ Ea'" and 3e'"
9un'"er2 ma& da"e #rom "he Go!de$ arr!-a$) Be$g!c and o"her
Br&"hon!c m!gra"!on' 14005<E0 B)C)E)2 (ro%a%$& !n "he 'ou"hea'")
Su(remac& o# "he Br&"hon!c .!ngdom o# Tara !n "he 4"h cen"ur&
C)E) The C!c"' (u'hed !n"o An"r!m and 6on) There !' an enormou'
%od& o# $egend dea$!ng !"h "he ear$& or!g!n')
/$
Co(&r!gh" ` 800< Hough"on 9!K!n Com(an&)
/'