RETAINING ,IALL

DESIGN NOTES
INDEX
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
1.2 Definitions and
Symbols
1,3 Design
Principles
1,3,1 Free Standing
Retaining Walls
1,3,2 Other
Retaining Structures
1,4 Lod Cases
1,4,1 Basiq Loadings
1,4,2 Other
Considerations
SEGION "2
SOIL PROPERTIES
"2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
29
2.10
2.11
General
Selection and Use of
Backfil
Density
Effective Stress and Pore Pressures
Shearing
Strength
Base
Friction
Modulus of
Elasticiand
Poisson's Ratio
Coefficient
of
Subgrede
Reaction
Swelling and Softening of Clays
Permeability
Liquefaction
SECTION 3 STATIC EARTH PRESSURE
3;-1'"States of Stress
3.2 Amount and ype of Wall Movement
3.3 Limiting
Equilibrium
Conditions
3,3.1
The
Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5.
3.3.6
3.4
The
Coulomb Earth Pressure
Theo[y
Passive Pressures
using Equations.
The
Trial Wedge Method
Geometrical
Shape of the Retaining Structure
Limlte-Backfill
Elastic
Equilibrium
Conditions
3,4,1 At-rest Pressures
3.4,2 Over-consolidation Pressures
3.4.3 Elestic Theory
Methods
SECTION 4 EARTHQUAKE EARTH PRESSURE
4.1
Method of Analysis
'
4,2
Selection of Seismic
Coefficient
Page
I
1
1
1
i
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
6
7
7
10
I0
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
17
18
18
18
19
2O
20
20
4.3
4.4
Limiting Equilibrium Conditions for Earthquake
Loading
4.3.1
General

4.3,2
Mononobe-Okabe Equations
4.3.3
Trial
Wedge for Earthquake
Seismic At-rest Pressures
SECTION 5 EFFECT OF SURCHARGES
5.1
Uniform Surcharges
5.2 Line Loads
5,3
Point Loads
SECTION 6
EFFECTS
OF WATER
6.1, Static Water Level
6.2
Seepage Pressure
6.3 Dynamic Water Pressuwe
6.4
Drainage Provisions
SECTION 7 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS
Page
21
21
?_1
21
22
23
23
23
23
24
24
25
25
27
7.1 General
7.2 Sliding
Stability
7.2.1
Base Without
a
Key
7.2.2
Base Wit ..KRy
7.3
Overturning Stability
7.4
Foundation Bearing Pressures
7.5
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
7.4.6
Slip
Vertical Central Loads
Eccentric Loads
Inclined Loads
Eccentric Inclined Loads
Foundations
onZa Slope
Effect of Ground Water Level
Circl.e.-Stabl.ity
SECTION 8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
8.1
8.2
8.3
General.
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
Codes
Material Strength and Allowable Stresses
Ultimate Strength
Cover to Reinforcement.
Selection of Wall Type
Toe Design
S+em Design
8.3.1
Stem Loading
8.3.2
Lower Section of Counterfort
Stem
8.3.3
Horizontal
Moments in Counterfort
Stem
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
29
30
30
30
31
31
33
33
33
33
33
34
34
34
35
35
35
35
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Heel Slab Design
8.4.1
Loading
8.4.2
Heel Slabs for Counterfort Walls
Counterfort Design
Key Desig9
Control of
Cracking
SECTION 9 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
FOR CRIB
WALLS
9.1 General
9.2 Design
Lading
9.3 Foundation Depth
9.4 Drainage
9.5 Multiple Depth Walls
9.6 Walls Curved in Plan
APPENDIX
I -.References
APPENDIX II Figures
Page
35
35
36
37
37
38
38
38
38
38
38
39
40
42
B
B'
CF
C
Cb
c
D
dc,dqdT
Is
Fs
H,H ,etc
SYMBOLS
effective
area
of base
base
width of wall
effective base width
design seismic coefficient including importance factor)
cohesion of soil in terms of total stress
adhesion at base
cohesion of soil in terms of
effective
stress
foundation depth
foundetion depth correction factors
modulus of
elasticity
of soil"
eccentricity of load
on
base
factor f safety
vertical height of plane
on
which earth
pressure
is calculated
(from underside of base
or
bottom of key to ground surface)
vertical height of wa,ll
piezometric head
foundation load inclination factors
coefficient of earth
pressure
at rest
"..
coefficient of
active
earth
pressure
coefficient of active
earthquake
eaFh
pressure
coefficient of passive earth
pressure
coefficient of subgrad9 reaction
coefficient of permeability
length
of-b-6
effective length of base
l@ngth of
filure surface
.'normal reaction
on a
soil failure surface
bearing capacity factors
slope
stabi.lity
number
resultant lateral
pressure
active
lateral earth
pressure
active lateral
earthquake'earth
pressure
(PA+APAE)
horizontal component of
laterl
earth
pressure
at-rest earth
pressure
passive earth
pressure
lateral earth
pressure
due to line
or
point surcharge load (per
Unit
length of wall)
(ii)
Pv
APAE
PA
Pc
Pw
QL
Qp
q
qa
qult
qu
R, RA, Rp,
Rw, etc
S
S
Sc,Sq,Sy
T
U
U
V
W
Wb
Ww
Wt
Yo
A
vertical
component Of
lateral ea#th
pressure
hydrostatic water
pressure
increment in active earth
pressure
due to
an
earthquake
intensity of active earth
pressure
consolidation
pressur
intensity af water
pressure
total load
line load
point load
intensity of load
on
base
or
surcharge load
allowable soil bearing
pressure
intensity
ultimate soil bearing
pressure
intensity
unconfined compressive strength
resultant forces
total shearing resistance at underside o'f base
shearingstrength
of soil
foundation shape correction factors
tangential force along
a
failure surface
resultant of
pore
water
pressures
intensity of
pore
water
pressure
.vertical component of resultant of loading'
on
the base
weight of soil wedge used in calculation of earth
pressgres
weight of backfill
over
heel of wall
weight of wall
total weight of wall, soil above toe and soil above bee
vertical depth of tension crack in cohesive soil
angle of failure plane from the horizontal
for active state
(degrees)
slope of
back
of the wall (degrees)
density of
Soil
(force units)
submerged soil density
Ysat Yw
dry soil density
density of saturated soil
density of water
increment;
settlement
angle of wall friction (degrees)
angle of base friction (degrees)
angle tan
-I
CF
Poisson's ratio
(iii)
angle measured clockwise from vertical, to direction ofP
A
total normal stress
effective normal stress
shear stres
angle Of shearing resistance in terms of total stress
angle of shearing resistance in terms of eFfective stress
angle of inclination of loading
on
base
angle of ground slope
1-
SECTION 1
I
NTRODUCTI ON
I. 1 SCOPE
These notes
are
intended
as a
guide for
use
in the
estimation of earth
pressure
forces and the design and construction of retaining walls end
similar earth retaining structures. Recommended methods
are
given for
rst aspects of design, however if
a more
detailed knowledge of
a
particular
subject is required, the references given should
prove
helpful. Reference
is also made to standard texts for detailed methods such
as
the construction
of-flow nets. for
pore
water
pressure
determination, and reinforced concrete
design methods.
Aspects such
as:
the
use
of classical earth
pressure
equations; the
effect of earthquakes
on
earth
pressures;
and
allowable
bearing
pressures
under inclined loads, which
are
not readily available in standard texts
are
covered in detail.
Engineering
judgement
must always be used when applying the theories
an
methods given in these notes and strict notice must be taken of the
limitations of the various assumptions.
1.2 DEFINITIONS ND SYMBOLS
Throughout these
n6es,'tatic earth
pressure means
the
pressure
exerted by the earth due to gravity forces. Earthquake earth
pressure
means
the combined static and dynamic earth
pressure
which acts during
or
because of
an
earthquake.
A list of symbols used, with their meanings, is included in the front
of these notes.
1o3 _DES!GN PRINCIPLES
1.3.1 Free Standing Retaining Walls
In
iZhe
design.of
free standing retaining wails, the following aspects
need to be
investigated:
(a)
the
stability of the
soil
containing the wall;
(b)
the stability of the retaining wall itself; and
the
structural strength .of the wall.
For these walls it is usual to
a@sume that
some
outward movement of
the wall takes place
so
that the lateral earth
pressure
from the
retained soil is
a
minimum (active
cndition) for both static and
earthquake loadings. However the designer should check that the
required movement
can
take pace and that it does not affect the
serviceability
or appearance
of.the wall. If the deformation that
is required to reduce the earth
pressure
to the active
case
is not
1.3.2
available due to the r!gid nature of the structureor foundation,
either the wall must be designed to .withstand
a
higher
pressure or
some
change made to the structure
or
foundation. If cohesive back-
fill is used the large displacements
necessary
for the active
condition
means
that the lataral
earth
pressure
will almost alays
be higher than the active value.
For the determination of eai-h
pressures
it is usual to consider
only
a
unit length of the crosssection of the wall and retained Soil.
A unit length is also used in the structural design of cantilever
walls and other walls with
a
uniform
cross-section.
Other Retaining Structures
Where
an
earth retaining wall is
part
of
a
mor
extensive structure
(e.g.
a
basement wall in
a
building
or an
abutment wall of
a
portal
structure)
or
is connected to another structuro (e.g.
a
bridge
abutment connected to the uperstructure) the wall is usually
subject
to static earth
pressures
greater than active since the structure
does not allow full "yielding"
of the soil. In these
cases,
the
main structure generally provides the stability for the wall which
then only needs to have adequate structural strength.
The earth
pressure on
this type of structure under earthquake
conditions depends
on
the movements of the structure and the forces
exerted
on
the wall by the rest of the structure
as
well
as
the
inertia forces from the soil.
1.4.1 Basic Loadings
Twe basic earth
pressure
loadings
are
considered for design. These
(a)
(b)
Normal loading Static earth
pressure + water
pressure +
pressure
due to live loads
or
surcharge.
Earthquake loading
Earthquake earth
pressure + water
pressure
+ surcharge (but not live loads).
However, earth
retaining structures should be designed for not less
than the
pressure
due to
a
fluid with
a
density of 25 Ibs
per
cubic
-oot. (400
kg/m3).
For
many
walls of lesser importance,
earthquake loading need not be
applied
see
section 4.
Other Considerations
Consideration should
als
be given to the possible
occurrence
of
other design
cases or
variations within the two design
cases
given
above, caused by construction
sequence or
future development of
surrounding
areas.
For instance additional surcharges should be
considered in calculating
active
pressures
and allowance made for
any
possible future removal of ground i front of the all if the passive
resistance of.this material is included.
-3-
SECTION 2
SOIL PROPERTIES
2.1 GENERAL
Tests should preferably be carried out
on
the proposed backfill
material and natural ground behind and under
an
earth retaining structure in
advance of design. It is good practice to make further soil tests
on
the
material exposed after excavation.
For all walls higher than 20 feet (6 metres), epecially those with
sloping backfill, the soil
properties of the natural ground and backfill
should be estimated from tests
on
samples of the
mterials
involved.
For
less
important wails,
an
estimation of the soil properties
may
be made from
previous tests
on
similar materials. However
a
careful visual examination
of the material,
particularl/
that at the proposed foundation level, should
be made with the help of identification tests to
ensure
that the assumed
terial type is correct.
2.2 SELECTION AND USE OF BACKFILL
The
ideal backfill is
a
free draining granular material o2 high shearing
strength. However the final choi0e of material should be based
on
the costs
and availability balanced against the desired properties.
In general the
use
of cohesive backfills is not recommended. Clays
"arsubject
o seasonal vaFatiohs
welling
(see 2.9), and deteriorat!on
which all lead to
an
increase in
pressure on a
wall. They
are
difficult to
consolidate and long tem settlement problems
are
considerably greater than
with cohesionless materials. For cohesive backfills, special attention
must be paid to the provision of drainage to prevent the build-up of water
pressure.
Free draining cohesionless materials do not rgquire the
same
amount of attention in this respect
The wall deflection required to produce the active state in cohesive
mterials
may
be
up
to-O-ti greateFthan that for cohesionless materials.
!,is, together with the fact that the former generally have lower values of
shearing strength,
means
that the amount of shearing strength mobilised for
any
given wall movement s Considerably lower for cohesive materials than
for cohesionless materialsZ The corresponding active earth
pressure
for
a
particular wall movement ill therefore be higher'if cohesive soil is used
for backfill.
In'casesof
a
high Sismic coefficient and for
a
steeply sloping back-
fill, the active earth
pressure
will be substantially reduced if the failure
plane
occurs
in
a
material with
a
high angle of shearing resistance. (See
figures 20 to 27). In
some
circumstances it
may
be economical to replace
weaker material
so
that the above situation
occurs.
However also
see
3.3.6.
It is
essential
to pecify and supervise the placing of backfill to
ensure
tnat its properties (,
c
and y)
agree
with the design assumptions
boh
for lateral earth
pressure
and
d@ad
weight calculations..
2.3
DENSITY
The
density
of oil
depends
on
the
specific
gravity
of the
solid particles
and the
propoions
of solid,
air and water
in the
soil.
The average specific
gravity
of the
soil
particles
is
about
2.65
for
sand
or
rock and 2.70
for
clays,
however
this
will
va
-y ,um area
to
area. The proportion
of the total
volume
that
is
made
up
of this
solid
material
is
dependent
on
the
degree
of
compaction
or consolidation.
An"
estimate
of-the
density
of backfill
material
o
be
used behind
a
retaining
structure
y
be
obtained
from
standard
laboratory
compaction
tests
on samples of the
material.
The
density
chosen
must
correseond to
the
compaction and
mo.isture
conditions.that
will
apply in the
actul
situation.
The density
of natural
soll should
be
obtained
from
undisturbed
samples
kept
at the field
moisture
cantent,
and volume.
For low,
relatively unimportant,
walls the
density
o
the
soil behind
the
wall
may
be
estimated
from the typical
values
given
in table
.
In
general the
saturated
density
should
be
used in
calculations
involving
clay
filling.
0: In
eaF-h
pressure calculations
using
metric
quantities,
density ms be in force
units, (i.e.
mass
densities
in k/m

must be multiplied by 9.81
to
give the
equivalent
force
in N/m).
2.4
EFFECTIVE
STRESS
AND
PORE
PRESSURES
An
effective
stress
is the stress
(or
p6sue)
transmitted
through
he
points
of contact
between
the
solid
particles
of the
soil.
It is this
stress
that
determines
the
shearing
resistance
of the
soil.
T
stres
at
any point in the
soil
mass
m

-,
he effective
,.u Dy suaTracting
the
pressure transmitted
by
water in the
voids (pore
water
pressure) from
the total
stress,
i.e.:
positive
pore water
pressure
means
a
reduced
effective
stress
and there-
fore
a
reduced
soil shearing
strength
which
leads
to
an
increase
in
earth
pressure in the
active
case. A
negative
pore
pressure gives
an
increase
in
soil strength.
Pore
water
pressures
result from
a number
of factors.
Cohesive
soils may
retain
pore
pressures due to
a previous
loading
since
the
dissipation
of
pore
pressures in these
materials
takes
months
or even
years
under
some conditions.
Negative
pore ware
rssur -P
es may
be induced
by
capillary
tension
in
moist
sand. This
particular
effect
is however
transitory
as
it
is destroyed
if
the
sand dries
or
if it is
saturated
with
water.
Positive
pore
pressures
can
develop
due to
static
water
pressure,
seep-
age of
water,
the
effect
of shock
or
vibration
in
Some soils,
or
if the
stress
increases
more rapidly
than
the
pore water
can
flow.
Pore
pressures
due to static
water
pressure and
seepage of
water
are
covered in
section
6.
-5-
TABLE I
REPPSENTATIVE VALUES FOR DENSITIES OF SOILS
(Basic
Data from References 3 and
5)
MATERIAL
Clean gravel
or
rock
loose
dense, poorly graded
dense, well graded
Well graded, clean sands,
m-avelly sands
loose
dense
Poorly graded clean sand, sand-
gravel mix
loose
dense
Clayey sand
loose, poorly graded
dense, poorly graded
Fine and silty sands and. silt
loose
dense
Sand-si It
clay
mixed with
I:.._.1
gh_t.l_y.
plastic fines
C'layey
gravel,
psorly
graded
grave
l-sand clay
Silty
gravel, poorly
crade'd
gravel-sand si It
Glacial
t-ill
very
mixed
grained
Glacial
clay
soft
stiff
Organic
clay
so'ft
slightly
organic
sof
ery organ c
DENSITIES
Dry,
Yd
Saturated,
Ysat
(Ib/ft 3) (kg/m)
*
100-110 1600-1760
115-125 1840-2000
125-135 2000-2160
90-100 1440-1600
1107130 1760-2080
100-I 10 1600-1760
110-120 1760-1920
90-105 1440-1680
105-115
1680-1840
90-100 1440-1600
110-120 1760-1920
110-130 1760-2080
115-130 1840-2080
120-135
1920-216"0
130-135 2080-2160
(lb/ft 3) (kg/mS)
*
120-130 1920-2080
130-140 2080-2240
120 1920
130 208O
125 2000
135 2160
145" 2320
I00-120 1600-1920
125-135 2000-2160
95-100 1520-1600
85- 90 1360-1440
Dams;Ties
must be
converted to force
units for
use
in earth
pressure
calculations.
2.5
SHEARING
STRE;GTH
The sheari.ng
strength
of
a
sol is important
lateral deformations
of the soil boundary
occur,
in
s!tuatios here
The
maximum
shear
stress
that
a
sample of the
soil
can
sustain
under different
normal stresses
should
be obtained
by
compression
or
shear
box testing.
The
sample
must be at
a
density
and moisture
content
corresponding to that
of the backfill
or -natural
ground. The plotted
results of these tests
will give
an envelope
of shearing
strength
at failure
or
yielding
of the
soil. This
envelope
is usually
represented by
a
straight
line,
which
is
expressed
as:
s c
+

tan
(in terms
of total
stress),
or
s
c' +-'
tan 9T (in
terms
of effective
stress).
This
method.of
representing the shearing
strength
of the
soil, is
used in these
notes.
An effective
stress analysis
should
generally
be used. In this
case
c'
and
are
used in place
of
c
and
in all
calculations.
Tests
must be conducted
in
such
a way
fhat the
shearing
strength
is given in terms
of effective
stress.
This
means
that,
either the
test loading
must be
applied slowly
and drainage
provided
so
that
any pore
water
can
adapt itself
to" the changed
stress
conditions (drained
test),
or measurements of
pore water
pressures must be taken
during
consolidated-undrained
tests
and the
normal stress
adjusted
accordingly (see
2.4).
If c'
and (effective
stress
soil strength
parameters)
are
used in the
calculations
for lateral
earth
pressure,
bearing
pressure, etc., the effect
of
any
field
pore
water
pressures
must be included
in the
analysis.
In
certain
soils, the
field
pore
water
pressures
may
be simulated
by the
undrained
tests
mentioned
above.
In this
case
no
further
allowance
need be
made for field
pore
water
pressures and the
analysis
of the
earth
pressure forces
may
be
carried
out in terms
of total
stress.
Saturated
undisturbed
soils with relatively
low
permeability,
such
as
silt
and silty
sand, ar@ likely
to fail
in the field
under
conditions
similar
to those
under which
the
consolidated-undrained
tests
are
made,
and shear failuFe--in-saturated-sand
due to the
rapid draw-down
of the water table
also
corresponds to the
consolidated-undrained
condition.
Therefore in these
cases, the
consolidated-undrained
shearing
strength
parameters could be
usedwith
a
total
stress
analysis.
A
condition
that
may
be
approached
in
constructions
using clay filling which becomes
saturated
or
in
a
saturated
undisturbed
clay
mass
is that
of
the
stress
changing
mre rapidly than
the
pore water
can
flow.
If the shearing
strength
of the
saturated
clay in this
condition
is determined
by using
an
undrained
triaxial
tst
it is
usually found
to be independent
of the
normal
pressure (i.e.
o).
Since
there
are uncertainties
in the application
of these
results,
an unconfined
compression test is
usually employed,
where
theoretically
c
qu/2
if

o.
This
value
of
c
is
used
with
a
total
stress
analys
s
for the
situations
described.
Representative
values
for the
angle of shearing
resistance
in terms
of
effective
stress, .
and total
stress

are
given in table
2.
-7-
For
any
particular material, the
shearing
resistance depends
on
the
degree
Of
compaction
or
consolidation.
For loose
sand is approximately
equal to the angle of
repose
in the dry state.
TABLE 2
REPRESENTATIVE
VALUES FOR THE ANGLE OF SHEARING
RESISTANCE
(Values
Obtained
Mainly from
Reference 5)
(c
o
in all the
cases except clay where
c
qu/2)
Material
Sandy gravel
or
rock filling
Sand
loose, round grins, uniform
dense, round grains, uniform
-loose,
angular
grains, well graded
dense,
angular grains, well graded
Silt and silty
snd
loose
dense
Clayey
sand
Clay, normally loaded
or
slightly
preconsolidated
(Degrees)
35-45
28
34
33
45
27-30
3O-35
20-25
22-30

(Degrees)
(Saturated)
20-22
25-30
14-20
2.6 BASE FRICTION
,
Typical
value
of -f-riib-h---ngle
Tb)
end adhesion (c b) for
calculating
"ae
shearing resistance
between
a
concrete base
and the foundation
material
are
given in table 3. These
values
may
be
used for low walls in the absence
of
specific test data.
Ifa--base
key is used the failure
plane wi
generally be. through
the foundation
soil and therefore
the shearing
resistance i that
of the soil (b
and
Cb
c.
2.7
MODULUS
OF
LASTICITY-AND
POISSON'S RATIO
The
relations
between
stress
and strain
in soils
are
important
in the
settlement
of soil-supported
foundation.
They also determine
the change
in
earth
pressure due to small
movements of'retaining
walls
or
other
earth
supports.
These
relationships
are
complex since they depend
on
stress,
strain,
time,
inltiel
decree of saturation
and Various other
factors.
How-
ever it is often
convenient
to
express
them in terms of
odulus of elasticity
and Poisson's
ratio,
since for small stress
differences
the soil
behaviour
closely
eproxlmates
that for
a
perfectly
elastic,
homog=neous
material.
-8-
The modulus of elasticity of the soils E
s
is important in problems
where displacements
are
to be calculated. The value is usually determined
from triaxial compression tests, but plate bearing tests
may
be used.
Seismic methods
may
be used to check
a
larger
mass
of material, however the
values obtained must be corrected since seismic values of E
s
are
always
considerably higher han slatic values particularly n jointed rock, and
ar
not applicable to problems o.static loading.
For all soils the elastic mddulus
increases with increasing
consolidation
p[essure, Pc"
For loose sand E
s
approximately equals 100
Pc
A
range
of values for the modulus of elasticity in compression for selected
soils is given in table 4.
TABLE 3
TYPICAL
FRICTION GLES D ADHESION VALUES FOR BASES WITHOUT
KEYS
(Valbes Taken
from Reference 3)
Interface Materials
Mass
concrete
on
the following foundation
material:
Clean sound
rock
Cle gravel, gravel-sand mixtures,
:"
coarse
sand
Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium
to
coarse
sand, silty
or
clayey gravel
Clean fine sand, silty
or
clayey fine to.
medium sand
Fine sandy silt, non-plastic silt
Very stiff and hard residua.l
or
preconsolidated clay
Mediu
stiff and
Stiff
clay and silty
clay
Formed
concrete
on
the following foundation
materal:
Clean
gavel,
gravel-sand mixtures,
well
graded rock fill with spalls
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture,
single size hard rock fill
Silty sand, gravel
or
sand mixed with
silt
or
clay
Fine
sandy
sil,
non-plastic silt
Soft clay and clayey silt
Stiff
and hard clay and
clayey
silt
Friction
Angle (6b)
Degrees
35 to 45
29 to 31
24 to 29
19 to 24
17 to 19
"22 to 26
17 to 19
22 to 26
17 to 22
17
14
Adhesion
Cb
Ib/ft z
(kN/m 2)
200 to 700
(9.6 to 33.5)
700 to 1200
(33.5 to 57.5)
-9
Poisson's ratio,

is
very
important in
Stress
oriented problems (e.g.
stresses
on
retaining walls for
no
wall
movennt) since it controls the
Felaionship between orthogonal stresses. It
may
be determined from
triaxial tests;however like the elastic modulus, it is dependent
on
the
confining
pressure
and rate of loading
amongst other factors. For granular
or
normally consolidated materials,
may
be estimated from the relation-
ships for at-rest
pressure
coefficients
see
3.4.
Representative values
are
given in table 5.
TABLE_____4
tDULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR SELECTED
SOILS (COMPRESSION)
(Values
Taken from Reference 3)
Soil
Very soft clay
Soft clay
Medium
clay
Hard clay
Sandy clay
Silty sand
Loose sand
Dense sand
E
s
(psi)
Dense and and gravel 14,000-
Loess 'i,000
Sandstone
Limestone
Basalt
50-
400
250-
600
600- 1,200
I000- 2,500
4,000-
6,000
1,000- 3,000
1,500- 3,500
7,000-
12,000
28,000
18,000
1,000,000- 3,000,000
2,000,000-
6,000,000
7,000,000-13,000,000
E
s
(/m z)
0.35
2.75
1.72
4.14
4.14
8.27
6.89 17.2
27.5
41.4
6.89 20.6
10.3
24.1
48.2 82.7
96.5 193
96.5
124
6 900 20 600
13 800 41 300
48 200 89 500
TABLE 5
TYPICAL
VALUES
FOR POISSON'S
RATIO
(Va]ues
Taken from Reference 3)
Soil
Ciay,
saturated
Clay, unsaturated
Sandy clay
0.4 -0.5
0.1 -0.3
0.2 -0.3
Silt
Sand
dense
coarse
(void ratio 0.4-0.7)
fine-grained
(void ratib 0.4-0.7)
Rock
0.3 -0.35
0.2 -0.4
0.15
0.25
O. -0.4
2.8
COEFFTCIENT
OF SUBGRADE
REACTION
In
the design
of footings
and wall
of subgrade
reaction
is
often
used to determine foundation
pressures. This
concept is based
on
the
assumption that the
settlement,

o
any
element
of
a
loaded
area
is
entire'ly
independent
of the load
on
the adjoining
elements.
It is further
assumed that
the ratio
KS =2_
foundations,
the simplified
Concept
between
the intensity,
p
of the
foundation pressure
on
the element
and the" corresponding
settlement
is
a
constant,
Ks.
This
foundation
pressure is
called the subgrade
reaction.
The
coefficient
K
s
;s known
as
the coefficient
of subgrade
reaction.
Representative
values
of K
s
for foundation
design
ere
given in table
6.
NOTE:
TABLE
6
COEFFICIEN
OF SUBGRADE
REACTION
(VERTICAL)'
Soil
Type
Dens
gravel and
gravelly
soils (no
clay fines)
ense
sand and sandy
soils
including
clayey
"sand, clayey
gravel
Silts,
clays
of low
compressibility
Clays
of high
compressibility
K
S
lblin2/in
>300
200-300
100-200
55-100
kN/m21mm
>8O
55-80
25-55..
15-25
For
clays
K
s
may
be
assumed to
vary
linearly
with
qu,
from 30 Ib/in2/in
for
qu
of 14.5 Ibin
2
to 330 Ib/in2/in
for
qu
of
55 Ib/in 2
In
metric
units K
s
varies from
8
kN/m2/mm
for
qu
of 100 kN/m
z
to
90
kN/m2/mm
for
qu
of 380 kN/m
2.
2.9
SIqELLING
AND SOFTENING
OF CLAS
Some
clays,
particularly
those
with high
plasticity
(plasticity
index
exceeding
20) tend
to
expand in the
presence of water
and if
restrained
by
a
structure
can
develop
very
high
earth
pressures
eceeding
10,000
Ib/ft
2
(480 kN/m2).
These
pressures
are
not
related
to
soil
strength,
but to the
mineralogy
and initial,
moisture
of the clay.
Swelling
pressures
can
be
estimated
from
laboratory
swell tests,
but
at
present
such predictions
are
not too
reliable.
These
pressures usually
only develop
in the
zone
of
weathering
which
is to
a
depth
of 3 to 5 feet.
(I bove
pressures should
be
con,-
dr

.to I.
metres).
The
"non-yieldina,
walls
--7 .-.cohesive sol
s
to
be
used behind
neea
not De
allowed
for
n
the"
case of fre
sTanding
walls
t;here
a small yield
can be tolerated.
When
a
natural
deposit
of clay
or
silt is disturbed by
an
excavation
for
a
retaining wall the change in stress conditions and water content
may
lead to
a
change in shearing strength with time. With stiff fissured clays
it has been shown that progressive softening
can
reduce the shearing strength
to
a
small fraction of its original
value. This is usually d,,
to Water
percolating into the fissures which
open
at the time of excavation for the
wall. Earth
pressures
should therefore be calculated
using
a
'residual'
strength to allow for this deterioration. References 5 and 28 should be
consulted.
In fissured clays and clay filling the rate of softening is reduced by
adequate drainage and if the wall is prevented from yielding
progressively.
However the latter requirement will
mean
that lateral
earth
pressures
higher
than activewill
result.
-..10 PERMEABILITY
The
permeabilitis
of soi
s
in broad terms
are
givenin
table 7. The
permeebiIities of granular materials
are
given in greeter detai in figure
35,
ccording
to the
pahticle
grading.
"TABLE 7
PERMEABILITIES OF SOILS
Clean gravel
Clan
sand, clean sand andlgravel
mixture
Wery fine sand, organic and
inorganic silt, mixture of sandy
silt and clay,, glacial till,
stratified
clay deposits, etc.
Homogeneous
clays
below
zone
of
weathering
(Value
Tgken from Reference 5)
Soil Type
Coefficient
of
Permeability, k(cm/sec)
100 -I.0
1.0-i0-3
2.11
LIQUEFACTION
In materials with
no
cohesion, if the
pore pressure
is made to increase
so as
to reduce the effective stress
t
zero, a
condition known
as
liquefaction
my
result here the material'has
no
shearing
strength
an
there-
fore
behaves like
a
fluid. This
can
happen in saturated
loose
sands and
silts
where
a
shock
or
vibration
causes
spontaneous
collapse
of the grain
sructure
(densification)
and therefore
an
increase in the
pore
water
ressure. Saturated
sandv soil layers which
are
within 0 #eat (9 metres)
of the
ground surface, have
a
standard
penetratio
temt N-value less than
-have
a
coefficient
of uniformity less than 6 and also have
a
D20-value
be-
tween
0.04
mm
and 0.5
mm,
have
a
high potential for liquefaction
during earth-
quakes.
Saturated
sandy soil l.ayers which have
a
D20 value between 0.004
mm
and 0.04
mm or
between
0.5
mm
and 1.2
mm may
liquefy during
earthquakes.
SECTION
3
STATIC
EARTH
PRESSURE
3.1
STATES
OF STRESS
The stresses
at
any
point
within
a
soil
mass may
be
represented
on
the
Mohr
co-ordinate
system in terms
of shear
stress,

and effective
normal
stress,
o' (see
references
or
6
for
the
plotting
of stresses
and
use of
the
system).
On this
system, the
shearing
strength
of the
soil at
various
effective
normal
stresses
gives
an envelope
of the
)ossible
combinations
of
shear
end
normal stress.
When
the
maximum
shearing
strength
is fully
mobilised
along
a
surface
'within
a
soil
mass,
a
failure
condition
known
as a
state of plastic
(or
limiting)
equilibrium
is
reached.
Rankine's
active
and
passive
states
of
stress
result
when Shear
stresses
equal to the
maximum
shearing
strength
of
the
soil develop
uniformly
and unhindered
in two
major directions
through- out
a
soil
mass
due to lateral
extension
or compression.
Where
the
combinations
of shear
and
normal stress
within a
soil ms
all lie
below
the
limiting
envelope
the
soil is in
a
state
of elastic equilibrium.
A
special
condition
of elastic
equilibrium
is the "at-rest" state,
where
the
soil is
prevented
from
expanding
or compressing laterally with changes
in the
vertical
stress.
3.2
AMOUNT
AND TYPE
OF NALL
MOVEMENT
.,
The limiting
eqdilibrium
theories
all
require that
the
maximum
shearing
strength of
the
soil is
mobilised.
This
however
reouires
deformation
in
the
soil.
The
deformation
of
a supporting
structure
only has
a
local
effect on
the
state
of stress
in the
soil.
The
remainder
of the
soil
remains
in a
state
of elastic
equilibrium.
The
state
of stress
in the locally disturbed
zone end the"shape
of this
zone
is dependeqt
on
the
amount and
.type
of wall
deformation.
This
also
determines
the
shape
of the
pressur distribution-on'the--wall
n-d the intensity
of the
pressure.
For
no mOvement of
a
retaiing
wall.system,
at-rest
earth
pressures (or
pressures due to.compaction)
ac,
on
the
..all..
When
a
wall
moves ou ward,
the.
shearing
strength
of the
retained
sell
resists
the
correspondina outward
movement of the
soil
and
reduces
the
earth
pressures
on
the
wall. The
earth
pressure calculate
for
the
active
state
is the
absolute
minimum
value.
When
the
Wall
movement is towards
the
retained
soil the
shearinc
streneth
of
the
soil
resists
the
corresponding
soil
movement
and increases
ne
earth
pressure
on
the
wall.
The
earth
pressure (or
resistance)
calculated
for
the
passive
state
is the
maximum
value that
can
be
developed.
TABLE
8
MOVEMENT
OF WALL
NECESSARY
TO PRODUCE
ACTIVE PRESSURES
S0il
Cohesionless,
dense
Cohesionless,
loose
Clay,
firm
Clay,
soft
Wall Yeld
0.001
H
";
O. O01-0.
002
0.01
-0.02
H
0.02
-0.05
H
The amount of movement required to produce the active
or
passive
states in the soil fs dependent mainly
on
the type of backfill material.
Table 8 gives the outward movement of
a
wail
which is
necessary
to produce
an
active state of stress in the retained soil. The movements required to
produce fell
assive
resistance
are
considerably larger, especially in
cohesionless material. These requirements apply whether the mevement is
a
lateral translation of he whole wall
or a
rotation about the base. The
pressure
distributions for full active and passive states
are
basically
triengular for constantly sloping ground (see 3.3).
If
a
wall rotates about its top in the direction
away
from the soil
the soil between the wall and the surface of sliding does not all
pass
into
th active state. The soil
near
the top of the wall stays
near
the at-
res
state. This condition arises in cuts that
are
braced
as
excavation
proceeds
downwards
from the top. The distribution of
pressure may
be
represented by
a
trepezium wth dimensions which
vary
according to the soil
type
see
figure 18.
('i
The amount Of wall mvement which will take place depends mainly
upon
The
foundation conditions end the flexibility of the wall. The designer
must
ensure
that the calculated earth
pressures
correspond to the available
wall movement. A free standing wall need only be designed for active
each
pressure as
far
as
stability is concerned since, if it starts to
slide
or
overturn under higher
pressures,
the movement will be sufficient
to reduce the
pressures
to active. Flowever if it is
on a
strong foundation
or
otherwise fixed
so
that adequate stebility is provided, the stem
may
be
subject to
pressures near
those for the at-rest state. The following
pressure
coefficlents shoulbe, used for rigid foundation cenditions unless
a mere
exact analysis of
movements
is made:
Ca)
(b)
(c)
CounterforT
or
gravity type walls founded
on
rock
or
piles
K
o
Cantilever walls less than 16 feet (5 metres) high founded
on
rock
or
piles 0.5 (Ko+K A)
Any wall
on
soil foundations
or
cantilever walls higher
KA
than 16 feet (5 me)
Bridge abutment walls
tha
are
not
included
in the above categories
should be designed for at-rest
pressures.
Where abutment walls
are
framed
in with the superstruclure, temperature movements
may
produce higher
pressures .see
reference 26.
Te tilting movement that will result when earth
pressures
act
on a
retaining well
may
be estimated by simulating the foundation soil
as a
series of spFings with
an
appropriate coefficient of subgrade reection
see
2.7. The base rotation (in radians) is then given by:
8
b
12Ve/KsL
3.3
LIMITING
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
33.1
The Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
If Rahklne's active
or
passive states of stress exist
throughout
a
zone
in
a
soil
mass en
'exact'
solution (fully
satisfying
both static
equilibrium
and the condition for failure)
may
be obtained for the
3.3.2
14
earth
pressure from
that
zone. However,
useabie
equations
result
only if the
surfaces
of failure
are
planar.
This
is the
case in
a
semi-infinite
mass of coheslonless
soil
with
the
ground
surface
at
any.constant
slope,
and also
in
cohesive
soil
with
a
horizontal ground
surface.
RangineSs
equations
give the
earth
pressure
on a
vertical
plane,
which
is
sometimes
called
the
virtual
back
of the
wall.
The
equations
for
cohesionless
soil
are
giver
in
figure
2.
The
earth
pressure
on
the
vertical
plane
acts in
a
direction
parallel
to
the
ground
surface
andis
directly
proportional
to the
vertica.l
distance
below
the
ground
surface
(i.e.
a
triangular
pressure
distribution with
the
resultant
acting
at I/3
Equations
for
Rankine's
conditions
in
cohesive
soils
with
a
horizontal
ground
surface
are given
in figure
iO.
The'earth pressure
on
tile
vertical
plane
acts horizontally.
The
pressure
distribution
is
similaP
to that
for
cohesionless
soil
except that
a
zon of tension
at the
top
is
neglected
siace
soil
cannot sustain
tension.
Rankine
active
earth
pressure
coefficients
for
cohesion-
less
soil
are presented
in
graphical
form
in figure
3.
If
Rankine's states
of
stress
exist in
cohesive
soil
with
a
uniformly
sloping
ground
surface,
useable
equations
do
not
result,
since
the
failure
surfaces
are curved,
and the
pressure distributio
is
not theoretical
y a
linear
function
of
depth.
An 'exact' so
ution
for
this
case
can
be obtaine
by
using
the
Mhr
diagram
see
the
circle
of stress
method
in
reference
I.
Rankiners
conditions
are
theoreticaIl.y.nly
applicable
to etaining
walls
when
the
wall does
net interfere
with
the
formation
of
any part
of the
failure
wedges
that
form
on
either
side
of the
vertical
plane,
or
where
an
imposed
boundary
produces
the conditions
of stress
that
would
exist
in the
uninterrupted
soil
wedges.
The
vertical
plane
on
which
the
pressures
are calculated
is
not
normally
a
failure
plane
(only
in the
case where

).
However
a vertical
wall
would
satisfy
the
Rankine
conditions
if
the
angle
of
wall friction,
is
equal to
the backfill
slope.
In
many
cases this
would
not
represent
a practical
situation
since
it
implies
a smooth
wall for
horizontal
backfi-l.
The
Coulomb
Earth
Pressure
Theory
This
theory
diectly
gives
the
resultant
pressure
against
the
back
of
e
retaining
structure
for
any
sIpe
of the
wall
and for
a range of
wall friction
angles.
It
assumes that
the
soil slides
on
the
back
of the
wall
and
mobilises
the
shearing
resistance
between
the back
the
wall
and the
soil
as
well
as
that
on
the
failure
surface.
The
oulomb
equations
reduce
to
those
of the
Rankine
theory
if
a
vertical
wall
surface
with
an angle gf
wall
friction
equal to the
backfiI|
slope
is
used.
Other
Cases of
wall
slope
or
wa riction
require
CUrved
surfaces.of
sliding
to
satisfy
static
equilibrium.
The
degree
of curvature'may
be
Quite
marked
especially
for
passive
conditions.
However
Coulombs theory
aSSumes that
the failure
wedge
is
always
bounded
by
a
plane
surface,
and .it
is
therefore
only
an
approximation
(usuaJ.ly
on
the
unsafe
side).
15
drecton
and magnitude for the.wall
friction
angle for passive
pressure.
However
for large
pos
tive backfill
sloes
or
la
p rge
values
._i,L__g#ta!L_#rictipn, the
error
due to the
assumpTion of
a
plane fai
ure
surface leads to
a
large
over-estimat
on' of th
Dassive resistan
Ths is accentuated further when the back
of the wall has
a
negative
The simplifying
assumption also
means
that static equilibrium .is not
always completely satisfied, i.e. the fQrces actihg
on
the soil wedge
cannot all be resolved to
act
through
a common
point. The
error
from
an
'exact'
solution is proportional to the amount by which
static equilibcium is not satisfied.
Equations for Coulombs
conditions in cohesionless
soil with
e
constant ground slope
are
given in figure 4.
In the active
case
the soil tends to slip downward along the back of
the wall causing the resultant earth
pressure
to be inclined at
a
positive angle (see figure 4) to the normal to the wall.
lt
is recommended that
an
angle of wall friction
of +2/3
@'be
used
in the equation for active
pressure
for
concrete walls which have
been cast against formwork.
Coulomb active earth
pressure
coefficients
are
given in figures 5 to
8 and the
corresponding failure planes in figure 9 for selected
values of angle of internal friction,
@. Linear interpolation
may
be used to fi.nd the earth
pressure
coefficient
or
failure plane angle
for intermediate
values of @.
Passive
Pressures.Using Equations
The movement required to produce passive
pressure
leads to the soil
sliding
upward
on
the failure
surfaces (including
the back of
a
wall
or
anchor block). There'foce Rankine's
equation does not theoretic-
ally apply for passive resistance of soil with
a
positive
ground
slope against
a
vertical wall because
it
assumes a
positive
angle of
wall friction equal to the ground slope, when in fact the wall
friction angle would be negative. The
use
of Rankine's
equation in
this situation gives
an
under-estimation
of the passive resistance.
Equations for Coulomb's
conditions allow the
use
of the
correct
slope.
In
the.cae
of
a
vertical
wall the Rankine
equatiQn should
be used.instead
to give
a
conservative estimate of the passive
resistance. For other wall slopes the passive resistance
can
be
taken
as
Rankine's
passive
pressure
on
the veical plane plus the
weight of the soil wedge between the vertical plane
and the
pressure
surface. Alternatively
methods based
on
curved failure
surfaces
such
as
the logarithmic
spiral method (references
and 5)
may
be used.
Reference
3 chapter I0 gives values, of KD based
on
the logarithmic
spiral method for the
case
of
a
vertical-wall
and sloping
backfill
and for
a
sloping
waland level backfil.
For
negative
backfill
slopes, the conditions for Rankine's
passive state
may
be fuifilled
3c
that
a
good estimation
of the passive resistance
may
be obtained.
The
equation for Coulomb's
conditions also ives
a
good approximation
of.the
passive resistance
in this
case,
although
it wil
generally
ST, I be lighty
on
the unsafe side.
For
;ost
Cases involving
passive
pressures
encountered
in
retaining
wall
design,
the
ground
surface
is
horizontal
and the
pressure
surface
may be
assumed to be
vertical.
If
the
angl&
of
wall
friction
is
taken
as zero under
these
conditions,
the
Rankine
and
Coulomb
equations
are the
same and the
resulting
passive resistance
is
on
the
onservative
side
(since
there
would
be
some wall
friction Which
nCreases
the
passive
resistance).
3.3.4
The
Trial
Wedge
Metho
d
Where
the
ground
surface
is
irregular
or
where
it
is
constantly
sloping
in
cohesive
soil
a graphical
procedure
USing
the
assumption
of
planar
failure
SUrfaces
is
the
simplest
approach.
This
procedure
is known
as
the
trial
Wedge
method
(see
figures
The
backfill
is
divided
into
wedges
by
selecting
planes
through th
heel
of the
wall.
The
forces
acting
on each
of these
wedges
ere
combined
in
a
force
polygon
so
that
the
magnitude
of the
resultant
earth
pressure
can be
obtained.
A force
polygon
is
constructed
even
"
although
She
forces
acting
on
"the
wedge
are often
not
in
ment
'"',_
equilibrium.
This
method
is therefore
an
apProximation
with
the
same
assumptions
as
the
equations
for
Coulombs
conditions
and,
for-
..'
a ground
surface
with
a constant
slope,
will
give
the
same resu'It.
If
the
conditions
are
the
same
as
those for
Rankine's
equations,
the
trial
wedge
earth
pressures
will
Correspond
to
these
also.
The
"limitations
On
wall
friction
and
passive
pressures
mentioned
in
the
use of the
Rankine
and Coulomb
equations
also
app:M
to
the
trial
wedge
method.
The
adhesion
of the
soil to
the
back
of the
wall.in
;
cohesive
soils
is
neglected
since
it
increases
the
tension
crack
depth
and hence
reduces
the
active
pressure.
!I
i:
For
the
active
case he
maximum
va ue of the
earth
pressure
'. calculated
for
the
ver
ous wedees
is nterpolating
between
required.
This
is
......
The re uired values.
Fo
Y
!i
q
mnlmum
value
s similarly
obtained,
r
the
passive
case
The
direction
of the
res'ultant
earth
pressure
in
#he
force
polygons
..
should
be
obtained
from
#he
considerations
of 3.3.1
to
3.3.3
()
the
cases where
this
force
j___./
substitute
constant
--
ct
prallel
to
the
erou
For
T.
so both
w+h
P snoula
be
used
as
h,., " oTace,
a
o
.
WITHOUT
cohesion.
in
Tlgure 15
for
For
cohesiones
material,
Culmann,s
graphical
construction
(figure
12)
provides
a
'compact
method
of plotting
the
resultant
earth
pressures
for
the
various
wedges
and
obtaining
the
maximum
value
with
the
COrresponding
failure
plane.
In cohesive
soils,
according
to
theoretical
considerations,
tension
exists
to
a
depth
of
2c
Yo
-tan
(45
+ /2)
for
both
horizontal
and
slopin
ground
surfaces.
Vertical
tension
Cracks
will
develop
in
this
Zoae since
soil
cannot
sustain
tension.
One
of these
cracks
will
extend.down
to
the
failure
Surface
and
so
reduce
the
length
on
which
Cohesion
acts.
The
effect
of this,
ion
hre
wifh
ion
on
on.
3.3.5
17
3.3.6
together with
the
slightly
smaller wedge
weight is the'same as
neglecting the
reduction in total pressure
provided by the
tension
zone
according to the
Rankine and Coulomb
equations.
For
an
irregular
ground surface
the
pressure
distribution is not
triangular.
However
if the
ground does
not depart
significantly
from
a
plane
surface,
a
linear pressure
distribution
may
be
assumed,
and the
construction given in figure 16 used. A
more
accurate
method is given in figure
17. The latter should be
used when there
ere
abrupt changes
in the
ground surface
or
there
are
non-uniform
surcharges.
Geometrical Shape of the
Retaining
Structure
The
geometrical shape
of the retaining
struct6re largely determines
which of
Rankine's
or
Coulomb's conditions
are
satisfied
or
ost
nearly satisfied for
a
particular soil and hence how the pressure
should be
determined.
Rankine's conditions
may
be taken
as
applying
to
cantilever and
counterfort retaining walls with heel
lengths equal
to at
least half the
wall height. The earth
pressure
is
calculated
on
the
vertical plane
through the
rear
of the
heel
which is sometimes
referred to
as
the
Virtual back of the wall.
Coulomb's
conditions
may
be
applied to gravity type
walls and walls
with small heels, since
it will usually be
found that the soil
siiUes
on
the back of the wall.
For further
information
on
the
application of
Rankine's
or
Coulomh's
conditions,
see
reference
I.
Limited
Backfill
The limiting
equilibrium
methods given above
assume
that the
sol is
homogeneous
for
a
sufficient distance behind the
wall to
enable
an
inner
failure surface
lto
form in the position where
static
equilibrium
is
satisfied.
Where
an
excavation is made to
accommodate the wall,
the
undisred
merial
may
have
a
different strength from
that of
the
backfill. If
equations
are
used, the position of two failure
planes
should be
calculated
one
using the properties of the back-
fill material and
one
using the properties of the
undisturbed
material.
If both fall within the
physical limit of the
backfill the
critical
failure plane is
obviously the
one
calculated using the
backfill
properties.
Similarly if they both
come
within the
undisturbed
material, the
critical
one
is
that for the
undisturbed
material
properties.
Two other
possible situations
may
however
arise
one
where
critical failure planes
occur
in both materials (the
one
ging
"the
maximum
earth
pressure
is used), and the other where the failure
plane
calculated with the
backfill properties would fall within the.
undisturbed
material and the failure plane for
undisturbed
material
would fall within the
backfill. In the latter
case,
which occurs
when the
undisturbed
material has
a
high strength, the
backfill
may
be assumed to slide
on
the physical boundary between the two
materials.
The earth
pressure
equations do not apply in this
case,
but The
trlcl
wedge metho,
may
be used with the already selected
critical faiiure
plane and the backfill soil properties. The total
pressure
thus
calculated will be less than the full active
value,
however
the
variation of
pressure
with depth is not linear it should be
deter-
mined by the procedure given in figure 17.
18-
This
is
a
form
of
ever-consolidation.
In
Coarse
grained
soils
the
lateral
pressures
produced
are
equal to
or Slightly
higher
than
the
at-rest
pressures.
The
boundary
between
the
two
materials
should
b
constructed
so
h
there
is
no
inherent
loss
of friction
(or
cohesion)
on
the
failure
SUrface.
Benching
the
undisturbed
material
will
ensure that
the
failure
surface
is
almost
entirely
through
solid
backfill
material.
ELASTIC
EQUILIBRIUM
CONDITIONS
At-rest
Pressures
The
special
state
of
elastic
equilibrium
known
as
the
at-rest
state
is
useful
as
a reference
point
for
calculation
of
earth
pressures
Where
only
smal
wall
mOvements
occur.
For
the
Case of
a Vertical
wall
and
a
horizontal
ground
SUrface
the
coefficient
of at-rest
earth
pressure
may
be
taken
as:
for
normally
consolidated
mater
als. has
not
any
bu,,t
,n
Over-conso.lidotio T oossume
that
the
material
angles
and backfil
slopes,
it
may be
assumed
=-,ss.
rot
other
wall
proportional
to KA.
At=rest
ea
that
K
o
varies
!res
linearly
With
deth
__rth
pressures
may be SSumed
to
.uTerlals. -.um Zero at the
ground
surface
for
al
The
total
at-rest
earth
pressure
force
is
given
by:
Po

K
o
y
H
This
acts
at H/3
from
the
base
of the
wall
(or
bottom
of
th
key
fQr
walls
with
kes).
For
gravity
type
retaining
walls
the
at-rest
pressure
should
be
taken
as aCing
normal
to
the
back
of the
wall
(i.e.

= o).
For
canti-
lever
and
Counterfort
walls
it
should
be
calculated
on
the
vertical
plane
through
the
rear of the
heel
and taken
as acting
parallel
with
the
ground
surface.
In
cohesionless
soils,
full
the
mos
rigidly
unaort=
a?rest
pressures
will
occur
only
with
pressures
approahina
=+
In
highly
plastic
clays,
contnu:'with ' ---esr
may develop
Unless
wall
movement
can
Over-conso]idaton
Pressures
Several
factors
produce
a coefficient
greater
than
that
given
in
3.4.1
above.
If
a
braced
excavation
is
Constructed
in
over-
Consolidated
clay,
the
built-in
ever-consolidation
produces
lateral
pressures
in
excess
of those
that
would
be
obtained
by
USing
the
existing
depth
of
material.
This
is
a p rt
cuarly
marked
at
shallow
existing
depths.
If
some wall
mOvement
takes
place
these
high
pressures
dhop
rapidly.
Compaction
of backfill
in
a Confined
wedge
behind
a restrained
wall
also
tends
to
increase
lateral
pressures.
In
fine
grained
soils
the
lateral
pressures
r
all
,
taken
nti-
t
ca
with
in
te
ra
"he
hal low
h
wedge
s the
In
the
-es
3.4.3
produced by
compaction may
be higher
still. Some
further
Information
on
actual pressures
for
unyielding
retaining
structures
Is given in references
7 and 8.
Elastic heoy
Methods
When
the
solution
of
a
lateral pressure
problem
requires the
estimate of
some
deformations
or
the
relation between
load and
deformation,
elastic
methods of
analvsis
may
be
considered.
Usually only the linear theory
is
used.
Particular
care
and
judgement is
required in order to
select
appropriate
elastic
constants and
boundary
conditions.
Currently
available
general
computer programs
based
on
the
finite element
method of
analysis
are
ICES=STRUDL-II and the
Ministry
of
Works' plane stress
or
plane
strain
program
STQUAD2D,
From
elastic theory
the
coefficient
of at-rest pressure
for
a
vertical
wall and
horizon#al ground surface is given by:
Ko

(for
plain
strain).
20
SECTION 4
EARTHQUAKE EARTH PRESSURE
4.1 IdETHOD OF ANALYSIS
The most
common
method of obtaining forces due to earthquake loading
is the pseudo-static
seismic
coefficient method. In this method,
a
force
equal to the weight of
a mass
multiplied by
a
specified value of seismic
coefficient is assumed to act statically at the centre of gravity of the
mass
(b)
This
approach has been extensively used to determine the
pressure on
earth
retaining
structures under earthquakes (see references 9, I0, 11 and
12) and at this stage of knowledge it is the recommended method. A
horizontal seismic coefficient only need be used snce typical vertical
accelerations have
a very
small effect
on
earth
pressures.
4.2 SELECTION OF SEISMIC COEFFICIENT
The design seismic coefficients for
use
in
earth
pressure
calculations.
ere
given in table 9. These
are
determined without regard to the dynamic
characteristics of th retaining structure
or
soil . They
are,
however,
dependent
on
the seismic zoning of the
area
and the importance of the
structure. The seismic
zone
should be determined from NZS 1900 chapter 8:
1965 (reference 13).
Earth retaining structures should be placed in
one
of the three
importance categories
as
follows depend
ng on
the size of the structure, the
effect of failure in The structure, and the cost of reconstruction:
(a)
Importance
category 1
Major retaining walls supporting important structures, developed
property
or
services, and the like, and where failure would have
disastrous
consequences
such
as
cutting vital
communications
or
services, serious loss of life, etc.
Importance
category 2
Free standing
structures of at least 20 feet (6 metres) in height in
locations
other han in (a) above where replacement
would be difficult
or
costly and/or
where other consequences
of failure would be serious.
Importanc
category 3
For all other retaining structures
no
specific
provision for earthquake
loading need be considered except that the seismic coefficient to be
applied for earth
pressure
on.bridge members should be in accordance
with the Highway Bridge Design Brief (reference
14).
TABLE 9
SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS,
CF FOR EARTH RETAL, IrIG STRUCTURES
Importance
Category
2
Zone A Zone B Zone C
0.24 0.18
0.12
0.17 0.13
0.09
and
I'er
8:
re,
th
These
coefficients apply for the
stress levels
an'd load factors in
8.1.
All
superimposed
loads except live loads must be
included in the
earth pressure
calculations.
It
should be
noted that
walls
adequately designed for
static earth'.
pressures
especially those with
an
allowance'for live
load wil!
automatic-
ally have
the
capacity to
withstand at least moderate
earthquake
ground
tions
and in
m#ny cases
earthquake loading
would therefore not be
a
critical design
case.
4.3
LIMITING
EQUILIBRIUM
CONDITIONS FOR
EARTHQUAKE
LOADING
4.3.1
General
The earth
pressure
due to
earthquakes, in conditions where the wall
can move so as
to
develop the
full shearing
strength of the soil, is
calculated in
a
manner
similar to that for static
earth
pressure.
The
additional force equal to the seismic
coefficien? times the
weight of the soil wedge is
included in the
derivation of equations
and in the force
polygons
fr
the trial wedge
method.
Thls
procedure,
while
obviously only
approximate, has been shown by
experiments to give
a
pressure
at leas equal to that likely under
earthquake
conditions.
4.3.2
M0n0n0be-Okabe
Equations
Vononobe and Okabe
derived equations based
on
Coulomb's theory
for
active and passive earth
pressure
in
cohesionless soil with the
additional seismic forces (both
vertical and
horizontal) included.
in
essence
this aounts to
a
change in magnitude of gravity and
an
fficult
;arious.
5
rtiq uake
4.3.3
io be
rdance
inclination of the ground and wall by
an
angle equal to
tan-tCF.
The
Mononobe-Okabe
equations
are
given in figure 19. Figures
20-23
give
earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients
calculated from the
Mononobe-Okabe
equations for Rankine type conditions and figures 24-
27 giv
coefficients for
a
wall sloping at I in 4.
For Rankine type
conditions
the
earthquake earth
pressure
is
calculated
on a
vertical plane and
may
be taken
as
acting
parallel
with
the slope of the
ground surface. For Coulomb type
conditions,
where the
earthquake earth
pressure on
the back of
a
wall is
calculated directly the wall friction
may
be taken
as
+2/3{. The
point
ofapplication
of the
resultant earth
pressure
and the pressure
distribution is
determined
as
shown in figure 19 for
cohesionless
soils.
Trial
Wedge
for
Erthquake
Where the
material is cohesive
or
the ground surface is
irregular
the tial wdge
method offers the easiest solution for
earthquake
earth
pressure see
figure 28.
Under seismic loading
conditions the
presence
of tension crocks in
cohesive soil
may
be ignored since the lateral compression at the
ground surface from the dynamic increment ofsets the tensile
stresses.
22
The
pressure distribution
end point of applicatioq
of the
resultant
pressure should
be determined
by
superimposing
the
dynamic
increment
in
earth
pressure, 4PA
on
the static
pressure diagram
similar
to the
method given
in
figure19.
For the determination
of PA for
this
case,
the full static
pressure diagram
including
the
part in tension
shou d be
used for
cohesive
soils. For
an
irregular
ground
surface,
the static
pressure diagram
may
not be
a
linear
variation
with
depth
(i.e.
the
point
of application of
PA
may
not be at H/3).
However
the
dynamic
increment
&PAE should
always
be applied
at the 2/3H
point to give
a
distribution
varying linearly
from
a
maximum
at the
top to
zero
at the bottom
of the wall (or
key, for
walls
wih
keys).
4.4 SEISMIC
AT-REST
PRESSURES
For
a
completely
rigid retaining
wall, the force
from
the
earthquake
earth
pressure
may
be
approximated
by:
PE
Y.H
2
(Ko
+ 2 &KAE)
where KAE
KAE
KA
Where
mevemeny is sufficient
for the fully
active
case
to develop
(see
clause 3.2),
the
force
from the
eahquake
earth
pressure should
be taken
as:
PE
Y
H

(K
A
+4KAE)
For wails of intermediate
rigidity,
the
earthquake
earth
pressure should
be
determined
by
estimating
the
displacement
of the top
of the
waI
under
earth- quake loading
and interpolating
between
the
values
from
the two
quations
given
above.
The
following
pressure coefficients
should
be
used for rigid foundation
conditions
unless
a more exact analysis
of
movements is
made;.
(a)
Counterfor
or gravity type
wails founded
on
ock
or
piles
Ko
+ AKAE
Cantilever
walls
les
than 16 feet (5
metres)
high
founded
on
rock
or
piles
(K
o
+
+
(C)
ny
wall
on
soil foundations
or
cantilever
walls
higher
than 16 feet (5
metres)
K
A
+ KAE
The
point of
application
of the
resultant
of the ea'rth
pressure and hence
the
pressure distribution
shou d be
deermlned
similar
to figure
19 (with
PAE a 2/3H).
Dn
h
d be
earth-
rigid
23-
SECTION 5
THE
EFFECT
OF
SURCHARGES_
5.1
UNIFO4
SURCHARGES
Uniform
surcharge
loads may
be
Converted to
an
equivalent
height of
fill
and the
earth
pressures
calculated for
the
correspondingly
greater
height.
The
equivalent
height
is
given
by:
be

cos
B

cos
(6
)
The
depth
of the
tension zone
in
cohesive
material is
calculated
from
the
top
of the
equivalent
additional
fill.
The
distribution
of pressure
for
the
greater
height is
determined
from
the
procedures
given
in
sections
3
and 4.
The
total
lateral
earth pressure
is
calculated from
the
pressure
diagram
neglecting
the
part in
tension
and/or the
part in
the
height
of
{ill
equivalent to
the
surcharge.
Concrete
buildings may
be
represented
as a
uniform
surcharge
of
200
Ib/ft2
(10
kN/m
2)
per
storey.
Timber
buildings may
be
taken as
half
the
above.
Traffic
Ioadina,
when
at
a
greater
distance
than
2/3
ties
the
height
of
the
wat from
the
back face
of the
wal
may
be
represented
as a
uniform
surcharge
of
250
lb/f
tz
[12
kN/m
2)-
The
two
loading cases
shown
in
figure
29
need to be
considered.
5.2
LINE
LOADS
Where
there
is
a
superimposed line
load
running
a
considerable
length
of
this
load
can
be
added
wed
e
to
which it is
applied see
parallel to the
wall
the
weight
per
unit
length
hl
to the
weight
of the
partclr,t[h
o
ssure
will be
given
fro
te
[..;i
n
The
increased TOTa
r
-h=ne
the
Do
nT OT
&K
fgure
line
load wi a,s

trial
wedge
procedur
t
rut
e
method given in
figure
17 may
be
i
application
of ths
TOTal
,=='"
Th_
ud
to
give
the
distributlon ot
pressure.
mce
hen
the
line
load is
small in
comparison
with
active
earth pressure,
zith
the
effect of the
line
load
on
its own
shguld be
determined by
the
method
given
in figure
31.
This
is
based
on
stresses
in
an
elastic
medium
modified by
experiment.
The
pressures
thus
determined
are
supeFimposed
on
those due
to
active
earth pressure
and
other
effects.
5.3
POINT
LOADS
Point
loads
cannot be
taken
into
account by
trial
wedge
procedures.
he
method
based
on
Boussinesq'S
equations
given
in
figure
31
should be
used.
A
similar
method is
given
in
appendix H of
reference
2.
24
SECTION
6
EFFECTS
OF WATER
6.1 STATIC
WATER
LEVEL
Where
part
or
all of the
soil behind
a
wall is
submrged
below
a
statig
water level,
the
earth
pressure is changed
due to the hydrostatic
pore pressures set
up
in the
soil.
The
water
itself
also
exerts lateral
pressure
on
the wail
equal to the
depth
below
the
water table
times
the density
of water.
If cohesionless
soil is fully
saturated,
and the
water
in the
voids is
not flowing,
the
pore water
pressure at
a
depth,
y
b'elow
the
water table
is
equal to
Yw Y
where
Xw
is the
density
of
water.
This
means
that
the
effective
vertical
pressure due to the
amount of soil that
is
submerged
is sat Y
Yw Y"
The
effect
of the hdr
[
. w.aJlc pore
water
pressure
may
be ,Ken nTO
account
by
using
the
submerged
density
of soil, y',
for of the
earth
pressure
diagram
which
is below
the
water
table
see
that
part
figure
32.
Alternatively
all t:e forces
acting
on e
soil
wedge including
the
hydrostatic
normal uplift
pressure
on
the failure
plane
and the lateral
hydrostatic
pressure
may
be included
in the trial
wedge
procedure
see
figure
14.
In cohesive
soils the
pore water
pressures set
up
during
construction
will
override
any
hydrostatic
pore
pressure.
Where
tension
cracks
occur, lateral
hydrostatic water
pressure should
be included
for the
full
depth
of the
crack
as
given
in 3.3.4
or
for H/2
hichever
is less.
If however
shrinkage
cracks
are
l!able
to form
to
a"
depth
greater than
that
given
above,
water
pressure should
be allowed
for
the
full
depth
of
such shrinkage
cracks.
The
maximum
depth
varies
with
soil
and climate
but
may
be taken
as
5 feet
(1.5
metres).
Full
lateral
water
pressure
must
be
allowed
for
below
the highest
level
of the
soffit of
the
weep
holes
or
other
drainage
outlets.
Static water
pressure always acts"
normal to
the
surface
of the
wall.
6.2
SEEPAGE
PRESSURE
If the
water in the
soil
voids is flowing,
the
pore water
pressures
will
be
changed from
the hydrostatic
values
by
an amount
proportional
to
the
flow
of water.
For
major
s
ructures,
the
pore water
pressures under
seepage conditions
should
be
determined
by flow
he+
procedures
see references
I, 5
or
6.
The
pore water
pressures
normal
to the
failure
surface
of active
or
passive
wedges
affects
the
earth
pressure act
ng
on a
wall.
The
resuliant
uplift
force
on
the
fai
ure surface
determined
from
a
flow
net is applied
in the
force
polygon
for the
soil
wedge together
with
any
lateral
water
pressure
at the
wall
see
figure
14.
Fdr
an approximate
analysis
the
uplift
intensity
may
be
taken
as being
equa to the
pressure of the
vertical
height
of
water
between
ground water
table
level
(may
be sloping)
and
a
point
directly
beneath
on
the failure
surface.
Figure
32
shows
a
flow
net for
seepage from
the
ground surface
behind
a
wall with
a vertical
drain.
For
C
C
S
stat
c
oids
is
able
is
rged
s
ay
be
t:at rt
era
I-
-rustion
should
r
H/2.
to
a
ed for
with
teral
offit of
ssures
nal to
conditions
or
6.
r
passive
It uplift
in the
)ressure
lift
ical
heigh
oint
net
for
in. For
25
cohesionless materials
sustained
seepage
under the conditions shown would
Increase
the active force 20 to 40 percent
over
that for dry
backfill,
depending
on
the backfill shearing strength.
6.3
DYNAMIC WATER PRESSURE IN EARTHQUAKES
Yhe
dynamic
pressure
of
any
water in the backfill should
be
taken into
account by applying the seismic coefficient
o
the weight of water in the
failure wedge
as
well
as
to the soil.
If the nonobe-Okabe equations
are
used
with the
Submerged
density Of
the
soil below the water table, the seismic coefficient must be scaled
up
by
Ysat/Y
to allow fop the
mass
of the water.
The dynamic
pressure
of water in front of
a
wall (e.g.
a quay
wall) is
usually not taken into consideration because this usually acts in
a
direction
opposite
to the
pressures
from the backfill material.
6.4 DRAINAGE PROVISIONS
Water
pressures
must be included in the forces acting
on
the wall
unless adequate drainage is provided. For walls less than 6 feet (2 metres)
high, drainage material is usually only provided
on
the back face of the
wall, with
weep
holes to relieve water
pressure see
figure 34. In these
circumstances
it
may
be desirable
or more
economic to design for hydrostatic
water
pressure.
In general, if the drainage system shown in
figure
33 is
used,
water
pressures may
be neglected both
on
the wall itself and
on
the soil failure
plane. Adequate drainage reduces the rate of softening of clay filling
and of stiff-fissured clays and lessens the likelihood of reductions in the
strength of the foundations, and is therefore
very
desirable for clay soils.
It Is worth noting that in cohesionless
soils,
the active force
on a
wall with static water level at the top of the backfill is approximately
double that for
a
dry backfill. For walls
over
20 feet (6 metres) high,
particular
care
should be taken to
ensure
that the drainage system will
control the effects of water according to the assumptions made in design.
Many recorded wall failures
seem
to be the result of inadequate drainage.
Water should
Feferably
be prevented from entering the backfill from the
surface, otherwise
any
resulting
seepage pressures
must be allowed for in
design.
Drainage
material should have
a
permeability at least 100 times that
of the material it is meant to drain. If this is achieved,
pore
water
pressures due to
seepage
will be minimised at the boundary and the soil
mass
will drain
as
though it had
a
free boundary. Permeabilities of
granular (drainage) materials
are
given in figure 35.
The filter principle must be used when
seepage
is from fine grained to
coarser
grained materials, to prevent movement of the fines and possible
choking of the
coarser, more
permeable material. The following particle
size ratios should generally be provided:
26
D15C
DSO
C D15
C
D-SF _
5,

25,
--<
40
D50
F
DIS
F
where
D15
C
size
at which 15%
by
weight
of the
coarse material
is
fier
DI5F
"
"
" 15$
"
-
" "
fine
,,
,,
,,
DSOC
" "
" 505
,,
,,
" "
Coarse ,,
,,
,,
DSOF ,t
,,
" 50%
"
"
" "
fine
"
.
."
D85F "
"
" 85%
"
"
" "
fine
,,
,,
,,
For
clay
soils
the
D15
C
size
should
not be less
than
0.2
mm
and the
DSO
criterion
may
be disregarded
but
he
filter
(coarse)
material
must be
well
graded
such that:
D60C

20
Dio
C
The
filter
material
must also
have
sufficient
permeabi ity
so
that
the
seepage
can
pass
through
to the
drainage
material
or
drain.
To
avoid head
loss
in the filter
the
following
additional
provision must
be
met:
DI5C
------>5
DI5F
To
avoid internal
movement of
ines,
the
filter
should
have
0-5%
passing
the No.
200
s,eve, and to
avoid
segregation
it should
not
contain
sizes
larger
than
3 inches.
The
above
criteria
mean that
the
following
grading
is the finest required
for
any
filter
materia
protected:
regardless
of the
material
that
is being
Sieve
Sze
3i16"
No.
7
No. 14
No.
25
No.
52
No 100
No.
200
Percent
Passing
100
92
74
5O
25
.8
0
Material
surrounding
a perforated
subsoil
drain
pipe
must have
a
D85
size
9reater
than the
diameter
of the
pipe
perforations
f
net
he
D50
t be
we
passing

sizes
nest
is being
ave a
D85
27
SECTION 7
STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS
7.1 GENERAL
The stability of
a
free standing retaining structure end the soil
containing it is determined by computing factors of safety
or
'stability
factors' which
may
be defined in general terms
as:
Moments
or
forces aiding stabi.lity
Fs
Moments
or
forces causing instability
Factors of afey should be calculated for the following separate modes of
failure:
(a)
Sliding of the wall outwards from the retained soil.
(b)
Overturning of the retaining wall about its toe.
(c)
Foundation bearing failure.
(d)
Slip circle failure in the surrounding soil.
The forces that produce overturning and sliding
are
also producing the
foundation bearing
pressures
and therefore (a) end (b) above
are
inter-
related with foundation bearing failure in most soils. In
cases
where the
foundation is soil, overturning stability will usually be satisfied if
bearing criteria
are
satisfied. However it
may
be critical for strong
foundetion materials such
as
rock,
or
when the base ofthe wall is small,
which is the
case
with crib walls.
From settlement
and ilting considerations in soil materials, the
resultant of the loading
on
the base should be within the middle third for
static loading and within the middle half for earthquake loading. For
rock foundation
material,
the resultant should be within the middle half of
the base for both static'and earthquake loading.
When ca-lculating
overall stability of the wall.the lateral earth
pressure
is calculated to the bottom of the blinding layer,
or
in the
case
of
a
basw with
a
key, to the bottom of the key.
The vertical
component
(if any) of the resultant earth
pressure
is
added to the weight of the wall system when computing stability factors.
If the essive resistance of the soil in front of
a
wall is included in
calculations
for stability, either the top 18 inches (0.5 metres) of the
soil should be neglected,
or
only 2/3
of the calculated
passive resistance
should be used..
Stability criteria for free standing retaining wal
flure 36.
s are
summarised in
28
7.2
SLIDING
STABILITY
7.2.1
7.2.2
Base
Without
a
Key
Sliding
occurs along
the
underside
of the
base.
The
factor
of
safety
against
sliding
calculated
as:
Fs (sliding)
(Wt
+ Pv)
tan
b
+ CbB
+ Pp
PH
must be
at least
1.5
for
normal loading
and at least
1.2
for
earth-
quake loading.
Base
With
aKey
If the
passive
resistance
of the
soil in
front
of the
wall is
neglected,
the
critical
surface
for
sliding
is
Usually
the
horizootal
plane
through
the
bottom
of the
key.
If
passive
resistance
is to
be included,
the
criticl
failure
surface
may
be
along
a
plane
from
the bottom
of the
key
to the
toe
(reduced
passive
resistance).
The
weight
of
soil in
front
of the
key
and be-
low
the
base
down
to the
critical
failure
surface
should
be
included
in the
total
weight
W
t see figure
I.
The
factor
of
safety
against
sliding
should
be
as
in 7.2.1
above.
Th
angle
of base'friction
may
be
taken
equal to the
@ of the
foundation
soil
since
the
failure
surface
is
almost
completely
in
the
soil.
7.3
OVERTUrnING
STABILITY
Moments
calculated
about
the
bottom
of the
front
of the
toe
must
give
an overturning
factor
of
safety:
Fs
(overturning)
_Mments
resistinq
ova-turn"
f
at least 2.0 for
normal loading
and
of at least
1.5
for
eal-fhquake
loading.
7.4
FOUNDATION
BEARING
PRESSURES
74.1
Vertical
Central
Loads
The
ultimate
bearing
capacity
of the
foundation
soil
on
which
an
each
retaining
structure
rests
should
generally
be
detecmined
rom
a
theoretical
analysis
of the
foundation
USing
the
soil
Froperties
obtained
from
testing
as
the
construction
proceeds.
The
applied
loading
should
provide
a
factor
of safety
of 3.0
against
ultimate
bearing
failure
for
static
loading
and
a
factor
of
safety
of 2.0 for
earthquake
loading.
Saturated
sand
or
silt
which
y be
susceptible
to liquefactio
(see
z.l)
is
not
recomehded
as
a
foundation
material.
ded
ible
7.4.2
The
recommended method of calculating the bearing capacity
applies
to both
earthquake loading and static loading. No consideration
need be
made for the cyclic effects of dynamic
load
or
the dynamic
properties
of the soil.
The ultimate
bearing
capacity for
a
shallow (D

B) strip foundation
Is given In general terms by:
-Q-=
cN
c
sd
c
+ D Nq Sqdq + BNy sydy
qult
BL
Y

Y
The bearing
capacity factors Nc, Ng and Ny (for
a
horizontal
strip
foundation
under vertical
concentric loading),
are
calculated
from
the angle of shearing
resistance
of the foundation
material.
This
assumes
that the material is reasonably dense
so
that
failure
would
occur
by
general shearing.
If the material is'loose
c
and should
be reduced to 2/3
of the actual values,
i.e. c' 2/3c
and tan '
2/3
tan . The ultimate
bearing
capaqity for
a
shallow foundation
that is not
a
continuous trip is obtained by multiplying
the
bearing
capacity factors
by
corresponding
empirical shape factors
(s
c,
Sq
and sy).
The bearing
capacity factors
may
be further
multiplied
by depth
factors (dc,
dq and dy) which take into
account the shearing
'..resistance
of the soil above foundation
level.
Bearlg
capacity factors,
shape factors
and depth factors
based
on
Meyerhof's
assumptions (references
16
or
19)
are
given in figure
37.
Similar factors
according to Hansen
are
given in referenqe 27.
Eccentric
Loads
If the load
on
the foundation
is eccentric this
can
substantially
reduce the bearing capacity.
To allow for this the base width, B
is reduced to
an
effective
width B'
given by:
B t"
B 2e
Where e-is the--load
eccentricity.
For
a
footing
eccentrically
loaded
in two directions
(el, eb) the
effective
dimensions
of the base become
such that the centre of
an
area
A'
coincides
with the
vertical
component of the
applied load,
A'
B
x
L'
where L'
L- 2e
B'
B 2e
b
U
and B'
replace L and B in all
equations.
The factor of safety
is given by:
Fs
(bearing)
qult
where
q
A- V,
q
for
a
rectangular
footing
for
a
continuous
strip footing.
7.4.3
7.4.4
?.4.5
Inclined
Loads
Where
the
load
on a
horizontal
continuous
strip
foundation
is
inclined,
which
is the
case for
most
retaining
wails,
the
vertical
Component
of the
ultimate
bearing
capacity
is
compared
with
the
bearing
pressure from
the
vertical
component
of the
applied
loading
to
obtain
the
factor
of
safety.
According
to
Meyerhof,
the
vertical
component
of the
ultimate
bearing
capacity is
given
by:
qult(v). CNcq
+

y
B Nyq
where
Ncq (depending
on
N
c
and Nq)
and
Nyq
(depending
on
Ny
and Nq)
are
beari.fig
c)pacity
factors nodified
for
the
degree
of inclination.
If the
inclination
of the
applied
loading
is large
and'the
foundation
depth,
D is
small,
a
sliding
failure
may
occur first.
A
variation
of the
above
situation
is
where
the
base
is inclined
so
that
the
applied
loading
is
normal to
it.
In this
ease the
bearing
pressures
are calculated
normal to the
base,
and Meyerhof,s
ultimate
bearing
capacity
is
iven
by:
qult cNcq
+
y
B Nyq
The
bearing
capacity
factors Nc
and Nyg
for
the
two
cases mentioned
are given
in
figure
38 for
embement
rafios,
D/B
of 0
and I.
The
factors
for
intermediate
embedment
ratios
may
be
obtained
by
linear
interpolation.
In
the
particular
Case where
@
o,
Meyerhof's
ultimate
bearing
Capaci.ty
(or
the
vertical"
component
of it)
is
given
by:
qult
or
qult.(_9)cN_+
yD--
As
an
approximate
alternative
to
the above
method,
the
terms
in
the
ultimate
bearing
Cpacity
equation
in 7.4.1
may
be
modified
by
inclination
factors
to
allow
for
the
inclined
load
see reference
19 (Meyerhof's
method)
and 27 (Hansens
method).
The
bearing
Capacity
of
a rectangular
footing
is
approximately
the
same
as
a
strip
footing
at
a
load
inclination
angle
of 15
to
the
vertical.
Eccentri
Inclined
Loads
When
a
foundation
carries
an eccentric
inclined
load,
an estimate
of
the
ultimate
bearing
Capacity
may
be
obtained
by
combining
the
methods
given
in
7.4.2
and 7.4.3.
The
procedure
in .the
Case of
a
horizontal
base
is
given
in figure
38
but
it
also
applies
when
the
base
is
inclined
see reference
17.
Foundations
on
a
Slope
When
a
shallow
foundation
Is
located
on
the
face
of
a
slope
or
at
the +op
of
a
slope,
ultimate
bearing
Capacity
is
reduced
see
reference
18.
For
slopes
less
than
30
the
decrease
in
bearing
a
ng
i-;ng
te
nta
7.4.6
capacity Is small for clays but
can
be considerable for sands and
gravels. However in clays the bearing capacity of
a
shallow
foundatibn
may
be limited by the stability of the
whole.slope.
The ultimate bearing capacity according to
Meyerhof'Is
given by:
qult
cNcq +

Y
B Nyq .
The'bearing capacity factors, Ncq and yq for
a
strip fo,'dation
wlth concentric vertical load!ng
are gven
in figure 39.
If the foundation is located
on
the face of
a
clay slope less then
half
way up
the slope the stability of the slope will not affect the
bearing capacity and
a
stability number, Ns, of
zero
should be used.
If the foundation is located
on
top of the
lope
the bearing capacity
varies with the distance from the slope. When.the foundation
material is cohesive, the ultimate bearing capacity also depends
on
the slope stability, number, which must be calculated for the
particular situation. In the particular
case
of
a
purely cohesive
soil (@ o) the slope
stability
number is given by:
N
s

H/C
and
qult =.
cNcq + yD
The ultimate bearing capacity of
a
foundation located
more
than half
way up a
clay slope
may
be estimated by using
a
slope stabiiity
number intermediate between
zero
and that appropriate to the
case
of
a
foundation at the top of the slope.
Eccentric applied loads
may
be taken into
account
by the methods of
7.4.2.
Effect of Ground Water Level
The
equations given'in
7.4.1 to 7.4.5 apply when the ground water
table is at
a
distance of at least B below the base of the
foundatTo. "---n the--water table is
t
the
same
level
as
the
foundation, the submerged unit weight of the soil below the
foundation should be used. For intermediate levels of the water
table the Ultimate bearing Capacity should be interpolated between
the above limiting values.
7.5 SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE
For walls
higher
than 30 feet (9 metres), slip circle failure in the
soil containing the wall should be investigated. The slip circle
stability factor:
F
s
(slip circle)
N tan +
cl
T
should
be
t
least 1.5 for static loading and at least 1.3 for
earthquake
loading.
An effective stress analysis using appropriate
pore
water
pressures
Is recommended.
Earthquake
loading
should
be allowed
for by
applying
a
static
horizontal
force to the
soil
mass
as
described
in 4.1
using the
design
seismic
coefficient
determined
from
4.2.
Computer
programs currently
available
for this
type of
analysis
include ICES-LEASE
and the Ministry
of Works
SOILS
program. The former
is
considered to be
more accurate,
however
at
present it does
not have
the capability
for including
the horizontal
force
for
the
earthquake
loading, which SOILS allows.
8.1 GENERAL
SECTION 8
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
81.1
Codes
Reinforced concrete design should be in accordance with NZS 3101P
(reference 20) with reference to ACI 3i8-71 (reference 21) for those
requirements not covered by the New Zealand code.
8.!.2 Material Strengths and Allowable Stresses
The following material strengths (with the
corresponding
allowable
stresses)
are
recommended. However in
some cases an
increased
concrete strength with correspondingly increased allowable stresses
may
give
some economy:
Reinforcement,
Deformed structural grade to NZS i693:1962
Yield stress, fy 40,O00Ib/in
2
(275 MN/m
2)
'Allowable tensile stress, fs 20,000 Ib/in
2
(138
MN/m).
Concrete
Nominal compressive strength, f'c 3,000 Ib/in
2
(20 MN/m
2)
Allowable
compressive stress, fc 1,350 Ib/in
2
(9.3 MN/m
2)
Allowable shear stress, fv 60 Ib/in
2
(0.41MN/m
2)
Modular ratio,
n
9.
For earthquake loading the above stresses
may
be increased by
33%.
8.1.3 Ultimate Strength
If ultnae.zength d#ign methods
are
used for proportioning
a
structural
section, the design load shall be computed
so
thai the
capacity of the section shall not be less than:
U 1.35 (DL
+ 1.35 EP + W);
or
U 1.08 (kDL
I..25 (EQ
+ W))
where DL
EP
dead load of the structural element
static earth
pressure
acting
on
the element (inclJdine
the effects of
any
surcharge loads)
EQ earthquake
earth
pressure
acting
on
the element
W hydrostatic
water
pressure
k ='1.2
or
0.8 whichever
is
more severe,
to allow for
vertical acceleration.
If USD is used,
a
serviceability check
on
"crack widths at working
loads shall be made to
ensure
that the limits
given in clause 3.1.9
of NZS 3101P
are
not exceeded.
q
8.1.4
"8.1.5
8.2.2
Reference
23 gives
an
example of USD of
a
cantilever
retaining
wall.
Cover
to Reinforcement
(a)
Concrete below
ground
(i)
(ii)
.(b)
cast against natural
ground
cast
egainst formwork
or
blinding
concrete
Above
ground
inches
mm
3.0
75
2.0
50
(i)
cast-in-situ
concrete
1.5
40
(ii)
precast
components

1.25
30
CY/:
he
thickness
of architectural
finishes
is neglected
when
ca
culating
Fover
to steel
or
stresses.
Selection
of Hall Type
For walls
up
to 25 feet (7.5 m) high where
crib walling
is not suit-
able,
a
cantilever
wall will
usually be found @o
be the
most
economical.
For higher
walls
en
investigation
should
be
made for the relative
economies of using
a
counterfort
or
cantilever
wall.
This should.
take into
account unit costs for formwork,
reinforcing
steel, and
concrete,
end not just "all
in"
cost
per
cubic
yard of final
wall..
Counterfort
walls should
have
approximately
a
30 ft. (9 metre) bay
length
(varied
to suit
architectural
finish
etc.) with three
counter-
forts
per
bay.
The
position
of the
counterforts
is obtained
by
considering
the stresses
in the stem.
TOE DESIGN
For
Length
of toe
Effective
depth at face
of
support
>
I,
design
according to NZS 3101P.
face of
support.
Shear
may
be taken
at Wd'
out from
LenQth
of toe
Effective
depth
at face of
support

I,
design
as a
0racket in
accordance
with
section II.14
of ACI 318:71.
ter-
8.3 STEM DESIGN
8.3.1 Stem Leading
.
For the stem design in cantilever and counterfort walls,
te
earth
pressure
acting
on
the vertical plene through the
rear
of the heel
Isprojected onto the stem.
8.3.2 Lower Section of Counterfort Wall Stem
Th
bottom
LS/2
of the stem is to be reinforced fer vertical
spanning action in addition to horizontal spanning.
Bending
-re
M
+re
M
wLs
2
-re
M
=-25--
where
w
is the
considered.
moments
per
unit height of stem
may
be assumed
as:
Ls2
14
WLs___.
22
(horizontal steel)
(horizontal steel)
(vertical steel)
lateral design
pressur e
at the level being
8.3.3 Horizontal Moments in Counterfort Wall Stem
Bending moments in the top part of the stem
may
be celculated from:
-re
M
wLs2
(horizontal steel)
+ve M
wLs2
(horizontal steel)
16
Use continuous horizontal steel in both faces. Horizontal B.M.
variations with height should be catered for by varying the
reinforcement spacing in preference to changing the bar sizes.
When caFculating-the bending moments for the stem, the
span
should
be taken
as
.the clear
span
between counterforts (Ls).
8.4 HEEL SLAB DESIGN
8.4.1 Loading
The
design
loading
on
fhe heel slab is shown in figure 40. The
foundation bearing
pressures may
be calculated by using the theory of
subgrade reaction (see 2.7). For
a
rigid base slab this theory
gives bearing
pressures
whlzh
vary
linearly
across
the base width.
The
pressures
for
use
in structural design
are
not the
same as
those
used to check the factor of safety against ultimate bearing
failure
(section 7.4).
If the resultant
cuts the
base within the
mdde third the toe and
heel
pressures for
structural
design
may
be calculated
from:
p
V/BL
6
Ve/B2L
8.4.2
8.5
where V the
vertical
component of the
resultant
loading
on
the base
B the
base
width
L the
length
of wall for which
the
resultant
earth
pressure
is
calculated
(usually
unity).
If
th
resultant
lies
outside
the middle
third:
2V
Pmax
(B/2
e) L
Heel Slabs for
Counterfort
Walls
The heel
siab
for
counterfori-
wails
shouI
be designed
as a
lab
spanning in two
directions
if
a
key is included
at the
rear. The desig bending
moments
may
be obtained
from tables
in
reference
15.
Alternatively,
the heel
slab
can
be divided
into 4
or
5
strips,
of approximate
width
3.5 feet
(I
metre)
to 5
feet
(1.5
metres)
spanning between
counterforts.
The
outermost
strip including
the key
can
be designed
as
a
L-beam
for
bending,
its breadth
equal to the strip width.
The
width
of the key
strip
resisting
shear
should
be
assumed
as
the
maximum
width
of the
key
plus half
the thickness
of the heel
slab.
Bending
moments
mey
be
calculated
as
in 8.3.3.
Each
strip
should
be designed
for the
average load occurring. Th
critical
section is at the
face
of the
counterforts
where
shear stresses
are
not to
exceed stresses
in
section
8.1.2.
This
shear will
usually
govern
the heel
thickness.
The heel
slab should
also be
considered
as
strips
spanning
at
right angles
to that
mentioned
above,
i.e.,
between
stem line
and key strip.
Simple
aSsumptions
can
be
made
as
to
end fixity
of these strips
and
an approximate
amount of
reinforcing
provided.
COUNTERFORT
DESIGN
Vertical
steel
in the
counterfort
is
required
to
carry the
net load
from
each strip
of the
heel
slab.
The
main
moment
reinforcement
for" the-
wall is
usually
concentrated
at the back
of the
counterfort.
Where
it
joins
the heel
slab,
the
above
steel
should
be
considered
as
taking
only
that
load
ocurrlng
on the
outermost
strip
incorporating
the key,
as
defined
in 8.4.2
above.
Horizontal
steel
in the
counterfort
is
required to
carry the
net load
on each horizontal
strip
of stem.
Cut-off
positions
for the
main tensile
steel in the
counterforts
is
shown
in
figure
41.
8.6 KEY DESIGN
In general the depth to width ratio of the key should be
approximately
one.
It is difficult to predict what the force acting
on
the key will be. An epproxlmate design horizontal
load
on
the
hey
is:
horizontal loads causing sliding
0.4
x
total vertical loads above blinding layer.
This load acts at
I/3
key height frombottom
of key. Design the key
as e
bracket
refer 8.2 above. Note
some
stresses
are
carried from the
key lnto the bottom of the heel slab, and will call for
some
reinforcement
In that
area.
8.7 CONTROL OF CRACKING
(a)
To mlnimise cracking in the retaining
structure:
Provide shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
equal to 0.25%
of the
gross
concrete
area as a
minimum in both directions
in all members.
In the stem:
(b)
(c)
(d)
2/3
of this steel to be
on
the outside face
I/3
of this steel to be
on
the earth face.
Specify that the coscrete
placing and temperature
is to be kept
as
low
as
practical
especially in the
summer
period.
Specify
successive bay construction.
Specify early curing for the
purpose
of cooling
so as
to minimise the
heat rise.
(e)
(f)
Place the steel in bar sizes to limit
crack width to 0.01 inch (0.25
(see code requirements).
Added protection
can
be given by painting the earth face with
say
two
cats of "MulsealJ_or
"F..intcoat"
(reference
24).
38
SECTION 9
SPECIAL
PROVISIONS
FOR CRIB WALLS
9.1 GENERAL
A considerable
amount of llterature
is
available
from Crlbwal
Unit
Manufacturers
(e.g.
Hume,
I.C.B.,
Cement Products)
and also Portland
Cement
Association
on
the design
of
crib walls.
However,
care must be
exercised
in interpretatlon
of this data.
Crib walls
must be checked
for stability
in
accordance
with
section 7. Figures
43 to 46
may
be
used
as an
aid In determining
the
maximum
height
for
different
well thicknesses.
The
crib units
and wall
construction
should
be in
eccordence
with
the
current Ministry of"
Works
stendard
speclflcetion
for
this
work (MOW
7562).
9,2 DESIGN LOADING
The
pressures ecting
on a
typical
crib well
are
shown In figure
42. These
pressures
are
calculated
by the
methods
of sectlon
3.
Earthquake
Ioeding
will
usually
not be
applied
to crib
wells, but
if it is the
methods of section 4 should
be
used.
9.3 FOUNDATION
DEPTH.
The
minimum
epth
of foundation
shall
be
as
shown
in figure
42 which Includes
a
continuous
concrete foundation
slab.
A
minimum
slab thickness of 6 inches
(150 ram)
reinforced
with
one
layer
of 655
mesh is
recommended
to
prevent differential
settlement
of the
wali structure.
The
consequences of
such settlement
are
described
in
reference
25.
F] 9.4
DRAINAGE

A continuous
6 Incb__(5.0_)
diameter
(minimum)
subsoil
drain
should
be
provided
at the
reer of the foundetion
slab,
to
ensure
a
dry foundatlcn.
(-'
This
should
be
provided
for all heights
of
crib
wall.
Adequate
drainage
Of
the
whole
crib structure
is
essential.
Many
of
the
failures
in crib walls
heve
oCcurred because
material
of low
permeability was used
as
backfill
thus developing
high
static
or seepage water
pressures. .A free draining
backfill
should
always
be
used if possible,
otherwise
the effect
of water should
be allowed
for.
Unless
effectively
drained
over
the
full
height
crib walls
should
be. designed
to
resist lateral
hydrostatic
pressures in addition
to
sell pressures.
9.5
MULTIPLE
DEPTH
WALLS
Walls
of
more
than
single
depth
should
be checked
at the
changes
from
Single
to double
and double
to triple
depth to satlsfy
the
following stabillty
crlterla:
For normal conditions
resultant to be within middle I/3.
This will
ensure
that
no
part of the wall structure is in tension.
For earthquake conditions resultant to be within the section of the
wall.
-The appropriate overturning factor of safety must
also
be met at these
sctions.
9.6 HALLS CURVED IN PLAN
Crlb walls with
a convex
front face
are
much.more susceptible to
damage
by transverse
deformations than
are concave
walls
see
reference
25.

40
AhPENDIX
I
REFERENCES
4.
5.
6.
7.
Huntington, W. C.
(1957):
John Wiley and Sons.
"Earth Pressures and Retaining
"
Institution of
Structural Engineers
(1951):
"Earth Retaining
Structures". Civll Engineering Code of Prectice No. 2.
Prepared by Civil Engineering Codes of Practice Joint Committe.
US Department of the Navy
(1971):
"Design Manual Soil Mechanics,
Foundations, and Earth
Structures". Navfac DM-7.
TschebotariofF, G. P.
(1951):
"Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and
Earth
Structures". McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Terzaghi,
K.'and
R. B. Peck
(1967):
"Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice". 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons..
Scott, R. F.
(1963):
Publishing Co.
"Principles of Soil Mechanics". Addison-Wesley
Gould, J. P.
(1970):
"Lateral Pressures
on
Rigid Permanent
Structures". ASCE Speciality Conference Lateral Stresses in
the Ground and Earth Retaining Structures.
8. Broms, B.
(1971):
"Lateral Earth Pressures due to Compaction of
Cohesionless
oils"
Pro. 4th Budapest Conference
on
Soi'l Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering.
9. Tennessee
Valley
Authority(1951):
"The Kentucky
Project".
Technical eport No. 13..
10. Kuesel, T. R.
(1969):
"Earthquake Design
Criteriafor
Subways".
Proc. ASCE Structural Division, ST6,
pp.
1213-i231.
11.
lZ.
Japan
Society_o_Engiqgrs
(1968):
"Earthquake Resistant
Design for Civil Engineering Structures, Earth Structures and
Foundations in Japan".
Seed, H. B. and R. V. Whitman
(1970):
"Design of
Earth
Retaining
Structures for Dynamic Loads". ASCE Speciality Conference
Lateral Stresses in the Ground and Earth Retaining Structures.
13.
Standards Association of New Zealand
(1965):
"NZS 1900 del
Building.Bylaw Chapter 8 Basic Design Loads".
14. N.Z. Ministry of Works
(1972):
"Highway Bridge Design
Brief".
Issue B with amendments to July 1973
or
Issue C (metric
version).
15. Bowles, J. E.,
(1968):
Foundation Analysis and Design". McGraw-Hil
Book CO.
16.
Meyerhof,
G. G.
(1951):
"The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of
Foundations Geotechnique Volume II.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
23.
Meyerhof, G. G.
(1953):
"The
Bearing Capacity
of Foundations
under
Eccentric
and Inclined
Loads". Proc. 3rd International
Conference
on
Soil Mechanics
and Foundation
Engineering.
Meyerhof;
.G. 6.
(1957):
"The
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
of
Foundations
on
Slopes".
Proc. 4th International
Conference
on
Soil Mechanics
and Foundation
Engineering.
Meyerh0f, G. G.
(1963):
"So6e
Recent Research
on
the Bearing
Capacity
of Foundations".
Canadian Geotechnical
Journal,
Volume 1, No...].
Standards
Association
of New Zealand (1970):
"NZS 3101P
Code of
Practice
for
Reinforced
Concrete
Design".
American Concrete
Institute (1971):
"Building
Code
Requirements
for
Reinforced
Concrete (ACI
31-71)"o
Urquhart,
L. C.; C. E. O'Rourke;
and G. Winter (1958):
"Design
of
Concrete
Structures".
6th Edition.
McGraw-Hill.Book
Co.
Fergus0n,
P. M. (1958):
"Reinforced
Concrete
Fundamentals".
2nd
Edition. John
Wiley
and Sons.
Evans, E. P. and B. P. Hughes (1968):
"Shrinkage
and Thermal
Cracking
in
a
Reinforced
Concrete
Retaining
Wall".
Proc.
Institution
of. Civil Engineers,
Volume
39.
Tschebotari0ff,
G. P.
(1965):
"Analysis
of
a
High
Crib Wall Failure".
Proc. 6th International
Conference
on
oil
Mechanics
and
Foundation
Engineering.
Br0ms, B. B. and I. Ingels0n (1971):
"Earth
Pressure
against the
Abutments
of
a
Rigid
Frame Bridge".
Geotechnique
Vol. 21, No. 1.
Hansen,
J. B.
(1970):
"A Revised
and Extended
Formula
for Bearing
Capacity '';--
-The-Danish'Geotechnical
Institute,
Bulletin
No. 28.
Cullen,
R. M. and I. B. Donald (1971):
"Residual
Strength
Determination
in Direct Shear".
Proc. Ist
Australian-New
Zealand
Conference
on
Geomechanics.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9,
10
11.
12
13
14
15
16.
17
"18
19
2O
21
22
23
24
25
26
28
29
APPENDIX II
FIGURES
Loading
on
typical retaining wall
Rankine earth
pressure,
cohesionless soil, constant backfil slope
Rankine
active earth pressure
coefficients
Coulomb.
earth
pressure,
cohesionless soil constant
backfill slope
Coulomb
active earth
pressure
coefficients, @
25
Coulomb failure plane for active
pressure,
cohesionless soil with
uniform
sloing backfill
Rankine earth
pressure,
soil with cohesion,
horizontal ground surface
Trial wedge method,
cohesionless soil
Trial wedge method,
cohesionless soil,
Culmann's construction
Trial wedge method, soil with cohesion
Trial
wedge method, layered soil and
pore
water
pressures
Approximate
method for
direction of Rankine earth
pressure
Point of application of active
pressure
Point of application of resultant
pressure
and
pressure
distribution
Braced excavation
pressure
distributions
Mononobe-Okabe earthquake earth
pressure
Active
earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on a
vertical
plane, @ 25
Active earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on a
vertical
planes @
3
Active
earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on a
vertical
plane, @ 35

Active
earthquake
earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on a
vertical
plene,@ 40

Active
earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for pressure
on
wall with
B
14
,
@
25o
Active earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on
wall with
B -14

@ 30

Active earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on
wall
wih
B
=-14

@
35

Active earthquake earth
pressure
coefficients for
pressure on
wall wlth
B -14

@
40

Earfhquake loading, trial wedge method, soil with
or
without
cohesion
Uniform surcharge load
cases
": 43
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
,1.3
44
45
6
Trial
wedge active
pressure Includl.ng
ilne
load
Lateral'pressure
distribution
on
wall due to point
and Ilne
loads
Static
water
pressure, and
seepage
pressure for drained
walls
Drainage
details
for backfilled
walls
Drainage
system for low walls
and crib
wall drainage
Permeability
of drainage
materials
Stability
criteria
for retaining
walls
Beari.ng
capacity of shallow
footings
wlth
concentric loads
Beari.ng
capacity
for" inclined
loads
Bearing
capacity for foundations
on
slopes
Des.ign Ioai.ng
on
heel
slab

'Cut-off'
positions
of main tensile
steel
in
counterfort
wall
Pressures
on
typical"
crlbwall
Cribwall
design
curves,
normal
loadi.ng,
30
,,
.
.
,.
.
40
Crlbwal
design
curves, earthquake
loading, 0
o
,,
.
,,
'
.
.
40

RANKINE
EARTH
PRESSURE:
:'Io
H ESI
O NLESS
SOL
",

,,CONSTANT
BACKFILL
SLOPE:
'-'-.
FAILURE
PEANES
FOR

RANKIN
CTIVE
STATE

PRESSURE
ON
VERT
PLANE
The followin
9
equations
require
That The
each
pressure acts af The backfi 1.
ACTIVE
PRgSSU
H

PA
KAY

KA
cos

(cos -
/os
2

T
cos
2
eA
45

+
/2
(-)
where
sin
wifh O<

<90

For
m
0 KA
I-
sln

sin

PASSIVE PRESSURE
H
2
Pp
Kp
y
--
A
45
+
/2
Kp
cos

(
2

cos2
)
ap 45 /2
+

()
Note
the
angle between
the
failure
planes
for the
passive
pressure
case
is
90
+ .
+ sin s
ep
45

/2
For

0
Kp
sin

FFI
GURE
2.
RANKINE
ACTIVE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
COHESlONLESS SOIL
WITH
UNIFORM
SLOPING
BACKFILL.
PRESSURES
ON A
VERTICAL
PLANE,:
0"90
0 -80
H
PA

"
H2
KA
cos
7(COS z

cosZ
)'.
0.50
0"30
0 5
10 15
BACKFILL
SLOPE
20
25

50
IFIGURE
COULOMB
EARTH
PRESSUR
E
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
CONSTANT
BACKFILL
SLOPE
.umed
faure
plane
B
----"i'e,

/ actual
failure
surface
FAILURE
WEDGE
FOR
AgTIVE
STATE
ACTIVE
PRESSURE
ON

BACK
OF WALL.
The
following
equations
give
only
an
'approximate'
solution
for
the
earth
pressure when
static
equilibrium
is
not fully
satisfied.
The
departure
from
an
'exact'
solution
is
usually
very small for
the
active
pressure case
but
passive
resistance
may
be
da.ngerously
overestimated
ACTIVE
PRESSURE
H
cos
2
(-IB)

cos(+)
c
(e-)J-

cot CA-)
-tan (++-)
+
sec
(++-)
(+6)
sin (+6)
-
cos (-)
sin (-m)
If the
pressure su.rface
AB is
projected
on
to
a
veical
plane,
the
pressure
per
unit of
ve
cal distance
at
a veical
depth,
y
below
the
top
of the
wall is p'
K
A y y.
for 6
m
and
O, K
A
Rankine's
value.
PASSIVE
PRESSURE
Pp
I<p
T
2
Kp
cos
cos
(+B)1
L cos(+8) cos(m-)J
for
6

and
6 0,
Kp
Rankine's
value
FIGURE
COULOMB
ACTIVE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFI.CIENTS
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
WITH
UNIFORM
SLOPING
BACKFILL.
"0;8
0-5
"0.4.
0.:5
0.2
-20
-I0
BACKFILL
SLOPE
0
I0 20
Wt-ILUIVI
ACTIVE EIARTH
FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
WITH
UNIFORM
SLOPING
BACNFILL.
0"9

0"1-20
-I0
CKFILL
,0
SLOPE
I0
20
(D

6
I
r:
COULOMB
ACTIVE EARTI4
PRESSURE
COEFFI.C!E NTS
FOR COHESIONLESS SOIL WITH UNIFORM
SLOPING BACKFILL.
=
55

0"9
0"7
0;'2
-20 -I0
BACKFILL
.0
SLOPE
I0 20 50
40
IF
GLIIE
7
CuuILoMB
ACTIVE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFIICtENTS
FOR CONESIONLESS
SOIL
WITH
UNIFORM
SLOPING
BACKFILL.
K
A
O
-20
-iO
BACKFILL
,O
IO
20
SLOPE (.D
COULOMB FAILURE PLANE
COHESIONLESS SOIL WITH
BACKFILL.
FOR ACTIVE PRESSURE
UNIFORM SLOPING
,I
Ol
ANKINE
EARTH
PRESSURF
OIL
WITH
COHESION
ORIZONTAL
GROUND
SURFACF
A' _Tension
zone

.7]
,
/.j

neglected.
i.i
.-
/
A
- I
KAY(H-y
J
FAILURE
PLANES
FOR
PRESSURE
ON
VERTICAL
RANKINE'S
ACTIVE
STATE
PLANE
A-A'
Water
pressure should
also
be
added
on
ALA
..
ACTIVE
PRESSURE
PA KA
"
(H yo)2
sin
{
Yo
2c
tan (450
+
{)
Y
unit
pressure at depth
y
below
top
of
wall,
p KA y(y
Yo)
PASSIVE
PRESSURE
unit
pressure at
depth
y
below
top
of wall
p Kp
y y +
2c/
The
angle between
the
failure
planes
for the
passive
case
is
90

+ 4-
FIGURE
I0
TRIAL WEDGE
METHOD
.COHESIONLESS
SOIL
IRREGULAR
GROUND SURFACE
A
FORCES
ACTING ON
WEDGE FOR ACTIVE
AND PASSIVE STATES
NOTES
FORCE
TRIANGLE
ACTIVE (FULL
LINES)
PASSIVE (DOTTED)
i.
The lateral earth
pressure
is obtained by selecting
a
number of
trial failure planes and
determining
corresponding values of PA (or
.Pp). For the active
pressure case,
the minimum value of PA is
required.and for the passive
case,
the maximum PD is required. These
..'limiting values
are
obtgined by interpolating between
the values for
the wedges selected.
2.
Culmann's
construction (figure 12)
may
be used to determine the
maximum value of PA and critical failure plane for cohesionless soils.

3.
Lateral earth
pressure may
be calculated
on any
surface,
or
plane
through the soil.
4.
See clauses 3.3.1 to 3.3.4 for the direction
of the earth
pressure.
-5..
See figure 16 for the point of application
of PA"
6.
Tetrial
wedge method
ma
also be
use
for
a
level
or
constantly
sloping
ground surface, in which
case
it should yield the
same
result
as
that given by Ran.kine's
or
Coulomb's
equations,
whichever is
applicable.
GUR E FI II.
I.T.IIR
A L WEDGE
COHESIONLESS
CULMANN'S
METHOD
SOIL
CONSTRUCTION
(FOR:
STATIC
EARTH
PRESSURE
ONLY)
Failure
Plane
D
Pressure
Surface
c
4
W
PROCEDURE
I.
Draw line
A-G
at
an
angle of
{o
to the horizontal
for
active
pressure.
2.
Draw
trial
wedges
ABCDI,
ABCD2,
etc.
a
minimum
o
four
will
usually
suffice.
3.
Calculate
the weights
of the
wedges
say
wl w, etc.,
and plot these
to
a
suitable
scale
on
A-G,
each
measured from A.
4. Through
Wl, w
etc.,
draw
lines
at
an angle , (see
text
"for
direction
of PA
and
hence
6),
to intersect
A-l,
A-2,
etc.,
at H, J,
et.
5.
Draw
a curve
through
A, H, J,
etc.
6.
PA is
obtained
by drawing
a
tangent
to the
curve, parallel
to A-G tO
touch
at T. PA is
the line
W-T,
to
the
sae scale
as w,
etc.
7.
The
failure
plane
is the line
through
A and T.
,%
FF GURE
TRIAL WEDGE METHOD SOIL WITH
COHESION IRREGULAR GROUND SURFACE
surface
.on
which
pressure
is
coloulo,ed..
"-,x&
/
7
/
2
3
/
/
/
/
NOTES
TRIAL WEDGES FOR
ACTIVE PRESSURE
!.PA
'FORCE
POLYGON FOR
TYPICAL WEDGE.
yo
Depfh of
Tension
zone
2c
tan(45o+}
COMBINATION OF
FORCE POLYGONS
TO OBTAIN MAX.P
A
The above example show# Rankines conditions But
the
same
principle
applies for CoUlomb's conditions. Adhesion
on
the back of the wall
ignored).
For direction of PA
see
figure 15 (Rankine's
conditions)
or
figure 16
(Coulomb's
conditions).
3.
See figure 16 for point of application.
See figure 17 for resultant
pressure
diagram.
5.
The trial wedge method
may
be used for
a
level
or
constantly sloping
ground surface.
T_R!AL
AND
WEDGE
f',ETHOD
LAYERED
POREWATER
PRESSURES
TRIAL
FAILURE
WEDGE
SOIL
PRESSURE
DITRIBUTIO
Ohl
TRIAL
WEDGE
T
TRIAL
WEDGE
ON
LAYER
I
rE,
u=
and U=
are the
resultant
poreatar
pro=uteo
on the
foilure
wedg.
LAYER 2
FIGURE
14.
YER2
0
tt.J
POINT OF APPLICATION
OF RESULTANT PRESSURE
AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
surcharge
B
.///
A
TRIAL WEDGES
h!
B
A
PRESSURE
ON A-B
Use when
te
ground surface is
very
irregular
or
when
a
non-uniform
surcharge is carried.
PROCEDURE
.1.
Subdivide
th
lne A-4 into about 4 equal parts h
I
(below the depth
Yo
of tension cracing).
Compute the
active
earth
pressures
PI;
P P3' etc.,
as
if each of the
points I, 2, 3, etc.,
were
the base of
the
wall. The trial wedge
method is
Used
for each computation.
Determine the pressure distribution by working down from point 4. A
linear variation of
pressure may
be assumed between the points where
pressure
has been calculated.
Determine the elevation of the centroid of the
pressure
diagram,
.
This is the approximate elevation of the point, of application of the
resultant earth
pressure,
PA"
FIGURE 17
BRACED
EXCAVATION
DEFLECTED
/
/
FAILURE
/ SURFACE
POSITION
PRESSURE
DISTRIE UTION;3
H
EXCAVATION
I.N
CLAY
The above
apparent
pressure
diagrams
may
b
used {or determining
the
sr,., loads in braced
excavations.
EXCAVATION
IN SAND
Area abcd is the
pressure distribution.
acts at 0.50 H above
the base.
See figures
5 to 8 for K
A.
EXCAVATION
IN CLAY
The
resultant,
PH 0.65
K
A y
:
Area
abcd is
the
pressure distribution,
The
shape
of this
diagram the,magnitude
of the
pressures depend
on
the
value
of the stability
number
Ns
yH
C
PH
2<:, N
s
< 5
5< N
s
.75 H PH
87 H
O'4"/H 'TH-4
C
25H
0
"50H
-75H
"50H
.4ZH
lO<Ns<
20
20<Ns
'(1.25-
-O38Ns)Hp
H
,SH PH
"'H- (8-
..N$ ) C
qrH
O
O
(1"5-'075
N
s
)H
0
MONONOBE-OKABE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTH PRESSURE
COHESIONLESS SOIL
CONSTANT BACKFILL SLOPE
H
A
FAI L U RE
EARTHQUAKE
PLANE FOR
LOADI N G
ACTIVE EARTHQUAKE
PRESSURE ON A-B
ACTIVE PRESSURE
PAE

KAE
Y
H2.
cos
2
(q-B-e)
l (os(a++0) cos(-)J
e tan
-1
CF CF
ELI-
f AE-)'=
-tan (++-)
sec
C++-)
cos
(++e) sin (+
cos
(p-9 sin
NOTES
1. The above equations
are
based
on a
resolution of the forces acting
on
awedge
of soil. The effect of
an
earthquake is represented
by.a static horizontal force equal to the design seismic
coefficient times the weight of the wedge.
2.
Where the earthquake earth
pressure
is calculated
on a
vertical
plane through the
rear
of the heel, B is
zero
and is equal to
.
3.
For the determination of the point of application of PAE,!the total
active earthquake
pressure
is divided into two coEBents, PA
(from static loading) and the dynamic increment, 'APAEi=
PAE PA"
PA is applied at I/3H
up
the wall and PAE at
2/3LG;the-'all.
The point of application of PAE is then calculatedby taking
moments, and the
pressure
diagram is determined accordingly.
FIGURE
19
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
COH[-SIONLEoS
SOIL
_1"2"

UNIFORM
SLOPING
BACKFILL.
PLANE
KAE
.0-3.
-20
0"25
0-20
-I
0ol5
i O-IO
J 0 -05
-IO
O
B,4CKFILL
SLOPE
)
IO
WITH.
LT.L
2O
FIGURE
30
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
UNIFOR[VI
SLOPING
BACKFILL.
ITH
PRESSURE
ON
VERTICAL
PLANE
KAE
-20 -10 0 I0
20 30
4.0
0
BACKFILL SLOPE
FIGURE
21
ACTIVE
EARTt4QJAKE
EARTH
.PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOiL
WITH.
UNIFO,-,IL
SLOPING
BACNFILL.
PRE_!_SUR'::
011
VERTICAL
PLANE
0o6
IO-
SLOIE

20
0
-1-!
-4-1
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTH
PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
UNIFORM
SLOPING
PRESSURE
..
=
H
COHESIONLESS SOIL
BAC KF LL.
ON
VERTICAL
PLANE
WITH
-I0 0 I0
BACKFILL SLOPE
(.0

2O 30
40
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
BACK
FIL
I,
EARTH
PRESSURE
..C.OEFFICIENTS
FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
WITI
UNIFORM
SLOPING
PRESSURE
ON
WALL
WITH
-14

=
25 #
H
KA
E
-I0
0
BACKFILL
SLOPE
20
50
FIGURE
2#
EARTH
PRESSURE_
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
UNIFORM
SLOPING
COHESIONLESS
BACKFILL.
SOIL
WITH
{ESSURE ON
WALL
WITH
,
=
-i4

0.4
0.2
0-1
_20
-I0
0
BACKFILL
SLOPE
!0
20
0
FIGURE
Z5
.ACTIV
E EARTHQUAKE
EARTH
PRESSURF
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
FORM
SLOPING
BACK
FILl,
PRESSURE.
ON WALL
WITH
WITH
0.1
-20
-I0
BACKFI
LL
0
I0
SLOPE


20
30 o
FIGURE
26
r
ACTIVE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTH PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS
FOR
COHESIONLESS
SOIL
WITH_
UNIFORM
--SSURE
SLOPING
BACKFILL_
ON
WALL
WITH
,
=
-14 "
-20 " -qO
BACKFILL
SLOPE
I0

50

[FIGURE
27
EARTHQUAKE
LOADING
TRIAL WEDGE
METHOD. ""
SOIL WITH OR WITHOUT
COHESION
IRREGULAR GROUND
SURFACE
2 5
4 5
CFW
FORCES
ACTING.
ON
A

TRIAL WEDGES
FOR
/
Z
EARTHQUAKE

MX.PA
E
PAE
FORCE
POLYGON
FOR
TYPICAL
WEDGE
W
2
\CFW
COMBINATION
OF
//CX
FORCE
POLYGONS
[
TO OBTAIN
MAX.
PAE.
The ab%ve example is drawn for Rankine's
conditions but the principle
applies also for Coulomb's
conditions.
For direction
of PAE
see
figure 15 (Rankine's
conditions)
or
figure 16
(Coulomb's
conditions).
For construction
of
pressure
diagram and point of application
of
resultant
see
figure
19 also clause 4.3.3 for
cohesive
soils.
For
cohesionless
soil the vector
c x
is omitted from the force
polygons,
iFIGURE
28
d
0
_J
Z
Z :Z:
I'00
m
R
/
//
0-4.
-60H
R
0.5 .6H
'
o.
.Ts .59H
0.2 0.4. 0"6 0"8.
VALUE OF PQ
QL
For
m S
0.4

0.20n
PQ(
(0.16
+
n2) 2
PRESSURES
LINE LOAD
PQ 0.55QL
For"m
>
0.4
FROM
1.28m2
n
QL
pQ(L
)
(m
2
+
n2)2
0.64q
L
__
PQ__=__(
m
+
PQ
=
KA QL
FROM
LINE
FORCE
LOAD QL
(approx.
method for low retaining wails)
LINE LOAD
0"5..60 .54H
0"6 -46 "48H
5 1"0 1'5
H
2
VALUE OFPQ ()
For
m _-<
0.4
d
p^
H2)
0.28n2
q'Qp (0.16 +
n2) 3
For
m >
0.4
H
2
1.77m2n 2
pQ(--)
(m2
+
n2) 3
E=m
H
SECTION A-A p'Q=pQ
cos
2
(l.10a)
PRESSURES
FROM POINT
LOAD
Qp
POINT
LOAD
LATERAL
PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION
ON WALL
TO POINT AND LINE LOADS
DUF
IFIGURE
31
0
,,.
o|
'-

I,O
l&. o..
/o_o
+ ,,,

.0
O-t-
O
:; 0 ',
0
1--
6
o
6 6
2
0
0
z
0 0 0 0
z
H
J.,z4/n
OI.LVI
(
LU
.]
Z
W
W
I'-- 6"
LAYER
OF FILTER MATERIAL
3"MIN,
DIA WEEP
HOLES AT IO f
CENTRES.
A
WHERE
'A'
IS LESS
THAN
2ff
FILTER
MATERIAL
CAN
BE OMITTED
IOUS
BACKFILL
BELOW
WEEPHOLE
DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
FOR
LOW
WALLS
I'-O"
NOMINAL LAYER
OF
FILTER
MATERIAL
BACKF
L
MATERII
ORIGINAL
GROUND
CONSTRUCTION
BATTER
AINAGE
MATERIAL
"DDRAI
N G --OL
ET THROU,
GAP
IN BASE
SLAB
C__RI
BWALL
DRAINAGE
6"
MIN.
DIA
SUBSOIL
PIPE,
CONCRETE
BASE
SLAB
FIGURE
:.54
I00
90
8O
:
70
L
6O
_
4O
r
30
20
I0
000 0 0
00) t,O " tO
GRAIN SIZE MILLIMETERS
0o. 9
oO
i0-2
Tj_
iO-Z
o
10_8
0
EFFECT OF FINES ON
PERMEASI[ITY
TYPE OF FINES MIXED WITH
COARSE ORAINED MATERIAL

FINES
FINES
5 I0 15 20 25
PERCENT
BY WEIGHT PASSING
No. 200 SIEVE
COEFFICIENT
OF PERMEABILITY
FOR CLEAN COARSE-GRAINED
DRAINAGE MATERIAL.
CURVE
k,crn/ec
37 "4
2 28 -9
:3 2.75
4 0.06
5 0 -0I
6 "04
7
0 -92
8 0.35
9 0,11
I0 0"04
II
0.01
PERMEABILITY
OF
DRAINAGE MATERIALS
J
FIGURE 55
TYPE
OF
WALL
GRAVITY
SEMI
GRAVITY
CANTI-
".EVER
COUNTER
FORT.
LOAD
DIAGRAM
7
TOE
STABILITY
CRITERIA
FOR
RETAINING
STABILITY
CRITERIA
SLIDING
S (W
t
+ pv tan 6
b
+ CbB
Fs (sliding)
S
+ Pp
PH
1.5 (static
loading)
or
1.2
(earthquake
loading)
OVERTURNING
Moments
about
the toe
of the base
Fs (overturning)
Wt
a
+ Pv f
PHb

2.0
(static
loading)
or 1.5 (earthquake
loading)
Also
check
overturning
at selected
horizontal
planes
up
the
wal for
gravity
type
walls.
BEARING
PRESSURE
Point
where
R
w
intersects
base,
from
toe,
d
Wt
a
+ Pv f PHb
Wt
+ Pv
assuming pp
0
For
soil foundation
material,
d
should
be within
middle
third
of
the base
(static
loading)
or
middle
hal#
(earthquake
loading).
For
a
rock foundation,
d should
be
within
middle
half
for both
static
and
earthquake
loading.
Fs (bearing)
3.0 (static
loading)
or
2.0
(earthquake
loading).
"See
section 7.4
for
calculation
of
factor
ofsafety
for
bearing.
W
t
total
eight
of the
wall in-
cluding
soil
on
toe
plus soil
above
heel
(for
cantilever
and
counterfort
walls
only)
Pv
vertical
component
of PA
PH
horizontal
component of PA
Rw
resultant
of W
t and PA
IWALLS
36
SHAPE
FACTORS
s
c
+ 0.2 N@
B/L
Sq)= (1.00 for
@ 0
sy) (I
+
0.1 N@
B/L
for
For continuous strip
footi.ng
s
c
=.Sq sy
1.0
DEPTH FACTORS
for
D/B
<
d
c
+
0.2
D/B
dq)
ii.00
for 0
dy) (I
+
0.1
Nr@ D/B,
fob
(@
>
10 o
tO: Ny=O for =0
5 I0 15 20 25 50
55 40
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION,
,
DEGREES
N@'=
tan
2
(45

+
3)
L FOOTING LENGTH.
D
| =D
ASSUMED CONDITIONS
i.
2.
3.
5.
D

B
Soil is uniform to
a
depth do
>
B
Water level is lower than d
o
below the base of the footing
The applied load is vertical and concentric
Friction and
on
the vertical sides of the footi,ng
are
neglected
ULTIFTE BEARING CAPACITY
qult
E-Q--=BL
cNc
sc
dc +

Nq
Sq
dq. +

X
B Ny
sy
dy
BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW
FOOTINGS WITH CONCENTRIC LOADS FIGURE 57
INCLI
20
Z
<
I00
m
"'
I0
20
-0 60
80
NATION
OF LOA__D
DEGREES
Q= total inclined
load
B
HORIZONTAL
BASETINCtclNED
ECCENTRIC
LOAD
NOTES
]-
Calculate
effective
base
width
B
=
B-2e
;2.
Obtain
Nyq
and
from
chart
above.
Ncq
3.
Vertical
component
of ultimate
bearing
capacity
quit(v) CNcq
+
yB'
NTq
4.
Bearing
pressure
from
vertical
component of applied loading
qCv)
B'
qblt(v)
F
s
(v)
BEARING
CAPACITY
6
0
20
40 60 80
INCLI______NATION
OF__FOOTING
@ DEGREE
q= normal
pressure(load/area)
INCLINED
BASE
WITH
NORMAL
LOAD.
NOTES
1.
Obtain
and
from
chart
above.
Nyq
Nc
q
2.
Ultimate
bearing
capacity
qult
-=
CNcq +.yB
Ny
I
3.
Fs
qult
q
FOR
AN INCLINED
LOAD
HIGHER
Q ULT.
IS OBTAINED
WITH AN INCLINED
BASE,
A
FOR.
INCLINED
LOADS
FIGURE
38
roundel/on depth/width
3/B=O
Linear
interpolation lot
termed[ale depth
4O
0 tO" 20" 30" 40" 50"
Incliner;on of lope e
FOUNDATION ON FACE OF SLOPE
In general
qult
cNcq +
yBNyq. F
S
qult
q
for
0
quit
CNcq
+'YD
BEARING
DIB
lactarNs I
0 2 3 4 5
Dslonce of
[oundelon from edge of Slope
9/B=I
----

Linear interpolation
0
Dislance of [oundaton [ram edge of
FOUNDATION ON TOP OF
SLOPE
@OEE: The charts given
are
for
vertical loading.
The base
Ns
xH wldth is reduced for
eccentric
c
loads.
CAPACITY FOR
FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPES
FIGURE B
TOE
MOMENT EFFECT
ON HEEL
The
toe
support
moment
produces
a
loading
on
the heel.
If it
is
assumed that
no moment is trans-
mi.tted
into
the stem,
an
equivalent
parabolic
heel
loading
is
as
shown
below,
with
the
maximum
ordinate
given
by
Pt 2.4 MT/a2
where
M
T
is the
toe
support
moment.
WEIGHT
OF
BACKFILL
ABOVE
HEEL
SELF
WEIGHT
OF
HEEL
LOADING
FROM"
TOE
MOMENT
ASSUMED
FOUNDATION
BEARING
PRESSURES
+VE
RESULTANT
LOADING
ON
HEEl_ (May
be
fully positive)
Note:
Pressure
diagrams
not to
scale.
D__ESIGN
LOADING
ON
HEEL
SLAB
FIGURE
&SSUMED 45
CRACK
LINE
FROM B.
ASSUMED a,5
CRACK LINE F
A.
ANCHORAGE
LENGTH
EQUIVALENT
jd FOR
B
AT B.
45 o
A
MOMENT
EQUIVALENT jd FOR
MOMENT
AT A.
MAIN TENSILE
STEEL
'IN
COUNTERFORT.
Point of maximum mornt (maximum
allowable stress in all main tenslle
rein forcement).
B Section of lesser
moment than at
Ao
If
some
of the reinforcing bars
of
the main tensile
steel
were
eliminated then there
would be maximum
allowable stress in the remainin
9
bars.
The Icut off!
position for
some
of the bars of the main tensile reinforcement
is to be the greater of:
(a)
Anchorage
I-h%%
the-ssumed
45

crackline from A.
(b)
12"
past the
assumed 45

cracked lie
from 8.
'jd'
can
be taken
as
the
perpendicular distance
from the centroid of
the
steel to the midpoipt
of the stem slab.
'CUT
OFF'
POSITIONS
OF
MAIN TEN,SIL_F
STEEL
IN COUNTERFORT
FIGURE.
SINGLE WALL DOUBLE WALL TRIPLE WALL
25
ASSUMPTIONS
Soil Properties
30

c:O
y
125 Ib/ft
3
Wall Properties 8 20

W
w
=
I00 Ib/ft
3
Wall Slope B -14

(I in 4)
Water table below base of wall
Live load surcharge equal to 2 ft.
F
s
(sliding) 1.5 min
I0
0 5 i0 15 20
BACKFILL SLOPE
FIGURE 4-:5
CRIBWALL
DESIGN
CURVES
NORMAL
LOADING

=40
(see
figure43for
diagrams )
ASSUMPTIONS
Soil PropePfies
40

c=O
T
125Ib/ft 3
Wall
roperties
6 26.6

.
W
w
100 Ib/ft 3
Wall
Slope

-14(I
in 4)
Water
table
below
base
of wall
Live
load surcharge
equal to 2 ft
of
soil included
Fs (sliding)
1.5
min
Fs (verturning)
2.0
min
5
I0
15
BACKFILL
SLOPE,
2O
SINGLE WALl-. DOUBLE WALL TRIPLE WALL
ASSUMPTIONS
15
I0
Soil Properties {
30


125 Ib/ft
3
Wall Properties 6 20

W
w
100 Ib/ft
3
Wall Slope -14

(I in 4)
Water table below base of wall
F
s
(sliding) 1.2 min
F
s
(overturning) 1.5 min
15 20
SLOPE
0 |FIGURE
I0
5
CRIBWALL
DESIGN
CURVE
_EARTHQUAKE
LOADING
SEISMIC
COEFFICIENT
020
See
figure
4.5 for
diagroms)
ASSUMPTIONS
oil
Properties
Wall Properties
40

c
0
y
125 Ib/ft
3
6 26,6

W
w
I00 Ib/ft
3
Wall
Slope
-14

(I in 4)
Water
table
below
base
of wall
Fs (slidi.ng)
1.2 min
Fs (Overturning)
1.5 min
5
I0
15
BACI<FILL
SLOPE,
2O 25
I
FIGURE
46