Grammar

- Sentence vs sentence fragment

- 4 typees of sentences declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, imperative
- Parts of sencence are: subject (its main part is SIMPLE SUBJECT) and predicate (its main part
is the VERB)
- Clause vs sentence
o Clause can be independent and subordinate
Need to know conjunctions which ones go with independent and which
ones with subordinate clauses
FANBOYS
o For and nor but or yet so
- 4 types of sentence structure
o Simple
o Compound
o Complex
Subordinate clause can be left-branching, mid-branching, right branching
o Compound complex
- Run-on sentence connects two main clauses with comma or nothing. Correct by using full
stop, semicolon, or AND.

Common mistakes in formal writing:
- Sentence fragmen
- Run-on senctence
- And-ness too many sentences joined with ands into one sentence.
- Listlike sentence too long, too much information.
- Of-ness using too many OFs
Parts of speech
- Verbs
o If there are more verbs combined = verb phrase (e.g. will have eaten)
- Nouns
o Common and proper
o Singular, plural
- Pronouns
o Antecedent is the noun that precedes the pronoun that refers to it.
o Relative pronouns
o Definite/indefinite pronouns
o Personal pronouns
o Possessive pronouns
- Adjectives
o Next is an adjective
- Adverbs
o Not is an adverb
o too is an adverb
- Articles
o Adjectives, adverbs and articles are all modifiers.
- Prepositions
o Sometimes more than one word because of, in front of
o Careful with phrasal verbs e.g. to turn in, in is not a preposition
- Conjunctions
o Coordinating join equal elements
And but or nor for yet so
o Subordinating
Join independent and subordinate clauses
o Correlative
Bothand
Either or
Neither nor
Not onlybut also
- Interjections

-tb: numerals are treated as ADJECTIVES in English
3 kinds of Verbs
- Transitive
- Intransitive
- Linking to be most often, but also look nervous look is linking verb. To remain an
achievement, remain is linking verb. LINKING VERBS ARE FOLLOWED BY SUBJECT
COMPLEMENT. She was a novelist novelist is subject complement. Also can be compound
he is a singer and a dancer. it is I I is subject complement.
SENTENCE COMPLEMENTS
- Objects
o Direct
o Indirect appears between the verb and the direct object
Both can be compound more objects joined together. I wwrote him a
letter. He gave his mother and father a car and a house. (2 indirect+ two
direct objects)
What about: I wrote a letter TO HIM. this is a prepositional phrase, not an
indirect object.
VERBS
4 FORMS OF VERBS
- Infinitive (to)
- Present participle (ing) - Gerund (is used as a noun whereas pres.part is used with a
helping verb)
- Past participle (ed)
- Past simple past form, whereas past participle needs auxiliary verb
TENSES
6 most important tenses
- Present
- Past
- Future
- Present perfect
- Past perfect
- Future perfect tense
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
o Only two puproses
Formal request or recommendation in a clause with that. Here, basic form
of the verb is used.
She asked that he report. Doctor recommended that she EAT It
is required that the mayor SUBMIT a review
To describe unreal or doubtful condition, often in a clause starting with if.
If present tense, then the past is used, if past, then the past perfect form of
the verb is used.
If I had a million dollars. He wishes he WERE a musician.
If he had been there I would have done it.
COMMONLY CONFUSED VERS:
Lie, Lie, Lay
VERBS
- Finite
o Can be joined by linking and auxiliary verbs
Linking/copular verbs link subject with a complement that describes it.
These verbs include sensory verbs such as smell, taste, feel, and verbs such
as appear, seem, become, grow, remain
Auxiliary/helping verbs - help form tenses when joined with the main verb
Modal auxiliary verbs indicate modality such as condition, need,
obligation etc. (e.g. you should read)
o Can be transitive and intransitive
o Tense, mood, voice
- Non-finite (to read)
o Also called verbals.
o Include infinitive, gerund and participles.
o Participles
Present part = ing
Past ed or irregular
o Gerund is a verb functioning as a noun
o Infinitive uses to
- Verb phrase consists of the main verb and helping verbs.
- Phrasal verb is a two or three-word verb. Never hyphenated.
o Tense
4 aspects
Simple
Continuous
Perfect
Perfect continuous
o Mood
Declarative
interrogative
Imperative
Subjunctive
Some consider antiquated
o If only it were so
o Voice does the subject act or is acted upon
Active
Passive

PRONOUNS
- KINDS
o Personal
o Interrogative
Who whom whose which what (there are only these 5)
o Indefinite
All each anyone some everybody etc.
o Relative
Introduces subordinate clause
Who whom whose which that (these 5 only)
- Pronoun should match its antecedent in number
- Pronoun CASE
o 3 cases
Subjective case
Pronoun is the subject or subject complement
I you he she they we it
Objective case
Pronoun is the object (direct, indirect, or object of a preposition)
o Him, her, it, us, you
Possessive case
My, mine, your yours her hers etc
- WHO vs WHOM
o Who is subjective case
o Whom is objective case
So: Who/whom did you invite? who is the object here you invited s.o.,
therefore has to be WHOM.
Same rule applies when relative pronoun wh is the one who/whom
painted the picture who is the subject here, so WHO.
- ELIPTICAL CLASUES (clauses with omitted words)
o In order to determine the correct pronoun form, fill in the missing words.
Eduardo is a better dancer than ME/I. missing words = than I AM, not ME
AM.
My dog barks at her as much as at I/me = barks at her as much as at me.
- COMPOUND SUBJECT or OBJECT
o Break them into individual sentences to determine thje pronoun
Rafael and HER/SHE are flying tomorrow.
R is flying tomorrow, SHE is flying tomorrow so SHE, not HER.