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Crime and Choice of Residence in Enugu, Southeast Nigeria: A
Non-Parametric Analysis
Uloma Jiburum
1*
Harold Chike Mba
2
Josephine U. Ezeamama
3
1 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Nigeria Enugu Campus,
2 Centre for Environmental Management and Control, University of Nigeria Enugu Campus
3 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Nigeria Enugu Campus
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Urban residential patterns are influenced by individual and family choices and preferences of housing locations.
The economic, socio-cultural and physical environmental features of urban residential pattern may have some
implication for type and rate of occurrence of crime and the reaction of residents to it as regards to where they
choose to live. This study investigates the effect crime has on households choice of residential location decision
in Enugu. Crime data from Nigerian police record and 400 questionnaires distributed to residents of Enugu
were used for the study. This study showed that crime incidence is lowest in the medium density
neighbourhoods of Enugu. Crime rate, rent and income are the major factors considered by households while
taking decision on residential location in Enugu. The study also showed that awareness of crime in
neighbourhood is associated with household choice of place of residence. Crime rates need to be reduced in all
neighbourhoods to ensure even development of the urban space.
Key words: crime, crime rate, crime occurrence, residential choice
1. Introduction
Nigerian cities are witnessing an upsurge in crime. Crime and insecurity are among the factors that threaten
quality of life and social and economic stability. Crime does not allow for sustainable development. Crime has
been referred to as a violation of criminal law which its formal penalties are applied by some government
authority. It also offends the morality of society, or violates the divine law. Nigerian newspapers report one
form of crime occurrence or another on a daily basis. According to Ahmed (2012), crime occurrence in
Nigerian cities have shifted from simple crime such as stealing, burglary, rape etc to more sophisticated crime of
terrorism, kidnapping, child trafficking etc. The environmental, social health and economic ramifications of this
situation in our cities have tremendous impact on urban economy and security (Ogboi 2009).
It is assumed that high level of crime in a neighbourhood could constitute an obstacle to the development of that
area. This may be because of the fear of crime which also may increase the rate of uneven development within
and between the area and other areas. This seriously undermines development efforts of both governments
(Federal, State and Local) and individuals. The situation may equally result to increasing residential relocation
and decreasing neighbourhood satisfaction. This will adversely affect neighbourhood development.
Urban residential patterns are influenced by individual and family choices and preferences of housing needs,
finance capabilities and existing housing market manipulations. The various socio-economic, socio-cultural and
physical environmental features of urban residential pattern may have some implications for and impact on the
types as well as the rate of occurrence of crime and the reaction of residents to it as regards to where they choose
to live. Studies have been carried out on the relationship between crime and choice of residential location in
developed countries (Cullen and Levitte 1992; Taylor 1994; Moreoff and Samson 1997; Jargowsky and
Yoonhwan 2009 ). In Nigeria, little or no effort has been made in this direction. Existing studies are on crime
rate and the effect of crime on property value (Ekpeyong 1989; Afon 2001; Otu 2010 ) and patterns of violent
crime in urban areas (Agbola 1997 and Ahmed 2012). Enugu the capital of Enugu state in Nigeria has been
experiencing rise in crime. This study investigates the effect crime might have on households choice of
residential location decision in Enugu. This is done by obtaining the incidence of different crimes within the
city. The study also used non parametric analysis to ascertain the relationship between crime and choice of
residence and the type of crime that most influence this decision.
2. Methodology
This research was carried out in Enugu a city with an estimated population of 787196. It is located in the south
eastern part of Nigeria about 200 kilometers from the Atlantic coast. It occupies about 90 square kilometers.
Enugu is the oldest city in south eastern Nigeria. It represents a typical example of a rapidly growing state
capital in Nigeria. It is an administrative town with a high population of literate residents. Residential land use
takes the lion share of existing land use in the city.
The research was carried out using survey method. Both primary and secondary data were utilized in the
research. Secondary data was collected from the State Police Headquarters Enugu (Criminal Investigation
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145
Department). Data collected from this source covered 2000 to 2011, a period of twelve years. Criminal data
from this source was categorized into two; offences against persons and offences against property. Offences
against persons consists of crime such as murder, assault, rape and indecent assault, kidnapping etc, while crime
against property includes armed robbery, theft and other forms of stealing, burglary, housing breaking, arson,
etc.
A questionnaire with 28 questions was distributed to selected neighbourhoods in Enugu. The questionnaire was
designed to elicit information from respondents on crime and its influence on choice of residential location.
Neighbourhoods were first stratified according to housing density (low, medium and high). Four high, two
medium and two low density neighbourhoods were randomly selected from the list (50%). Three streets were
also randomly picked from each selected neighbourhood. A total of 440 questionnaires were distributed in the
selected streets as follows: Two hundred and thirty questionnaires in the high density, one hundred and forty in
the medium and seventy in the low density neighbourhoods. The number distributed was based on household
population in each density. Out of the 440 questionnaires distributed in the city, 300 were used for the study
(143, 107 and 50 for the high, medium and low density areas respectively). Data collected was analyzed, using
descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). Chi square was used to assess the relationship between
types of crime that occurs in a neighbourhood and choice of residence. These were done using SPSS 15.0
version
3. Results and Discussion
Table 1. and fig. 1 shows descriptive statistics and graphical representation of major crimes in Enugu from 2000
to 2011. The table shows that offence against persons (assault) had the highest occurrence peaking in 2003
(437cases) with a mean of 380, standard deviation of 51. Theft and other stealing had the highest occurrence for
crime against property for the 12 years with a peak in 2004 (387cases), mean of 336.33 and standard deviation of
60.47. Crime of kidnap has been on the increase in the last 12 years under study. The low density areas have
the highest incidence of kidnap. This may be as a result of high ransom paid before each kidnapped victim is
released thus making kidnapping lucrative. That may be the reason why kidnap is one of the crimes feared by
low density residents as shown on table 6.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of some crime incidence in Enugu from 2000 to 2011.
Descriptive Statistics
12 23 52 425 35.42 9.100
12 288 437 4570 380.83 51.849
12 18 31 298 24.83 4.840
12 0 39 71 5.92 10.723
12 61 84 902 75.17 8.505
12 36 66 612 51.00 10.583
12 200 387 4036 336.33 60.471
12 49 84 833 69.42 12.573
12 43 76 770 64.17 9.360
12 2 5 42 3.50 1.000
12 59 82 876 73.00 7.471
12
Murder
Assault
Rape
Kidnapping
Other offences under
offences against persons
Armed robbery
Theft and other stealing
Burgery
Housebreaking
Arson
Other offences under
offences against property
Valid N (listwise)
N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation
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The economic recession in the country might have led to increasing incidence of robbery cases from 2007 to
2011. Armed robbery is usually motivated by criminal intent to material acquisition. According to Otu (2010)
in terms of number, the crime problem in contemporary Nigerian society is primarily a problem of armed
robbery. Armed robbery in Nigeria is an imitated, learned and borrowed behavior, embellished by learners
within the constraints imposed by the socio-milieu. This may also explain the increase experienced in number of
murder, burglary and house breaking cases within the same period. All crime types under study occurred more
in the high density areas except kidnapping. This agrees with other studies which showed that crime occurs
more in areas of high density, overcrowding and economically and socially marginalized areas (Stark 1987,
Ludwing et al 2001, Willcox et al 2003). Their studies also showed concentration of crime in the high density
areas. This is consistent with the findings of Freeman et al (1996) who noted that crime can be numerous in
high density areas because the probability of being caught is low in such areas and criminals creates positive
externalities for others and thereby concentrate in such localities. Afon (2001) had similar results in llorin,
Nigeria where crime occurred more in high density residential areas. He found particular criminal activities
peculiar to certain densities. This he attributed to the varying social and economic attributes of residents as well
as environmental characteristics of the residential area. Agbola (1997) also noted that in Lagos, a city in
Nigeria, incidence of burglary, armed robbery, street fighting, hooliganism and drug dealing were more in high
density residential areas. His study demonstrated that there are notable geographical variations in the pattern of
crime location and that these variations differ with respect to type of crime. Occurrence of some of the crime in
Enugu is shown in Fig 1. It can be seen that crime incidence is lowest in the medium density neighbourhoods as
shown in Fig. 2. This is consistent with the findings of Erodogan (2010) who found crime occurrence to be
positively related to density. Mukoro (1994) in contrast, reported high rates of violent crime in low and medium
density areas of Lagos, Nigeria. His interpretation was that areas where people with high socio-economic status
resided recorded higher levels of violent crimes. Closer analysis of his presentation, however, showed that this
was not consistently so.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
t
i
m
e
s
Fig 1 Incidence of some crimes in Enugu 2000 to 2011
murder
rape
idnap
armed robber!
burger!
"ouse breaing
arson
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Vol.4, No.17, 2014
147
Source Police Headquarters Enugu (CID) 2012
The socio economic status of the respondents is shown on Table 2. Most of the respondents had some formal
education. Only 6.3% of the respondents did not have any formal education.
Table 2. Socio-economic status
Marital status Highest Education attained Age of Respondent
Single 65
Married 170
Divorced 2
Widowed 63
Total 300
No formal Education 19
Primary level 32
Secondary level 86
Tertiary level 140
Above tertiary 23
Total 300
Below 30 years 85
30 40 years 55
41 50 years 77
51 60 years 39
Above 60 years 44
Total 300
Source : Field survey 2012
The major types of criminal activities that respondents have experienced directly or indirectly are kidnap,
robbery, auto theft, burger, larceny and rape/assault. Table 3. shows the views of residents on reasons for crime
occurrence in their neighbourhoods and the urban area. Residents in all the densities see poverty as a major
reason for criminal activities in Enugu. For the medium and low densities, 52.3% and 50.6% respectively
consider poverty as a reason while 37% of residents in the high density areas consider poverty as reason.
Negligence by government is seen as another reason by 25.5%, 24.7% and 23.3% of residents of high, medium
and low density areas respectively. Inadequate security in the neighbourhoods is another reason by 9.4%,
11.2% and 4.7% in the high medium and low density areas respectively. Unemployment is considered a reason
by 20.9%, 11.2% and 11.6% of residents in the high, medium and low density areas respectively. The residents
do not see lack of concern for their neighbourhood as a major reason for crime occurrence in the
neighbourhood.
Table 3. Reasons for criminal activities in neighbourhoods of Enugu.
Density Reasons for criminal activities
Poverty Inadequate
security
Negligence by
government
unemployment Lack of concern
by residents
High 145 37 100 82 28
Medium 45 10 22 10 2
Low 45 4 20 10 7
Total 225 (40.3%) 51 (9.6%) 142 (25%) 102 (18.3%) 37 (6.6%)
Source: Survey 2012
In considering neighbourhoods for residence, crime rate, rent, income and building type are some of the main
considerations by persons in the high density areas. The medium density residents consider rent and crime rate
more while for those in the low density areas, it is rent, crime rate and income. Nearness to friends/ relations and
social class are not considered by residents of the high and medium density areas while they are considered by
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
idnapping #urg$ar! %uto t"eft &ape 'tea$ing %rmed
robber!
Fig( 2 )rime incidence in some neig"bour"oods in Enugu * 2000 to
2011+
,ig"
-edium
.o/
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residents of low density areas. (See Table 4). Molin et al (2003) study of Benelux summarized that regardless of
the study area and model specification, accessibility considerations are significantly less important than housing
attributes and the attributes related to neighbourhood.
Table 4. Factor considered in choosing residence
Density
Ren
t
Aesthe
tics
Prestig
e
Buildi
ng
type
Incom
e
Crime
rate
Accessibilit
y
Infrastructure Nearnes
s to
friend/r
elation
Social
class
High 145 21 7 59 63 156 47 30 0 0
Mediu
m
45 10 2 10 2 34 4 8 0 0
Low 44 28 20 10 42 43 17 15 6 24
Total 234 59 29 79 107 233 68 53 6 24
Source survey 2012
The types of crime that most influence residents in choosing residential location are shown on Table 5..
Robbery is considered to influence the choice of residential location by 49.1%, 67.7%, and 43% of residents in
high, medium and low density areas respectively. In the low density areas, 37.8% of them consider kidnapping.
The Hiscox Group (2001) placed Nigeria on the 6
th
highest in kidnapping. Kidnapping in Nigeria has been
attributed to ethnic militia, bloody politics, unemployment, failure of government to provide basic amenities,
dirty politics, traditional rulers and communities encouraging crime and security failures (Akpan 2010)
Kidnapping for ransom occurs more in the low density areas in Enugu. The occurrence of rape/indecent assault
is considered by many in the high density areas in choice of residence. This may be due to the higher incidence
of rape in these areas. See Fig. 2. Rape ranges from highly predictor and harmful stranger perpetuated act to
violations between acquaintances or even those romantically involved. In Enugu and most Nigerian cities, rape is
under reported due to stigmatization. The incidence of rape in high density areas may be due to the type of
buildings common in these densities (tenement) where many households live in a building and share toilet and
bathing facilities. Females are mostly the victims of rape/indecent assault. Linden and Rockoff (2008) found
that individuals have a strong distaste for living in close proximity to sex offenders. From the data collected it
was found that 61.7% of the respondents have had cause to relocate or move residence because of crime either
directly affecting them or in their neighbourhoods, while 38.3% have not had cause to relocate due to crime. The
fear of being a victim of crime as shown by Farrel et al (2007) can erode public health and can alter routine
activities and contribute to some places turning into no go areas through withdrawal from community, this can
drain community cohesion, trust and neighbourhood stability. One of the attributes of residential choice location
is security. Neighbourhoods become obsolete when security deteriorates as security causes value to change and
demand for some neighbourhoods change (Katzman 1980; Dugan 1999; Xie and Mc Dowall 2008; Jargowsky
and Yoonhwan 2009).
Table 5. Crimes that most influence residence choice
Density
Kidnap Robbery Auto theft Burglary Larceny Rape
High 24 58 6 28 10 9
Medium 21 70 0 7 3 0
Low 77 89 30 8 0 0
Total 121 216 36 43 13 9
Source survey 2012
Chi square was used to test the hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between choice
of residential neighbourhood to live in and type of crime that occurs in the neighbourhood (i.e. that they fear
more) . The result suggests that there is a significant relationship with X
2
(8) = 62.09, (P < 0.01. The
contingency coefficient was .331. This suggests a medium size effect. The second analysis which was also
tested with chi square suggests that a significant relationship exists between residents awareness of crime in
neighbourhoods and their choice of residence X
2
(4) = 27.10, P< .001. This suggests that residents check out the
incidence of crime in a neighbourhood before making decisions on whether to rent or build in that
neighbourhood. This is consistent with the findings of Gibbon (2004), Moreoff and Samson (1997) who noted
that crime has negative consequences for neighbourhoods including increased mobility and decreased
neighbourhood satisfaction. Jargowsky and Yoonhwan (2009) asserted that crime is a major factor for middle-
class flight and is a cause of suburbanization. Gibbon (2004) also found out that spatial concentration of crime
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can have dynamic effect driven by household location decision. Fear and direct cost associated with property
crime may discourage home buyers, inhibit local regeneration and catalyse a downward spiral in neighbourhood
status. High crime rates deter new residents and motivate those who can to move out to lower- crime rate
neighbourhoods. Cullen and Levitte (1992) got results consistent with a strong relationship between changes in
crime rate and urban flight. They found out that almost all impact of crime on city population results from
increased out-migration. Highly educated households and households with children were most responsive to
crime. They causally linked rising crime rate to city depopulation.
4. Conclusion
This study has looked at the incidence of some crimes in Enugu. The study showed that since 2007 the
incidence of most crimes has been on the increase especially in high density residential neighbourhoods. This
result is consistent with results of other studies in developed and developing countries where crime rates are
more in high density neighbourhoods. The study also showed that residents of Enugu do consider occurrence of
different types of crime in the neighbourhoods before taking decisions on where to live. Some crimes influence
this decision more than other crimes. Different crimes influence low, medium and high density residents in their
choice of residence. To ensure even development of Enugu and indeed all cities in Nigeria, crime rates especially
that of kidnap and house robbery has to be reduced.
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