Flowmeters and Their Apps:

An Overview
Here are 11 ways to measure flowliquid, gas, and steam. One is sure to be just right for your
application.
Jesse Yoder, Flow Research, Inc.

Nearly every type of flowmeter can be assigned to one of two

categories: traditional and new technology. The traditional meters are:

Differential pressure
Positive displacement
Turbine
Open channel
Variable area

These devices were introduced before 1950. Some of their performance

characteristics, such as accuracy, are at a lower level than their newer
counterparts and their maintenance requirements are greater. For
instance, the orifice plates in differential pressure meters are subject to
wear and can be knocked out of position by impurities in the flowstream. The various
technologies represented in this group have been slow to incorporate recent advances in
communication protocols such as HART, Foundation Fieldbus, and Profibus.
The new-technology flowmeters include:

Coriolis
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Vortex
Multivariable differential pressure
Thermal

These were introduced after 1950. They take advantage of

modern microprocessor-based technology. Their
construction and operating principles avoid some of the
problems inherent in the older meter types. And they
generally outperform their precursors, particularly in their
accuracy levels of 1.0% or better.
Traditional Flowmeters

Established, familiar flow measurement devices are still

holding their ground in many applications, and their
installed base is much larger than that claimed by the newer
devices. In fact, the number of positive displacement and
turbine meters sold in 2002 was about the same as the total
number of new-technology flowmeters sold that year.
Differential Pressure. Differential-pressure (DP)
flowmeters (see Figure 1) incorporate an obstruction in the
flowstream

Figure 1. Differential pressure

flowmeters insert an obstruction in the
flowstream to reduce the flow rate and
thus the pressure. Flow rate is
calculated by taking the difference
between upstream and downstream
pressures. (Photo courtesy of Honeywell
IMC.)

that reduces flow velocity. This reduction has the

effect of lowering the fluid pressure as well. The DP
flowmeter measures the difference between upstream
and downstream pressure, and computes flow rate
based on that difference. The amount of pressure
drop depends on the type of primary element used.
Orifice plates cause substantial loss of line pressure,
while averaging Pitot tubes cause less.
DP meters excel at measuring clean liquids, steams,
and gases in applications that are not adversely
affected by pressure drop, that require low-tomedium accuracy, and where price is a consideration.
They are considerably less expensive than most
Coriolis and ultrasonic meters.
Figure 2. Positive displacement flowmeters
capture a liquid sample in a small container and
calculate flow rate by counting the number of
captures and fills. (Photo courtesy of FMC
Measurement Solutions.)

Positive Displacement. Positive-displacement (PD) meters

(see Figure 2) operate by capturing the fluid to be measured
inside a small container of known capacity, and then
counting the number of times this is done. The speed of
flow therefore is not of consequence to these meters. They
excel at measuring low flows and those with high viscosity.
Highly accurate, PD meters have been approved by various
regulatory bodies for use in custody transfer operations
such as commercial and industrial water, natural gas, and
hydrocarbon liquids as they are transfered to and from
delivery trucks. They also do well with liquids that would
give other meters headacheshoney, oil, and syrup.

Figure 3. The rotor in turbine flowmeters

spins at a rate proportional to liquid flow
rate. Shown here are an insertion
(center) and an inline type (left). The
small meters in the foreground are also
turbines. (Photo courtesy of Hoffer Flow
Controls Inc.)

Turbine. These flowmeters (see Figure 3) incorporate a

rotor whose blades spin in proportion to flow rate. They
therefore are at their best with steady, high-speed flows.
They are also are more adaptable to large pipe sizes (>12
in.) than are PD meters.

There are at least eight types of turbine meters, each

designed for a specific set of applications. Among these are custody transfer of
commercial and industrial water, hydrocarbon-based and other liquids, and natural gas.
Open Channel. Open-channel flows are those in
which a liquid flows in a stream or conduit that is not
closed (e.g., a river), or in a partially filled pipe that
is not pressurized. The open-channel meters that
measure them (see Figure 4) come in different
flavors. Some require hydraulic structures such as
weirs or flumes, similar to the primary elements of
DP meters. The liquid of interest passes through the
structure, and flow rate is calculated based on the
level or depth of the passing fluid.
Figure 4. Open-channel flowmeters are called for
when the liquid of interest is not closely confined
or pressurized. The Model 2150 area-velocity
meter shown here monitoring flow at the bottom
of a manhole does not require a weir or flume,
although many such flowmeters do. (Photo
courtesy of Isco, Inc.)

Another popular method is velocity area, in which the

velocity of the stream is computed by one method
(e.g., electromagnetic), and the level or depth by
another (e.g., radar). These values are then used to
determine flow rate, although the area of the flow
must also be known. There are also ultrasonic open-

channel flowmeters.
These flowmeters are the only game in town when it comes to open-channel applications.

Variable Area. Most variable-area (VA) flowmeters

(see Figure 5) consist of a tapered tube containing a
float. Fluid passing through the meter exerts an
upward force on the float that is counterbalanced by
the force of gravity. The point at which the float stays
constant indicates the volumetric flow rate, which is
often read on a scale on the meter tube. The tubes are
made of metal, glass, or plastic. Metal, the most
expensive, is used for high-pressure applications.
While most VA meters are read manually, some
incorporate transmitters that generate an output
Figure 5. Variable-area flowmeters typically
signal, which can be sent to a controller or recorder. contain a float that is forced upward by the fluid
through. The point of equlibrium between
These meters are not a good choice for high-accuracy passing
this force and that of gravity indicates the
volumetric flow rate. (Photo courtesy of ABB Inc.)
applications, but they do very well when a visual
indication of flow is sufficient. They are quite
effective at measuring low flow rates and can also serve as flow/no-flow indicators.
Because they do not require electric power, they can safely be used in flammable
environments.
New-Technology Flowmeters

Coriolis. In 1835, the French mathematician

Gustave Coriolis demonstrated that an inertial force
must be taken into account when describing the
motion of bodies in a rotating frame of reference. The
Earth is commonly used as an example of this
Coriolis force. Because the planet is rotating, an
object thrown from the North or South Pole toward
the equator will appear to deviate from its intended
path.

Figure 6. As a liquid or gas passes through the

(usually) bent vibrating tubes of a Coriolis
flowmeter, the tubes twist to a degree
proportional to the fluids mass flow. The
deflection is measured by a position sensor.
(Photo courtesy of Foxboro)

Coriolis flowmeters (see Figure 6) are composed of

one or more, usually bent, vibrating tubes. Fluid
passing through the tubes accelerates as it approaches the point of maximum vibration
and decelerates as it leaves this point. The tubes twist to a degree directly proportional to
the fluids mass flow, and their deflections are detected by position sensors. Some
manufacturers have introduced straight-tube models, often used for sanitary applications.

Coriolis flowmeters work for both liquids and gases.

They can also handle some fluids with varying
densities that cannot easily be measured by other
meters. While they are highly accurate, with a few
exceptions they are limited in size to 6 in. dia.; more
than 90% of those sold are 2 in. dia. Their high initial
cost (although some models are now available in the
$3000 range) is offset to some extent by low
maintenance requirements.

Figure 7. Magnetic flowmeters operate on

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and
therefore work only with conductive liquids. A
current applied to coils mounted on or outside the
flow pipe generates a magnetic field inside the
pipe. The liquid passing through generates a
voltage proportional to flow rate, which is
detected by electrodes on either side of the pipe.
(Photo by Flow Research, courtesy of Krohne)

Magnetic. Magnetic flowmeters (see Figure 7) are

based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
which posits that a voltage is generated in a
conductive medium when it passes through a
magnetic field. This voltage is directly proportional
to the length of the conductor, the density of the
magnetic field, and the velocity of the conductive
medium. These three values are multiplied together,
along with a constant, to yield the magnitude of the
voltage.

Magnetic flowmeters, or magmeters, use wire coils mounted on or outside a pipe. A

current applied to the coils generates a magnetic field inside the pipe. A conductive liquid
passing through generates a voltage proportional to flow rate that is detected by
electrodes mounted on either side of the pipe.
Magmeters are highly accurate and do not create a
pressure drop. They can measure only liquids, not
gases or steam. They are popular for use on
conductive liquids and slurries, including paper pulp
slurries and black liquor. Because they cannot
measure hydrocarbons (which are nonconductive),
they are not appropriate for most petroleum industry
applications.
Ultrasonic. These flowmeters (see Figure 8),
introduced to industry 1963, are available in two
Figure 8. This multipath ultrasonic transit-time
types: transit time and Doppler. Transit time meters
flowmeter uses four pairs of transducers to send
and receive an ultrasonic signal over the same
incorporate a transducer that acts as both a sender and
path length. The values given by the different
paths are averaged to obtain gas flow-rate
a receiver. An ultrasonic signal is sent across the pipe
measurements more accurate than those
at an angle, and the time it takes to travel from one
provided by single-path meters. (Photo by Flow
Research, courtesy of Emerson Daniel)
side of the pipe to the other is measured. The signal
speed is greater traveling with the flow than against
it. The difference between transit time across the pipe and that of the signal traveling in
the reverse direction is proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic flowmeter is

used primarily for clean fluids, although some have been developed that can contend with
impurities.
Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters also send an ultrasonic signal across the pipe, reflecting it
off particles traveling in the flowstream at the same rate as the fluid. As the signal passes
through the stream, its frequency shifts in proportion to the mean velocity of the fluid. A
receiver measures the frequency of the reflected signal, and the flow rate is computed by
comparing the generated and detected frequencies. These meters are used primarily on
slurries and dirty liquids.
Multipath ultrasonic flowmeters use multiple pairs of transducers
that alternate in their functions as senders and receivers over the
same path length. By averaging the values given by the different
paths, the flow rate is determined with greater accuracy than singlepath meters can provide. These meters are used for natural gas
custody transfer operations.
Vortex. Vortex flowmeters (see Figure 9) are based on the von
Krmn effect. According to this principle, a flow will generate
alternating vortices when passing by a bluff body. In a vortex meter,
this bluff body is a piece of material with a broad, flat front mounted
at right angles to the flowstream. Flow rate is calculated by
multiplying the area of the pipe by the flow velocity, which is
proportional to the frequency of the vortices generated by the bluff
body. In some cases, vortex meters require straightening vanes or a
specified length of straight piping upstream to eliminate distorted
flow patterns and swirl. Low flow rates, which generate vortices
irregularly, present a problem for these devices.
Vortex flowmeters have medium to high accuracy, depending on
model and manufacturer. In addition to liquid and gas, they are
widely used to measure steam flow. Recent advances in vortex
technology include the use of digital signal processing to better
handle vibration problems.

Figure 9. Vortex
flowmeters measure flow
by placing a bluff body
across the stream. Flow
rate is calculated by
multiplying the pipe area
by the flow velocity, which
is proportional to the
frequency of the vortices
generated by the bluff
body. These devices are
used with liquid, gas, and
steam. (Photo courtesy of
Venture Measurement
Co.)

Multivariable Differential Pressure. Multivariable DP

flowmeters (see Figure 10) measure temperature and/or
pressure in addition to flow. These values can then be used
to calculate mass flow. Multivariable DP transmitters
become flowmeters when they are attached to or integrated
with a primary element. Some of these transmitters send
their signals to a flow computer, which performs the mass
flow calculation. Others perform this computation within
the flowmeter.
These devices are used with steam and other applications
requiring mass flow measurements.
Thermal. In contrast to most other types of flowmeter,
thermal flowmeters (see Figure 11) measure mass flow
directly. They can be based on a variety of operating
principles, but most involve heat dispersion. Some put heat
into a flowstream and measure the

Figure 10. Multivariable differential

pressure transmitters, when attached to
or integrated with a primary element,
measure temperature and/or pressure
and use these values to calculate mass
flow. (Photo courtesy of Bristol Babcock)

length of time required for dissipation. Others

measure the amount of energy required to maintain a
constant temperature in the flowstream. One type of
thermal flowmeter, the mass flow controller, uses a
bypass method to measure a portion of the flow.
Thermal flowmeters excel at measuring low flows,
primarily gas. They can handle some applications that
defy Coriolis meters because of slow flow rate or
insufficient fluid density. They are less expensive,
but significantly less accurate than Coriolis meters.
Thermal meters are the technology of preference
when low to medium accuracy will do, and purchase
price is a consideration.
Summary

Figure 11. Thermal flowmeters measure mass

flow directly. Some of these devices put heat into

Whatever the application, there is a flowmeter out
the flow stream and measure how long it takes to
there to satisfy it. In addition to the devices discussed dissipate; others measure the amount of energy
required to maintain a constant temperature in
here, there are target meters as well as some new
the stream. They are used for low flows, primarily
gas. (Photo courtesy of Sierra Instruments)
designs based on sonic and photonic principles.
Selection criteria will necessarily include
thecharacteristics of the fluid to be measured; the level of measurement acccuracy
required; the extent to which the fluid can be confined, touched, or altered; accessibility
for maintenance requirements; and, of course, purchase price.

This article was adapted from The World Market for Flowmeters, published in February
2003.

Jesse Yoder, Ph.D., is President, Flow Research, Inc., Wakefield, MA; 781-245-3200,
[email protected].

For further reading on this and related topics, see these Sensors articles.
"A Miniature Flow Sensor with Electronic Temperature Compensation,"
April 2003
"A Mass Flow Controller that Semicon Can't Touch," January 2002
"Adapting Acoustic Monitoring Technology to Detect Bulk Solids Flow,"
September 2001
"Clamp-On Flowmeters for Fluids," August 2001
"A High-Precision Piezoresistive Flow Sensor for Microdosing
Applications," September 2000
"Paddlewheel Flow Sensors: The Overlooked Choice," December 1999
"EMF Flow Measurement in Partially Filled Pipes," October 1999
"High-Temperature Flow Measurement with Wetted and Clamp-On
Ultrasonic Sensors," October 1999
"Turbine Flowmeters," Part 1 and Part 2, October and November 1999
"Ultrasonic Flowmeter Basics," October 1997
"Single-Sensor Measurement of Flow in Filled or Partially Filled Process
Pipes," September 1997
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