1
INVOLVE THE PROCESSES OF DETACHMENT,
TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF SOIL
PARTICLES BY WATER
MAJOR FORCES OF SOIL EROSION: IMPACTS
OF RAINDROPS AND FROM WATER FLOWING
OVER THE LAND SURFACE
Erosion
Sediment
ERODIBILITY
soil which is susceptible to erosion
A soil ability to withstand rainsplash depend partially
upon its texture characteristic
Sand and silt more vulnerable to erode
EROSIVITY
potential energy (wind,rainfall) to cause erosion
To guide in making methodical decisions in soil
conservation planning.
The equation enables the planner to predict the
average rate of erosion for various combinations of
management techniques on a site.
Soil loss estimation is a set of management strategies
for prevention of soil being eroded from the earths
surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse,
acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination
APPLICATION OF SOIL LOSS
IN CIVIL CONSTRUCTION
In civil construction projects, soil loss estimation is used
for the following activities :
Assessment of the potential erosion hazard associated
with the given project
Identification of high risk construction projects during the
planning and/or design phase
The sizing of the sediment storage volume of Sediment
Basins
Assessment of the relative performance of alternative soil
conservation practices, Erosion and Sediment Control
procedures or construction programs
The amount of eroded soil that is
delivered to a point in the
watershed that is remote from the
origin of the detached soil
particles.
In a watershed, soil loss includes
the erosion from slopes, channels,
and mass wasting, minus the
sediment that is deposited after it
is eroded but before it reaches the
point of interest.
Separate
Diameter (mm)
Comparison
Very coarse sand
2.00-1.00
36"
Coarse sand
1.00-0.50
18"
Medium sand
0.50-0.25
9"
Fine sand
0.25-0.10
4 1/2"
Very fine sand
0.10-0.05
1 3/4"
Silt
0.05-0.002
7/16"
Grains invisible to eye, silky to touch
<0.002
1/32"
Sticky when wet, dry pellets hard, harsh
Clay
Feel
Grains easily seen, sharp, gritty
Gritty, each grain barely visible
SOIL SEPARATES
10
SOIL PYSICAL PROPERTIES
RELATIVE SIZES OF SOIL SEPARATES
11
SOIL PYSICAL PROPERTIES
SOIL TEXTURE
12
UNIVERSAL
SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE)
REVISED USLE
MODIFIED USLE
13
UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION
(USLE)
14
Compute average annual soil loss caused by sheet and rill
erosion
Applies to overland flow on slopes
Computes sediment yield from slope
Computes deposition on slope
Computes soil particles
15
Tool for conservation planning
Assess BMP effectiveness
Assess performance goals
Achieve sustainable use of soil resource
Prevent excessive sedimentation
Prevent degradation of water quality
Not for water quality enforcement
16
Cropland
Construction sites
Disturbed forestland
Rangelands
Surface mined land
Reclaimed land
Landfills
17
Easy to understand and use
Minimal resources
Input values readily available
Independent of land use
Vast experience (50 years)
18
Topography
Rainfall
Erosion
Control
R
Sun
LS
P
Crop
C
Soil
Model of USLE Equation
19
Average annual Soil Erosion Loss (t/ha/yr)
Rainfall Erosivity Factor (MJ.mm/(ha.hr.yr))
Soil Erodibility Factor (t.ha.hr/(ha.MJ.mm))
Slope Length Factor
Slope Steepness Factor
Cover and Management Factor
Conservation Practice Factor
RKLSCP
20
The rainfall factor R accounts for differences in rainfall intensity-duration-frequency
for different location, i.e. the average number of erosion-index units in a year of rain
The erosion potential of a rainstorm is directly proportional value of two rainfall
characteristic:
i)
total kinetic energy of the storm (E)
ii)
Its maximum 30 minutes intensity (I30)
The erosivity factor as given by FRIM (1999)
R = (EI 30 )/ 170.2
E = 9.28P 8838.15
Where
I30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity
(mm/hr) for the storm of required ARI
E = annual erosivity (J/m2)
P = annual rainfall (mm)
21
The soil-erodibility factor, K is the rate of soil loss per unit of
rainfall erosivity factor R or EI30 for a specified soil.
It is measured on a unit plot, which is a 22.1m length of uniform
9% slope continuously in clean tilled fallow.
The K factor has unit of mass per area per erosivity unit.
The soil-erodibility are affected are
i)
physical features of the soil
ii)
topographic features
iii)
land management
22
The K factor can also be determined using Nomograph.
The nomograph has been derived from the following
equation (Tew,1999)
100K = 1.0M 1.14(10-4)(12-a) + 4.5(b-3) + 8.0(c-2)
Where;
M = (% silt + % very fine sand) x (100% clay)
a = % organic matter
b = soil structure code
c = permeability class
23
Energy Circuit Model of USLE
24
Malaysia Soil Erodibility Nomograph for Calculation of Soil Erodibility
Factor (K) (Tew,1999)
25
The effects of slope length and steepness are usually combined into one
single factor, namely LS factor, which can be computed by
LS = (/22.13)m(0.065 + 0.046S + 0.0065S2)
where
= slope length (m)
S = slope gradient in percent
m = 0.2 for S<1%, 0.3 for 1%<S<3%, 0.4 for 3%<S<5%,
0.5 for 5%<S<12% and 0.6 for S>12%
Alternatively, the nomograph in FRIM(1999) can be used
26
Slope-Length selection
Runoff begins
Deposition begins
27
Combine Slope Length-Steepness Factor, LS (Wischmeier & Smith))
28
C
P
Cover factor = The ratio of soil loss from an area with
specific cover compared to bare soil conditions.
Management practice factor = The ratio of soil loss
for a given surface condition compared to a hill
where plowing is perpendicular to contours.
Use C factor & P factor charts
29
The cover management factor is the ratio of soil loss from a
field with given cropping and management practices to the
loss from the fallow conditions used to evaluate the K factor.
The factor C also depends upon a period of time within which
weather effects would have varying influences.
30
The conservation practice factor, P is the ratio of soil loss with
one of these practices to the loss with straight-row farming up
and down the slope.
The factor P of USLE is a dimensionless supporting erosion
control, which has a specific value for slope groups from 1.1
to 24% as shown in Table 4
31
Cropping and Management Practices factor (CP)
Land Cover
CP factor
Water body
0.000
Bareland (mining areas, newly cleared land, etc)
1.000
Horticultural
0.250
Permanent Cropland
0.150
Cropland
0.200
Rangeland
0.229
Grassland
0.015
Forest
0.010
Swamps
0.001
Residential
0.003
Impervious
0.005
Commercial
0.008
Construction
1.000
32
Table 4 : Conservation Practice Factor (P) for
Contouring and Terracing
Slope (%)
Conservation Practice (P) Values
Contouring
1.1 2.0
0.60
Terracing (Strip
contourcropping)
0.30
2.1 7.0
0.50
0.25
7.1 12.0
0.60
0.30
12.1 18.0
0.80
0.40
18.1 24.0
0.90
0.45
33
The USLE predicts the average soil loss.
The USLE considers only sheet and rill erosion nor gully
erosion.
The USLE does not calculate sediment deposition.
34
Step 1 :
Determine the R factor
Step 2 : Determine the K value from the nomograph i.e based on the particle size
distribution analysis of the soil sample.
Step 3 : Divide the area into sub-area of uniform slope gradient and length (LS).
Step 4 : Choose appropriate values C to represent the seasonal average of the
effect of mulch and vegetation.
Step 5 :
Use recommended values of P based on the erosion control practice
being considered.
Step 6 :
Evaluate the product of the five factors to obtain the soil loss per
unit area.
Step 7 :
Multiply the soil loss per unit area by the total basin area to obtain
the total
sediment volume.
35
REVISED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS
EQUATION
(RUSLE)
36
Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE)
RUSLE is commonly used to predict long-time average
soil loss rates.
RUSLE considered best estimates based on long-term
average rainfall records.
RUSLE are not absolute values, nor an estimate of soil
losses within a given year or given time period.
RUSLE does not attempt to predict sediment deposition
rates or sediment transportation down-slope of sediment
control measures.
37
Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE)
Similar as RUSLE however, three of the five parameters have been updated.
The updated parameters are :
Rainfall factor, R
Soil erodibility factor, K
Topographic factor, LS
The R factor derived from probability statistic by analyzing additional rainfall
records of individual storm.
The K factor modified to take into account for seasonal changes.
38
Rainfall Erosivity Factor, R
R = 164.74 (1.1177)s S0.64444
Where;
S = 2 year ARI, 6hour rainfall event (mm)
39
Soil Erodibility Factor, K
No.
Soil
Layers
K Factor
Texture
Hydrological Soil Group
Beriah
0.054
Clay
0.057
Clay
0.057
Clay
0.042
Sandy clay
C-D
0.035
Clay loam
0.035
Clay loam
0.049
Sandy clay loam
0.045
Sandy clay loam
0.045
Sandy clay loam
0.048
Clay
0.048
Clay
0.048
Clay
0.048
Sandy clay loam
0.048
Sandy clay loam
0.048
Sandy clay loam
0.046
Clay
0.042
Clay
0.042
Sandy clay
C-D
Bukit Temiang
Chempaka
Clay Over Organic
Holyrood
Organic Clay
40
Accounts for the effect of topography on
erosion.
The L factor represents the slope length, and
the S factor represents the slope steepness.
41
Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS
Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE) Schematic
slope failure
42
Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS
Deposition Beginning and
Ending on a Slope
43
Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS
SLOPE
s (%)
S ()
Slope Length, in meters ()
S (rad)
1.0
3.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
30.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
0.20
0.12
0.002
0.200
0.040
0.050
0.055
0.064
0.069
0.073
0.079
0.088
0.095
0.101
0.50
0.29
0.005
0.200
0.048
0.060
0.067
0.076
0.083
0.088
0.095
0.105
0.114
0.121
1.00
0.57
0.100
0.300
0.046
0.065
0.075
0.093
0.105
0.114
0.129
0.15
0.169
0.185
2.00
1.15
0.200
0.300
0.072
0.100
0.117
0.144
0.163
0.178
0.200
0.234
0.264
0.288
3.00
1.72
0.030
0.400
0.076
0.118
0.144
0.190
0.224
0.251
0.295
0.362
0.426
0.478
4.00
2.29
0.040
0.400
0.102
0.159
0.195
0.257
0.302
0.339
0.399
0.489
0.575
0.645
5.00
2.86
0.050
0.500
0.097
0.168
0.217
0.308
0.377
0.435
0.533
0.688
0.842
0.973
6.00
3.43
0.060
0.500
0.122
0.212
0.273
0.387
0.473
0.547
0.669
0.864
1.059
1.222
8.00
4.57
0.080
0.500
0.180
0.313
0.404
0.571
0.699
0.807
0.989
1.276
1.563
1.805
9.00
5.14
0.090
0.500
0.214
0.370
0.478
0.676
0.828
0.956
1.171
1.511
1.851
2.137
12.00
6.84
0.119
0.600
0.242
0.468
0.636
0.964
1.230
1.462
1.864
2.533
3.23
3.839
14.00
7.97
0.139
0.600
0.309
0.598
0.812
1.231
1.570
1.866
2.380
3.234
4.124
4.902
16.00
9.09
0.159
0.600
0.384
0.743
1.010
1.530
1.952
2.320
2.959
4.02
5.127
6.093
20.00
11.31
0.197
0.600
0.559
1.081
1.469
2.226
2.839
3.374
4.303
5.846
7.457
8.861
25.00
14.04
0.245
0.600
0.823
1.591
2.162
3.277
4.179
4.303
6.334
8.606
10.977
13.045
30.00
16.70
0.291
0.600
1.138
2.199
2.988
4.529
5.777
8.756
8.756
11.896
15.173
18.032
40.00
21.80
0.381
0.600
1.919
3.710
5.041
7.640
9.744
14.769
14.769
20.067
25.593
30.415
LS factor calculated using MSMA approach
44
Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS
The factor that involves the most professional judgement. Length
determinations made by users can vary greatly for the same site.
To apply RUSLE, erosion can be calculated for several different
sub-areas on a site and the results averaged according to the area
represented by each slope length.
Sometimes a particular position on the landscape is chosen as the
location for the slope length to represent the whole site.
45
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
The LS factor uses different eqn. than used in USLE. The eqn. has
been developed to reflect rangeland, row crop, construction sites and
thawing soil conditions.
The C and P factor represents a combined effect of interrelated cover
and management variables.
RUSLE brings in a mixture of empirical and process-based erosion
technology to provide a better measure of the effect land management
on erosion rates.
46
Crop Management, C Factor
47
Erosion Control Practice, C Factor
48
Erosion Control Practice, P Factor
49
Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE)
The limitations of RUSLE can be summarized as follows:
RUSLE provides soil-loss estimates rather than absolute soil-loss data.
The soil-loss estimates are long-term average rates rather than precipitation-event
specific estimates.
There are hill slope-length and gradient limits for which the component RUSLE
equations have been verified.
RUSLE does not produce watershed-scale sediment yields, and it is inappropriate
to input average watershed values for the computation of the RUSLE factors.
50
MODIFIED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS
EQUATION
(MUSLE)
51
Modified Universal Soil Loss
Equation (MUSLE)
The Modified USLE is used to calculate sediment yield of a basin
as a result of a specific storm event.
T = 2 (V x QP) 0.56 x K x LS x C x P
where
T = sediment yield per storm event (tones or tons)
2 = 89.6 for SI units and 95.0 for English units
V = Volume of runoff (cubic meters or acre-feet)
QP = Peak flow ( m3/s or ft3/s )
K, LS, C and P are USLE Parameters
52
EXAMPLES
53
1.
Catchment area :
Total Area for Plot 1 & 2
38500 + 47750
86250 m2
8.62 ha
54
1.How to determine K
Soil Erodibility Factor (K factor)
Malaysia
55
1.How to determine K
Summary of Laboratory Test Result (Deng Seng, 2004)Malaysia
56
1.How to determine K
Summary of Laboratory Factor Analysis Result Summary
Hand
Auger No.
Depth
HA1
HA2
HA3
HA4
HA5
HA6
(m)
% Silt &
Very Fine
Sand
0.5
% Sand
Soil Structure
Classification
Permeability
Classification
K Factor
(0.06 2.0
mm)
%
Organic
Matter
41.7
43.1
0.1
0.12
1.0
37.5
27.1
0.1
0.05
0.5
34.5
53.1
0.1
0.09
1.0
23.4
56.0
0.1
0.08
0.5
36.7
54.3
0.1
0.11
1.0
50.1
38.8
0.1
0.20
0.5
35.1
50.8
0.1
0.09
1.0
36.4
52.9
0.1
0.10
0.5
37.7
49.1
0.1
0.10
1.0
42.2
38.5
0.1
0.10
0.5
83.8
16.0
0.1
0.44
1.0
86.0
13.9
0.1
0.45
Average
K factor
0.09
0.09
0.16
0.10
0.10
0.45
57
1.How to determine K
Malaysian Soil Series
58
1.How to determine K
59
1.How to determine K
60
1.
Calculation of LS factor using equation as follow
LS = (/22.13)m (0.065 + 0.0046S + 0.0065S2)
where
10.0%
0.50 for 5%<S<12%
60.0m
Hence, the LS factor;
LS
1.2531
61
Assuming the condition at site is bareland (newly cleared area)
CP
1.00
62
Storm Event
The design storm event for Plot 1 & Plot 2 (3month ARI)
Plot 1 catchment area = 38500 m2
Plot 2 catchment area = 47750m2
Overland flow length = 500m
Duration of storm
= 16.2 min
Intensity of design storm = 104.8 mm/hr
Runoff coefficient
= 0.74
63
4. Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE
Subcatchment
(m2)
Volume
(m3)
Peakflow
(m3/s)
K
factor
LS
factor
CP
factor
Sediment
Yield
(tones)
38500
806.153
0.8294
0.09
1.2531
1.00
386.04
47750
999.8392
1.0286
0.09
1.2531
1.00
491.31
Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2 = 877.35 tonnes per storm
event
64
Calculation of rainfall factor using the following methods:
i)
Using the following empirical study in Indonesia by Bols (1978)
R1 =
2.5 P2
100 x (0.073P + 0.73)
where
ii)
R1 =
Rainfall Erosivity Factor (MJ.mm/ha.hr.yr)
P=
Annual Rainfall (mm)
Relationship given by FRIM (1999)
R2 =
(EI 30)
170.2
E = 9.28P 8838.15
where
E = Rainfall Erosivity factor (J/m2)
P = Annual Rainfall (mm)
I30 = The maximum 30-minutes rainfall intensity with design ARI
(mm/hr)
65
6. Calculation of soil loss using USLE
3 rainfall stations with their average annual rainfall
No.
Station
Name
Station
No.
Source
Average Annual
Rainfall (mm)
I 30
R factor
(i)
R factor
(ii)
Ladang The Blue
Valley
9001
TNB
2332.3
71.3
795.323
5364.51
Pejabat TNB Kg
Raja
9002
TNB
2226.6
71.3
759.125
4953.59
Alur Masuk
Telom
9003
TNB
1993.3
71.3
679.229
4046.62
Subcatchment
(m2)
R factor
(i)
R factor
(ii)
K
Factor
LS
Factor
CP
Factor
Soil
Loss (i)
(tones)
Soil
Loss (ii)
(tones)
38500
744.56
4788.24
0.09
1.2531
1.00
83.97
540.013
47750
744.56
4788.24
0.09
1.2531
1.00
83.97
540.013
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (Bols eqn.) = 167.94 tonnes/ha.yr
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (FRIM eqn.) = 1,080.026 tonnes/ha.yr
66
Storm Event
The design storm event for Plot 1 & Plot 2 (3month ARI)
Plot 1 catchment area = 38500 m2
Plot 2 catchment area = 47750m2
Overland flow length = 500m
Intensity of design storm = 104.8 mm/hr
Runoff coefficient
= 0.74
67
7. Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE
Subcatchment
(m2)
38500
Volume
(m3)
Peakflow
(m3/s)
K
factor
LS
factor
CP
factor
806.153
0.8294
0.09
1.2531
1.00
Sediment
Yield
(tones)
386.04
47750
999.8392
1.0286
0.09
1.2531
1.00
491.31
Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2 = 877.35 tonnes per storm
event
68
USLE
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (Bols eqn.)
269.74 tonnes/ha.yr
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (FRIM eqn.)
= 1,667.48 tonnes/ha.yr
MODIFIED USLE
Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2
= 1354.58 tonnes per storm event
69
ASSIGNMENT
70
The exercise given is to enable the participants to predict soil loss using
USLE and the sediment yield using MUSLE equation.
1.Given soil properties. Calculate K factor using nomograph.
Catchment
Depth
% silt
& very
fine
sand
% sand
%
organic
matter
Soil structure
Classification
Permeability
Classification
0.1
36.4
54.3
0.1
0.5
50.1
38.8
0.1
K
factor
Average
K
2. Calculate LS factor.
Given:
S = 15%
= 70 m
71
3.
Calculate R factor using FRIM equation;
Site: Sibu
(i)AR1 2 year ; a= 3.0878, b = 1.6430, c = -0.4472, d = 0.0262
(ii) P = 3000mm
Find;
(i) 2I30
(ii)R
4.
Calculate soil loss;
Given: CP = 1.00
A = RKLSCP
72
5.
Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE eqn.
Use K,LS,CP from previous USLE exercise.
Given:
Catchment area A = 40,000m2
Duration of storm = 30 min
Intensity of design storm = 93.088 mm/hr
Runoff coeff. = 0.82
73
The exercise given is to enable the participants to predict soil loss using USLE
and the sediment yield using MUSLE equation.
1.Given soil properties. Calculate K factor using nomograph.
Catchment
Depth
% silt
& very
fine
sand
% sand
%
organic
matter
Soil structure
Classification
Permeability
Classification
K
factor
Average
K
0.1
36.4
54.3
0.1
0.1000 0.1475
0.5
50.1
38.8
0.1
0.1950
LS = ( / 22.13) m (0.065 + 0.046S + 0.0065S2)
2. Calculate LS factor.
= (70 / 22.13)0.6 (0.065 + 0.046[15]) + 0.0065(15) 2)
= (1.9955)(0.065 + 0.69 + 1.4625)
Given: S = 15%
therefore choose m = 0.6
= 70 m
= (1.9955).(2.2175)
= 4.425
74
3.
Calculate R factor using FRIM equation ;
Site: Sibu
(i) ARI 2 year ; a= 3.0879, b = 1.6430, c = -0.4472, d = 0.0262
(ii) P = 3000mm
Find;
(i) 2I30 = 93.088 mm/hr ; (where ln 2I30 = 4.534)
(ii) R = EI30/170.2 ; where E = 9.28P 8838.15
= 9.28(3000) 8838.15
= 19,001.85 J/m2
therefore R = (19,001.85 x 93.088)/170.2
= 10,392.74 MJ.mm/ha.hr.yr
4.
Calculate soil loss;
Given: CP = 1.00
A = RKLSCP
= 10,392.74 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 6,783.21 tonne/ha/yr
75
5.
Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE eqn.
Use K,LS,CP from previous USLE exercise.
Given:
Catchment area A = 40,000m2 = 4 ha
Duration of storm = 30 min
Intensity of design storm = 93.088 mm/hr
Runoff coeff. = 0.82
T = 2 (V x QP) 0.56 x K x LS x C x P
; where = psi
= 89.6 for S.I units
QP = CIA/360 = (0.82 x 93.088 x 4) / 360
= 0.848 m3/sec
Volume, V = Q x t = 0.848 x (30 x 60) = 1,526.4 m3
As such ,
T = 89.6 x (1,526.4 x 0.848) 0.56 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 89.6 x 55.30 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 3,233.99 tonnes
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Density of sediment,
Volume sediment
= 2.6 tons/m3
= Weight / Volume
= 3,233.99 / 2.6
= 1,243.84 m3
Assumption: Cost for excavation and transportation of sediment at site;
1 m3 = RM 10.00
Therefore cost for excavation + transportation
= 1,243.84 m3 x RM 10.00
= RM 12,438.42 per rainfall event
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