FLUID MECHANICS

H ms

Ht

hs

fs

hd

H stat

H md

hfd

PROF. DR. ANAS M. ELMOLLA

DR. AMIR M. MOBASHER

Datum pump
center line

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FLUID MECHANICS
Contents
1. Units and Dimensions & Fluid Properties................ 2
2. Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Force.... 20
3. Fluid masses subjected to Acceleration ...... 37
4. Equilibrium of Floating Bodies.... 45
5. Kinematics of Fluid Flow.. 51
6. Flow through Pipes.. 82
7. Momentum Principle.. 109
8. Solved Problems...... 111
9. Assignments..... 184

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CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS & FLUID PROPERTIES
1.1 Fluids :
Fluid can be defined as a substance which can deform continuously when
being subjected to shear stress at any magnitude. This includes any liquid
or gas.

. ,

1.2 Fluid mechanics :

Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics related to the behaviour
of liquids or gases which is either in rest or in motion.

.) (
The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid
statics , otherwise it is referred to as fluid dynamics
.

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1.3 Applications Of Fluid Mechanics In Civil Engineering

Ht

H ms

hs

fs

hd

H stat

H md

hfd

Water pipelines:

Datum pump
center line

Water distribution systems and Sewer systems:

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Dams and water control structures:

Rivers and manmade canals:

Coastal and Harbour structures:

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1.4 Units And Dimensions :

a- Dimensions:
Length
L

Time
T

Mass
M

Force
F

Mass: is the property of a body of fluid that is a measure of its inertia or

resistance to a change in motion. It is also a measure of the quantity of
fluid.
Force (Weight): is the amount that a body weights, that is, the force with
which a body is attracted towards the earth by gravitation.
- Types of Dimensions:
M L T System
F L T System
Force (F) = Mass (M) x Acceleration (L/T2)
F = MLT-2
b- Units:
System

Quantity
Length (L) Time (T) Mass (M) Force (F)
M
sec
Kg
N
International (SI)
Cm
sec
gm
dyne
French (c.g.s)
Foot (ft)
sec
slug
Pound (Ib)
British (English)
M
sec
Kg
Kgw
Kilogram weigth
1 N = 1 Kg x 1 m/s2
1 dyne = 1 gm x 1 cm/s2
1 Ib = 1 slug x 1 ft/s2
- Some conversion factors:
a- Length (L):
1 ft = 12 inch

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 ft = 0.3048 m

b- Mass (M):
1 slug = 14.59 Kg
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c- Force (F):
1 Kgw = 9.81 N

1 gmw = 981 dyne

1 N = 105 dyne

1 Ib = 4.44 N

1 Kgw = 2.205 Ib

1 Ib = 453.60 gm

Note: Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.20 ft/s2.

Example 1-1
Convert the following:

1.5 Main Water properties:

1- Density () :
Density (): mass per unit volume .
= M/ V = ML-3
= Kg/m3 = gm/cm3 = slug/ft3
water = 1000 Kg/m3 = 1 gm/cm3 = 1.94 slug/ft3

(Dimension)
(units)

2- The specific weight () :

The specific weight () = weight per unit volume
= W/ V = FL-3
(Dimension)
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=g
= Kgw/m3 = N/m3 = dyne/cm3 = Ib/ft3
water = 9810 N/m3 = 981 dyne/cm3 = 62.42 Ib/ft3

(units)

Water reaches a maximum density at 4C. It becomes less dense when

heated.
. , 4
Density of sea water about 4% more than that of fresh water. Thus, when
fresh water meets sea water without sufficient mixing, salinity increases
with depth.
.% 4
3

Temperature (C)

Density ( , kg/m )

Specific Weight (, N/m )

0(ice)

917

8996

0 (water)

999

9800

1000

9810

10

999

9800

20

998

9790

30

996

9771

40

992

9732

50

988

9692

60

983

9643

70

978

9594

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80

972

9535

90

965

9467

100

958

9398

Example 1-2
A cylindrical water tank (see the figure) is suspended vertically by its
sides. The tank has a 2-m diameter and is filled with 40C water to 1 m in
height. Determine the force exerted on the tank bottom.

3- Specific gravity (S.G), Relative density (R.D) :

Specific gravity (S.G): the ratio of the specific weight of any liquid
to that of water at 4C.

. 4
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S.G = R.D = lquid / water = lquid / water

(no units)

(for example S.G Hg = 13.60)

Example 1-3
Determine the specific weight, density and specific gravity of a liquid that
occupies a volume of 200 lit. , and weighs 178 kg. Will this fluid float on
the surface of an oil of specific gravity (0.8)? Provide results in SI units.
Solution

4- Surface Tension :
Surface tension (): A liquids ability to resist tension.
.
The surface tension () of a liquid is usually expressed in the units of force
per unit length.
At the interface between a liquid and a gas, i.e., at the liquid surface, and at
the interface between two immiscible (not mix-able) liquids, the out-ofbalance attraction force between molecules forms an imaginary surface
film, which exerts a tension force in the surface. This liquid property is
known as surface tension.

,) (
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,
.

Molecular forces :
Cohesion :Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress (inner
force between liquid molecules) .
Adhesion : adhesion enables it to adhere to another body (attraction
force between liquids, and a solid surface).
.

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4-1 Capillarity :
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube. It
is caused by surface tension.

4 cos
D

4-2 Water droplets

4
D

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Example 1-4
Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 5 mm diam.,
when immersed in (i) water and (ii) in mercury (S.G. = 13.6). The
temperature of liquid is 20 C and the values of surface tension of water
and mercury at this temperature in contact with air are 0.0075 kg/m and
0.052 kg/m respectively. The contact angle for water = 0 and for mercury
= 130.
Solution
In water:
In mercury:

= -1.97 mm.

Example 1-5
Calculate the internal pressure of a 25 mm diameter soap bubble if the
tension in the soap film is 0.5N/m.

Solution

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5- Viscosity :
Consider that oil fills the space between two parallel plates at a distance
y a part. A horizontal force F is applied to the upper plate and moves
it to the right at velocity v while the lower plate remains stationary. The
shear force F is applied to overcome the oil resistance , and it must
be equal to because there is no acceleration involved in the process.

The proportionally constant, , is called dynamic viscosity of the fluid

the absolute viscosity of the fluid.

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The perviouse equation is commonly known at Newton's law of viscosity.

Most liquids abide by this relationship and are called Newtonian fluids.
Liquids that do not abide by this linear relationship are known as nonNewtonian fluids. These include most house paints and blood.

The absolute viscosity has the dimension of force per unit area (stress)
times the time interval considered. It is usually measured in the unit of
poise.
1 poise = 0.1 N sec/m2

6- Kinematic viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity, , is obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity by
the mass density of the fluid at the same temperature;
= / = M L-1 T-1/ M L-3 = L2 T-1

The kinematic viscosity unit is cm2/sec Stoke

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The absolute viscosities and the kinematic viscosities of pure water and air
are shown as functions of temperature in the next table.
.
,
.
Water

Air

Temperature

Absolute

Kinematic

Absolute

Kinematic

(C)

Viscosity

Viscosity

Viscosity

Viscosity

N sec/m

cm /sec

1.717 x 10-5

.329 x 10-

N sec/m

1.781 x l0-

1.518 x l0-

10

1.307 x 10-

15

1.139 x l0-

20

1.002 x l0-

25

0.890 x 10-

30

0.798 x l0-

40

0.653 x 10-

50

0.547 x l0-

60

0.466 x 10-

70

0.404 x 10-

80

0.354 x 10-

cm /sec
.785 x 10-

.519 x 10-6
.306 x l0-

1.741 x l0-

1.767x 10-

1.139 x l0-

1.003 x l0-

1.793 x l0-

1.817 x l0-

.371 x l0.417 x l0-

.463 x 10.509 x 10-

1.840 x l0-

.555 x10-

3.800 x 10-6

1.864 x 10-'

.601 x 10-

3.658 x 10-6

1.910 x l0-

.695 x 10-

1553 x 10-

1.954 x l0-

.794 x l0-

3.474 x 10-6

2.001 x 10-5

.886 x l0-

3.413 x 103.364 x I0-

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2.044 x l0-

2.088 x 10-

3.893 x 10-

.986 x 10-

-.087 x 10-

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3

90

0.315 x l0-

100

0.282 x 10-

3.326 x l0-

1294 x 10-

2.131 x l0-

2.174 x l0-

2.193 x l0-.302 x l0-

Example 1-6
A thin plate weighting 125gm takes 3.3 sec. to fall a distance of one meter
in a liquid with a specific gravity of 0.9 between two vertical boundaries
0.5 cm apart, the plate moves at a distance of 0.2 cm from one of them. If
the surface area of the plate is 1.5 m2. What are the dynamic viscosity of
the liquid in poise and the kinematic viscosity in stokes.

Solution

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7- Compressibility of liquids :
Compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure) is inversely
proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity (Bulk Modulus of
Elasticity K).

Water is often considered incompressible, but it does have a finite, low

compressibility.

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CHAPTER 2
FLUID PRESSURE AND HYDROSTATIC FORCE
2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure:

For liquids at rest, the pressure at all points in a horizontal plane is the
same.

2.2 Absolute and Gage Pressures

If the water body has a free surface that is
exposed to atmospheric pressure, Patm. Point A is
positioned on the free surface such that PA= Patm

(P ) = P + h = P
B abs

atm

+ h = absolute pressure

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The difference in pressure heads at two points in liquid at rest is always

equal to the difference in elevation between the two points.
(P /) (P /) = (h)
B

Gage pressure: is the pressure measured with respect to atmospheric

pressure (using atmospheric pressure as a base).
Atmospheric pressure:
Patm = 10.33m high column of water = 10.33 = 10.33 x 1 x 9810 =
= 0.76m high column of Hg = 0.76 Hg = 0.76 x 13.60 x 9810 =
= 101.3 x 103 N/m2 (Pa) 1 x 105 N/m2 (Pa) 1 bar
= 14.70 Ib/in2 = 2116 Ib/ft2
Absolute pressure: Pabs = Pgage + Patm
If Pabs is negative it is called Vacum Pressure.
the water body has a free surface that is exposed to
atmospheric pressure, Patm. Point A is positioned on
the free surface such that PA= Patm
Pressure head, h = P/

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2.3 Pascal's law :

Pascal's law states that the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid at rest is
the same in all directions.

Consider a small prism of fluid of unit thickness in the z-direction
contained in the bulk of the fluid as shown below. Since the cross-section
of the prism is equilateral triangle, P3 is at an angle of 45 with the x-axis.
If the pressure intensities normal to the three surfaces are P 1, P2, P3, as
shown then since:Force = Pressure x Area
Force on face AB = P1 x (AB x I)
BC = P2 x (BCx 1)
AC = P3 x (ACx 1)
Resolving forces vertically:
P1 x AB = P3 x AC cos
But AC cos = AB Therefore P1 = P3
Resolving forces horizontally:
P2 x BC = P3 x AC sin
But
AC sin = BC Therefore P2 = P3
Hence P1 = P2 = P3,
In words: the pressure at any point is equal in all directions.

Pressure Variation in A static fluid

For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within the fluid. This
can be shown by consideration of equilibrium of forces on a fluid element

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Newton's law (momentum principle) applied to a static fluid

F = ma = 0
for a static fluid
i.e., Fx = Fy = Fz = 0
Fz = 0

pdxdy ( p

p
dz)dxdy gdxdydz 0
z

p
g
z

Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

Fy 0

p
dy)dxdz 0
y
p
0
y

Fx 0

p
dx )dydz 0
x
p
0
x
For a static fluid, the pressure only varies with elevation z and is constant
in horizontal xy planes.

pdxdz (p

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Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid

p
g
= constant for liquid
z

p z

p2 p1 z 2 z1
Alternate forms:

p1 z1 p2 z2 constant
p z constant
(piezometric pressure)

p z 0 0

i.e., p z

p
z constant

gage
increase linearly with depth
(piezometric head)

Pascal's Application:
A small force F1 applied to a piston with a
area produces a much larger force F2 on the
piston. This allows a hydraulic jack to lift heavy objects.

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larger

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Example 2-1
The diameters of cylindrical pistons A and B are 3 cm and 20 cm,
respectively. The faces of the pistons are at the same elevation and the
intervening passages are filled with an incompressible hydraulic oil. A
force P of 100 N is applied at the end of the lever, as shown in the
figure. What weight W can the hydraulic jack support?

Solution
Balancing the moments produced by P and F, we obtain for the
equilibrium condition.

Thus,

From Pascal's law, the pressure PA applied at A should be the same as that
of PB applied at B. We may write

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2.4 Free Surface of Water

Free surface of liquid in a vessel may be subjected to:
- atmospheric pressure (open vessel) or,
- any other pressure that is exerted in the vessel (closed vessel).
2.5 Surface of Equal Pressure
- The hydrostatic pressure in a body of liquid varies with the vertical
distance measured from the free surface of the water body.
All points on a horizontal surface in the liquid have the same pressure.

2.6 Manometers:
A manometer: Is a tube bent in the form of a U containing a fluid of
known specific gravity. The difference in elevations of the liquid surfaces
under pressure indicates the difference in pressure at the two ends.
The liquid used in a manometer is usually heavier than the fluids to be
measured. It must not mix with the adjacent liquids (i.e., immiscible
liquids).

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The most used liquids are:

- Mercury (specific gravity = 13.6),
- Water (sp. gr. = 1.00),
- Alcohol (sp. gr. = 0.9), and
- Other commercial manometer oils of various specific gravities.
Two types of manometers:
1. An open manometer: has one end open to atmospheric pressure and
is capable of measuring the gage pressure in a vessel.

2. A differential manometer: connects each end to a different pressure

vessel and is capable of measuring the pressure difference between the two
vessels.
Inverted U-tube manometer is used when there is a small pressure
difference or a light liquid such as oil is used.

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Example 2-2
Determine the pressure difference P

Solution

The pressures at points 3 and 4 are, respectively,

So that,

and,

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2.7 Hydrostatic Force on a plane Surface

For a strip at depth h below the free surface:

P h y sin
The differential force dF acting on the element dA is:

dF y sin .dA
Integrate both sides and note that and
F dF sin y dA sin .A.y
A

are constants,
first moment of area about point S

F .A.h
Location of Total Hydrostatic Force (Centre of Pressure)
From the figure above, S is the intersection of the prolongation of the
submerged area to the free liquid surface. Taking moment about point S.

F . y P y dF
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Where,
dF y sin .dA

F .A.h

Again from Calculus,

is called moment of inertia denoted by
I. Since our reference point is S,

Thus,

By transfer formula for moment of inertia

or
for yp will become

From the figure

cg and cp is

the formula

above, , thus, the distance between

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Example 2-3
Determine F and yP

Solution

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2.8 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

For a curved surface, the pressure forces, being normal to the local area
element, vary in direction along the surface and thus cannot be added
numerically. The figure shows pressure distribution on a semi-cylindrical
gate.

, F ,
curved surface
. .
The resultant hydrostatic force is computed by considering the free-body
diagram of a body of fluid in contact with the curved surface, as illustrated
below.
FCB
C

B
W

FAC
A

Freebody
diagram

F
F

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The steps involved in calculating the horizontal and vertical components of

the hydrostatic force F are as follows:
Summation of forces in the horizontal direction FH gives
FH = FAC
where FAC is the hydrostatic force on plane surface AC. It acts
through the center of pressure of side AC.
curved surface FH
.
Summation of forces in the vertical direction FV gives
FV = W + FCB
where W is the weight of the fluid (acting through the center of
gravity) of the free-body diagram and FCB is the hydrostatic force
(acting through the centroid) on the surface CB.
curved FV
.free surface surface
The line of action of FV is obtained by summing the moments
about any convenient axis.
The overall resultant force is found by combining the vertical and
horizontal components vectorialy:

F FH2 FV2
The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal is:
FV
FH

tan 1

The position of F is the point of intersection of the horizontal

line of action of FH and the vertical line of action of FV .

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Example 2-4
Determine the total hydrostatic pressure and the center of pressure on the 3
m long, 2m high quadrant gate in the shown figure.

Solution
The horizontal component is equal to the hydrostatic pressure force on the
projection plane A/B.

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CHAPTER 3
FLUID MASSES SUBJECTED TO ACCELERATION
3.1

Fluid Mass Subjected to Horizontal Acceleration:

Consider a tank felled with liquid moves towards the right side with
a uniform acceleration a.
As the tank stats moving under the action of acceleration force, the
liquid does not remain in horizontal level.
The liquid surface falls down on the direction of motion and rise up
on the back side of the tank, the liquid surface makes angle with
the horizontal.
Consider the equilibrium of a fluid particle a lying on the inclined
free surface as shown in the figure.

The force acting on the liquid particle

are weight of the particle W = mg
acting
vertically
downwards,
accelerating force F acting toward
right and normal pressure P exerted
by the liquid.

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Acceleration force
F = ma
Resolving horizontally P sin = F = ma
(i)
Resolving vertically
P cos = W = mg
(ii)
Dividing Equation (i) to (ii)
P sin / P cos = ma / mg = a/g
tan = a/g
uniform velocity
.
Now consider the equilibrium of the entire mass of the liquid. Let P1 and
P2 are the hydrostatic pressure on the back side and front side of the tank.
Net force P = P1- P2
By Newtons second law of motion,
P = ma
(P1-P2) = ma
Example 3-1
An open rectangular tank 3m long. 2.5m wide and 1.25m deep is
completely filled with water. If the tank is moved with an acceleration of
1.5m/s2, find the slope of the free surface of water and the quantity of
water which will spill out of the tank.

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Solution
Slope of the free surface of water

Quantity of water which will spill out of the tank

From the above figure we can see that the depth of water on the front side,

Quantity of water which will spill out of the tank,

3.2 Fluid Mass Subjected to Vertical Acceleration :

Consider a tank containing liquid and moving vertically upwards with a
uniform acceleration. Since the tank is subjected t an acceleration in the
vertical direction only, therefore the liquid surface will remain horizontal.
Now consider a small column of liquid of height h and area dA as shown
in the figure.

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The force acting on the liquid column s the weight of liquid column W
acting vertically downwards, acceleration force F and pressure force
exerted by the liquid on the column.
Applying Newtons second law of motion,
Fy = m a y
P - W = m ay
p.dA - hdA = hdA / g. a
p.dA = hdA / g .a + hdA
p = h (1 + a/g)
, a
.
If the liquid is moving vertically downward with a uniform acceleration,
the pressure will be,
p = h (1 -a/g)
Example 3-2
An open rectangular tank 4m long and 2.5m wide contains an oil of
specific gravity 0.85 up to a depth of 1.5m. Determine the total pressure on
the bottom of the tank, when the tank is moving with an acceleration of
g/2 m/s2
(i) vertically upwards
(ii) vertically downwards.
Solution
(i) Total pressure on the bottom of the tank, when it is vertically upwards:
oil = 0.85 x 9810 = 8.34 KN/m3
p = h (1 + a/g) = 8.34 x 1.50 (1 + g/2g) = 18.765 KN/m2
Total pressure force on the bottom of the tank,
P = 18.765 x (4 x 2.50) = 187.65 KN
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(ii) Total pressure on the bottom of the tank, when it is vertically

downwards:
p = h (1 - a/g) = 8.34 x 1.50 (1 - g/2g) = 6.255 KN/m2
Total pressure force on the bottom of the tank,
P = 6.255 x (4 x 2.50) = 62.55 KN

3.3 Accelerated along inclined plane:

Consider a tank open at top, containing a liquid and moving upwards along
inclined plane with a uniform acceleration as shown in the figure.

We know that when the tank starts moving, the liquid surface falls down
on the front side and rises up on the back side of the tank as shown in the
figure.

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Let,
= Inclination of the plane with the horizontal
= Angle, which the liquid surface makes with the horizontal, and
a = Acceleration of the tank
Acceleration force
F = ma
Resolving horizontally P sin = FH = F cos = m a cos(i)
Resolving vertically
P cos = W+ FV = mg + m a sin(ii)
Dividing Equation (i) to (ii)
P sin / P cos = m a cos / mg + m a sin
tan = a cos / g + a sin
tan = aH/(g+aV)
If the liquid is moving downward,
tan = aH/(g-aV)
where,
aH = horizontal component of the acceleration
aV = vertical component of the acceleration
Example 3-3
A rectangular box containing water is accelerated at 3 m/s2 upwards on an
inclined plane 30 degree to the horizontal. Find the slope of the free liquid
surface.
Solution
aH = 3 cos 30 = 2.598 m/s2
aV = 3 sin 30 = 1.50 m/s2

tan = 2.598/(9.81+1.50) = 0.2297

= 12.940
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3.4 Uniform Rotation about Vertical Axis:

When at rest, the surface of mass of liquid is horizontal at PQ as shown in
the figure. When this mass of liquid is rotated about a vertical axis at
constant angular velocity radian per second, it will assume the surface
ABC which is parabolic. Every particle is subjected to centripetal force or
centrifugal force CF = m2x which produces centripetal
acceleration towards the center of rotation. Other forces that acts are
gravity force W = mg and normal force N.

Where tan is the slope at the surface of paraboloid at any distance x from
the axis of rotation.
From Calculus, y = slope, thus

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For cylindrical vessel of radius r revolved about its vertical axis, the
height h of paraboloid is:

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CHAPTER 4
EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES

4.1 Principle of Buoyancy

The general principle of buoyancy is expressed in the Archimedes
principle, which is stated as follows:
For an object partially or completely submerged in a fluid, there is a net
upward force (buoyant force) equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

," " " "
.
Weight of floating body (W) = Weight of liquid displaced (Fb)
W = Fb

b . Vb = w . Vsub
S.G.w . LBD = w . LBhsub
hsub = S.G.D

(in this example)

Where Vsub is the displaced volume (see the figures below).

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4.2 Stability of Floating Bodies

Any floating body is subjected by two opposing vertical forces. One is the
body's weight W which is downward, and the other is the buoyant force
Fb which is upward. The weight is acting at the center of gravity G
and the buoyant force is acting at the center of buoyancy B.
Fb " " , G W
. ,B
Center of Bouyancy " ":

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It is the point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body.

It is always the center of gravity of the volume of fluid displaced.
W and Fb are always equal and if these forces are collinear, the body
will be in upright position as shown below.
The body may tilt from many causes like wind or wave action causing the
center of buoyancy to shift to a new positionB/ as shown below.

Metacenter M: is the intersection point of the axis of the body and the
line of action of the buoyant force.
If M is above G, Fb and W will produce a righting moment
RM which causes the body to return to its neutral position, thus
the body is stable.
If M is below G, the body becomes unstable because of the
overturning moment OM made by W and Fb.

If M coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable which

simply means critical neutral.

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:
G M
:
Fb W ,G M :
.
Fb W ,G M :
.
Fb W ,G M :
,
.

The value of righting moment or overturning moment is given by

The distance MG is called metacentric height.

Metacentric hight MG: is the distance between the centre of gravity of
a floating body ant the metacenter.

Use (-) if G is above B and (+) if G is below B.

Note that: M is always above B.
Value of MB:

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Assume that the body is rectangular at the top view and measures B by
L at the waterline when in upright position.
The moment due to the shifting of the buoyant force is equal to the
moment due to shifting of wedge.

For small value of , tan sin and note that 1/12 LB3 = I, thus,

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The formula above can be applied to any section.

Where
v = volume of the wedge either immersion or emersion
s = horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the wedges
= angle of tilting
I = moment of inertia of the waterline section of the body
Some remarks about the weight of an object
The weight of an object in a fluid medium refers to the tension in the
spring when the object is attached to a spring balance.
The weight (of the object) registered by the spring balance depends on
the medium in which it is measured. [See the illustration below.]
The weight commonly referred to in daily use is the weight in air.

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CHAPTER 5
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

5.1 Kinematics :
Kinematics of fluid describes the fluid motion and its consequences
without consideration of the nature of forces causing the motion.

) ( ,
5.2 Difference between open-channel flow and the pipe flow:
Pipe flow :
The pipe is completely filled with the fluid being transported.
The main driving force is likely to be a pressure gradient along the pipe.
.

Open-channel flow :
Fluid flows without completely filling the pipe.
Gravity alone is the driving force, the fluid flows down a hill.
,
.

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5.3 Types of Flow :

Steady and Unsteady flow :
The flow parameters such as velocity (v), pressure (P) and density (r) of a
fluid flow are independent of time in a steady flow. In unsteady flow they
are independent.
For a steady flow

v t x ,y ,z

v t x ,y ,z

For an unsteady flow

Uniform and non-uniform flow :

A flow is uniform if the flow characteristics at any given instant remain
the same at different points in the direction of flow, otherwise it is termed
as non-uniform flow.
For a uniform flow
For a non-uniform flow

v s t
v s t

0
0

.
.
Examples of flow types:

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Laminar and turbulent flow () :

Laminar flow ) (
The fluid particles move along smooth well defined path or streamlines
that are parallel, thus particles move in laminas or layers, smoothly gliding
over each other
Turbulent flow
The fluid particles do not move in orderly manner and they occupy
different relative positions in successive cross-sections.
There is a small fluctuation in magnitude and direction of the velocity of
the fluid particles
Transitional flow
The flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow

. ,
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Reynolds

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Experiment:

Reynold performed a very carefully prepared pipe flow experiment.

Reynold found that transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe
depends not only on the velocity, but only on the pipe diameter and the
viscosity of the fluid.

Reynolds number is used to check whether the flow is laminar or

turbulent. It is denoted by Rn. This number got by comparing inertial
force with viscous force.

Rn

VD VD Inertial Forces

Viscous Forces

Where
V: mean velocity in the pipe
D: pipe diameter
: density of flowing fluid

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[L/T]
[L]
[M/L3]
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: dynamic viscosity

[M/LT]

: kinematic viscosity

[L2/T]

" "
." " ." "
The Kind of flow depends on value of Rn
If Rn < 2000 the flow is Laminar
If Rn > 4000 the flow is turbulent
If 2000 < Rn < 4000 it is called transition flow.
Laminar Vs. Turbulent flows
Laminar flows characterized by:
low velocities
small length scales
high kinematic viscosities
R < Critical R
n

Turbulent flows characterized by

high velocities
large length scales
low kinematic viscosities
R > Critical R

Viscous forces are dominant

Inertial forces are dominant

.
" " . :
.) (
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Example 5-1
40 mm diameter circular pipe carries water at 20oC. Calculate the largest
flow rate (Q) which laminar flow can be expected.
Solution

D 0.04m

1106 at T 20o C
Rn

VD

2000

Q V . A 0.05

V (0.04)
2000 V 0.05m / sec
1 10 6

(0.04) 2 6.28 105 m3 / sec

4
Streamlines and Streamtubes:

Streamline " ":

A curve that is drawn in such a way that it is tangential to the velocity
vector at any point along the curve. A curve that is representing the
direction of flow at a given time. No flow across a stream line.
.

Streamtube" ":
A set of streamlines arranged to form an
imaginary tube. Ex: The internal surface of a
pipeline.
.
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Compressible And Incompressible Flows:

Incompressible Flow is a type of flow in which the density () is constant
in the flow field.
Compressible Flow is the type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes in the flow field.
Ideal and Real Fluids:
a- Ideal Fluids
It is a fluid that has no viscosity, and incompressible
Shear resistance is considered zero
Ideal fluid does not exist in nature e.g. Water and air are assumed ideal
b- Real Fluids
It is a fluid that has viscosity, and compressible
It offers resistance to its flow e.g. All fluids in nature

. ,
Rotational And Irrotational Flows:
Rotational flow is the type of flow in which the
fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines also
rotate about their own axis.
Ir-rotational flow is the type of flow in which the
fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines do
not rotate about their own axis.
One, Two And Three Dimensional Flows:
One-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters (such
as velocity, pressure, depth etc.) are a function of time and one space
coordinate only.
v = f(x, t)
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e.g. Flow through a straight uniform diameter pipe

The flow is never truly 1 dimensional, because viscosity causes the fluid
velocity to be zero at the boundaries.

Two-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters

describing the flow vary in two space coordinates and time.
v = f(x, y, t)
Streamlines in two-dimensional flow are curved lines on a plane and are
the same on all parallel planes. An example is flow over a weir which
typical streamlines can be seen in the figure below.

Three-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the flow parameters

describing the flow vary in three space coordinates and time.
v = f(x, y, z, t)
Although in general all fluids flow three-dimensionally, with pressures and
velocities and other flow properties varying in all directions, in many cases
the greatest changes only occur in two directions or even only in one.

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5.4 Volume flow rate Discharge :

The discharge is the volume of fluid passing a given cross-section per unit
time.

5.5 Mean Velocity:

It is the average velocity passing a given cection.
The velocity in the pipe is not constant across the cross section. Crossing
the centreline of the pipe, the velocity is zero at the walls increasing to a
maximum at the centre then decreasing symmetrically to the other wall.
This variation across the section is known as the velocity profile or
distribution.

5.6 Continuity equation for Incompressible Steady flow

:
Cross section and elevation of the pipe are varied along the axial direction
of the flow.

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Conservation law of mass

.dVol11' .dVol22' mass flux ( fluid mass)

Mass enters the
control volume

Mass leaves the

control volume

dVol11'
dVol 2 2'
.
dt
dt
dS1
dS 2
. A1
. A2
. A1.V1 . A2 .V2 .Q
dt
dt

Continuity equation for

Incompressible Steady flow

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A1.V1 A2 .V2 Q
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,
.
Apply Newtons Second Law:

F M a M

dV M V 2 M V1

dt
t

P1 A1 P2 A2 Fx Wx

Fx is the axial direction force exerted on the control volume by the wall of
the pipe.

but M t .Q mass flow rate

F
F
F

.Q(Vx2 Vx1 )

.Q(V y2 V y1 )

.Q(Vz2 Vz1 )

F .Q(V

V 1)

Conservation of
moment equation

5.7 Energy Head in Pipe Flow

Water flow in pipes may contain energy in three basic forms:
1- Kinetic energy ,
2- potential energy ,
3- pressure energy .
Consider the control volume:
In time interval dt:
Water particles at sec.1-1 move to sec. 1`-1` with velocity V1.
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Water particles at sec.2-2 move to sec. 2`-2` with velocity V2.

To satisfy continuity equation:

A1.V1.dt A2 .V2 .dt

The work done by the pressure force:

P1. A1.ds1 P1. A1.V1.dt

P2 . A2 .ds2 P2 . A2 .V2 .dt

. on section 1-1
. on section 2-2

-ve sign because P2 is in the opposite direction to distance traveled ds2

The work done by the gravity force:

g. A1.V1dt.( z1 z2 )
The kinetic energy:

1
1
1
2
2
M .V22 M .V1 . A1.V1.dt (V22 V1 )
2
2
2
The total work done by all forces is equal to the change in kinetic energy:

1
2
P1.Q.dt P2 .Q.dt g.Q.dt.( z1 z2 ) .Q.dt (V22 V1 )
2
Dividing both sides by gQdt
Bernoulli Equation
2

V1 P1
V2
P2
z1
z2
2g
2g
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Energy per unit weight of water

OR: Energy Head

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Energy head and Head loss in pipe flow

2

V2
P2
H2

z2
2g

Energy
head

Kinetic
head

Pressure
head

Elevation
head

V1
P1
H1
z1
2g

Notice that:

In reality, certain amount of energy loss (hL) occurs when the water
mass flow from one section to another.
The energy relationship between two sections can be written as:
2

V1
P
V
P
1 z1 2 2 z2 hL
2g
2g
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5.8 Flow Through Orifices and Mouthpieces :

5.8.1 Small Orifice (Under Constant Head) :

Consider large tank filled with a liquid with a small orifice located in the
wall at a depth H below the free surface, the ratio of jet area Ao at vena
contracta to area of orifice A is symbolized by coefficient of contraction
Cc

The coefficient of contraction Cc varies from 0.613 to 0.69

The Bernoullis equation applied between point 1 & 2:

Because of loss of energy in friction, the actual velocity Va is always less

than the theoretical one and hence Cv<1.0. The coefficient of velocity Cv
varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for the square edged or rounded orifice.
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The actual discharge passing the orifice is the product of the actual
velocity at the vena contracta and the area of the jet, thus

The coefficient of discharge Cd is defined as the ratio of the actual

discharge to the theoretical discharge and is expressed by

5.8.2 Large Rectangular Orifice :

Large Orifice Discharging Free :

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Consider a rectangular orifice of width B and height D, discharging under

a head H1 above its top as shown in the Figure.
The flow through an elementary strip of area B.dh is

Integration of the above equation between limits H1 and H2 gives

Large

Orifice Partially Submerged :

The discharge in this case is considered in two parts:

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Where Q1 is the discharge for the free area and Q2 is the discharge for the
fully submerged area As.

Where, H is the difference in elevation of water surface. For convenience

the two coefficients of discharge may be assumed the same.
Large Orifice Completely Submerged :

Applying Bernoullis equation between point 1 and point 2:

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Where, H is the difference in elevation of water surface, A is the orifice

area and Cd is the coefficient of discharge.
5.8.3 Mouthpieces or Short Tubes
External Mouthpieces

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Internal

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(Re-entrant) Mouthpieces

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5.8.4 Discharge Under Varying Head :

Discharge through an orifice or over a notch under falling head is a case of
unsteady flow, since the velocity of flow will be decreasing with time.
Consider a tank of area A fitted with an orifice of area a. The inflow to the
tank is q, which is supposed to be constant. Let at any instant of time the
liquid surface is at a distance h above the orifice and in time dt the level
falls by dh.

The discharge through the orifice

During time dt the volume of fluid in the tank is reduced by A.dh. We can,
therefore, write

The time t required to lower the fluid level from H1 to H2 is

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If there be inflow into the tank q = 0, we can, therefore, write

Assume a cross sectional area of tank A is constant, so

5.8.5 Flow Over Notch :

Discharge Over A Rectangular Notch :

Let,
H = Height of the water above the crest of the weir
L = Length of the weir and
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
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Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a depth h from

the water surface as shown in figure.
Area of the strip =L.dh

dq Cd .L.dh 2 gh
The total discharge, over the weir, may be found out by integrating the
above equation within the limits 0 and H.
H

Q Cd .L.dh 2 gh
0

Q Cd .L 2 g h .dh
0

2
Q Cd .L 2 g H 2
3
Example 5-2
A weir of 8m long is to be built across a rectangular channel to discharge a
flow of 9m3 /s. If the maximum depth of water on the upstream side of
weir is to be 2m, what should be the height of the weir? Adopt Cd = 0.62.
Solution
3

2
9 x0.62 x8 2 x9.81H 2
3

H 0.72m
Therefore height of weir should be = 2.0 - 0.72 = 1.28 m.

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Discharge Over Triangular V Notch :

If the angle of the "V" is then the Area of the strip b is

b 2( H h) tan
So the discharge is

Q 2Cd . 2 g tan

( H h)

h .dh

2
Q 2Cd . 2 g tan Hh h
2 5
5 0
3
2

5
2

8
2
Q Cd . 2 g tan H
15
2
5

Example 5-3
A right-angled V-notch was used to measure the discharge of a centrifugal
pump. If the depth of water at V-notch is 200mm, calculate the discharge
over the notch in liters per minute. Assume Cd = 0.62.
Solution
5

8
90
Q x0.62 x 2 x9.81 tan 0.2 2 0.026m3 / s
15
2
Q 26liters / s 1560liters / min
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Discharge Over A Cippoletti Trabizoidal Weir :

Let us split up the trapezoidal weir into a rectangular weir and a

triangular notch.
So total discharge,

Q Q1 Q2

2
8

Q Cd .L 2 g H 2 Cd . 2 g tan H 2
3
15
2
3

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5.8.6 Discharge through a Venturimeter :

The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It
consists of a rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of
flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging diffuser section. By
measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated.

Let d1 = diameter at the inlet (section 1)

p1 = pressure at section 1
v1 = velocity at section 1
A1= area at section1
d2, p2, v2, A2 are the corresponding values at the throat (section 2)
Applying Bernoullis equations at sections 1 and 2, we get

As pipe is horizontal z1=z2

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Where h = ( p1-p2)/ g difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2.

From the continuity equation at sections 1 and 2, we obtain

Note that the above expression is for ideal condition and is known as
theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical
discharge

Cd is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is always less then 1

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Expression of h given by differential U-tube manometer:

Case 1: The liquid in the manometer is heavier than the liquid flowing
through the pipe:

Case 2: The liquid in the manometer is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe:

5.8.7 Orifice meter :

Orifice meter: is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe.
It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. This also works on
the same principle as that of venturimeter.
It consists of flat circular plate which has a circular hole, in concentric
with the pipe. This is called orifice.
The diameter of orifice is generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe
(D), although it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

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Let d1 = diameter at the inlet (section 1)

p1 = pressure at section 1
v1 = velocity at section 1
A1= area at section1
d2, p2, v2, A2 are the corresponding values at the throat (section 2)
Applying Bernoullis equations at sections 1 and 2, we get

Let A0 is the area of the orifice.

By continuity equation, we have

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Thus, discharge,

If Cd is the co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter, which is defined as

Hence,

The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter is much smaller than that
of a venturimeter.
5.8.8 Pitot tube :
Orifice meter: is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any
point in a pipe or a channel.
Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point
increases due to the conservation of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
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In simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right
angles.
.
Let p1 = pressure at section 1
p2 = pressure at section 2
v1 = velocity at section 1
v2 = velocity at section 2
H = depth of tube in the liquid
h = rise of liquid in the tube
above the free surface
Applying Bernoullis equations at sections 1 and 2, we get

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by

Cv is the coefficient of pitot-tube.

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CHAPTER 6
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
6.1 Introduction:
Any water conveying system may include the following elements:
pipes (in series, pipes in parallel)
elbows
valves
other devices
If all elements are connected in series, the arrangement is known as a
pipeline. Otherwise, it is known as a pipe network.

6.2

Flow Through A Single Pipe:

6.2.1 Calculation of Head (Energy) Losses :

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some
resistance due to which some of energy (head) of fluid is lost.

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:
,
.

6.2.1.1 Losses of Head due to Friction

Energy loss through friction in the length of pipeline is commonly
termed the major loss hf
This is the loss of head due to pipe friction and to the viscous
dissipation in flowing water.
The resistance to flow in a pipe is a function of:

The pipe length, L

The pipe diameter, D

The mean velocity, V

The properties of the fluid ()

The roughness of the pipe, (the flow is turbulent).

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Several formulas have been developed in the past. Some of these

formulas have faithfully been used in various hydraulic engineering
practices.

Darcy-Weisbach formula

The Hazen -Williams Formula

The Manning Formula

The Chezy Formula

Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Where:
F is the friction factor
L is pipe length
D is pipe diameter
Q is the flow rate
h is the loss due to friction

L
V 2 8F L Q 2
hL F

D
2g g D 5 2

Friction Factor: (F)

For Laminar flow: (Rn < 2000) [depends only on Reynolds number
and not on the surface roughness]

64
Rn

For turbulent flow in smooth pipes (e/D = 0) with 4000 < Rn < 105 is

0.316
1/ 4
Rn

The thickness of the laminar sublayer decrease with an increase in

Rn.

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Moody diagram
A convenient chart was prepared by Lewis F. Moody and commonly
called the Moody diagram of friction factors for pipe flow, There are
4 zones of pipe flow in the chart:

A laminar flow zone where F is simple linear function of Rn

A critical zone (shaded) where values are uncertain because

the flow might be neither laminar nor truly turbulent
A transition zone where F is a function of both Rn and relative
roughness
A zone of fully developed turbulence where the value of F
depends solely on the relative roughness and independent of the
Reynolds Number
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Typical values of the absolute roughness (e) are given in the next table

Example 6-1
The water flow in Asphalted cast Iron pipe (e = 0.12mm) has a diameter
20cm at 20oC. Is 0.05 m3/s. determine the losses due to friction per 1 km
Solution

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Hazen-Williams

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Manning Formula
This formula has extensively been used for open channel design, it is also
quite commonly used for pipe flows

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The Chezy Formula

V C Rh1/ 2 S 1/ 2
L V
hf 4
DC

Where C = Chezy coefficient

It can be shown that this formula, for circular pipes, is equivalent to
Darcys formula with the value for

8g
C
F
F is Darcy Weisbeich coefficient

The following formula has been proposed for the value of C:

0.00155 1

S
n
C
0.00155 n
1(23
)
S
Rh
23

n is the Manning coefficient

Example 6-2
New Cast Iron (CHW = 130, n = 0.011) has length = 6 km and diameter =
30cm. Q= 0.32 m3/s, T=30o. Calculate the head loss due to friction.
Solution

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Hazen-William Method

hf

10.7 L
1.852
Q
1.852
CHW
D 4.87

hf

10.7 6000
0.321.852 333m
1.852
4 .87
130
0.3

Manning Method

10.3 L nQ
hf
D 5.33
2
10.3 6000 0.011 0.32
hf
470 m
0.35.33
2

6.2.1.2 Minor losses :

It is due to the change of the velocity of the
flowing fluid in the magnitude or in direction
[turbulence within bulk flow as it moves
through and fitting]
The minor losses occurs du to :

Valves

Tees, Bends

Reducers

And other appurtenances

It has the common form

V2
Q2
hm k L
kL
2g
2 gA2
minor compared to friction losses in long pipelines but, can be the
dominant cause of head loss in shorter pipelines.
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Losses due to Sudden contraction :

A sudden contraction in a pipe usually causes a marked drop in pressure
in the pipe due to both the increase in velocity and the loss of energy to
turbulence.
.

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Head Loss Due to Gradual Contraction :

Head losses due to pipe contraction may be greatly reduced by introducing
a gradual pipe transition known as a confusor

hc' kc'

Losses

V2
2g

due to Sudden Enlargement :

Note that the drop in the energy line is much larger than in the case of a
contraction
2

hL

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2g

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Head Loss Due to Gradual Enlargement :

Head losses due to pipe enlargement may be greatly reduced by
introducing a gradual pipe transition known as a diffusor

V12 V2
hE' k E'
2g

Loss due to pipe entrance :

General formula for head loss at the entrance of a pipe is also expressed in
term of velocity head of the pipe

hent K ent

2g

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Head Loss at the Exit of a Pipe :

V2
hL
2g

Head Loss Due to Bends in Pipes :

V2
hb kb
2g

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6.3 Compound Pipe flow :

When two or more pipes with different diameters are connected together
head to tail (in series) or connected to two common nodes (in parallel).
The system is called compound pipe flow
6.3.1 Flow Through Pipes in Series :
Pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected end to end (in
series) to form a pipeline

Discharge: The discharge through each pipe is the same

Q A1V1 A2V2 A3V3

Head loss: The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of
the total head loss in the pipes:

VA2
PB VB2

zA

z B hL
2g
2g

PA

z A zB hL H
Where

i 1

j 1

hL h fi hmj
Li Vi 2
V32
V12
V22
V22
hL Fi
K ent
Kc
K enl
K exit
D
2
g
2
g
2
g
2
g
2g
i 1
i
3

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6.3.2 Flow Through Parallel Pipe s

If a main pipe divides into two or more branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe, then the branched pipes are said to be
connected in parallel (compound pipes). Points A and B are called nodes.

Discharge:
3

Q Q1 Q2 Q3 Qi
i 1

Head loss: the head loss for each branch is the same

hL h f 1 h f 2 h f 3
L3 V32
L1 V12
L2 V22
F1
F2
F3
D1 2 g
D2 2 g
D3 2 g

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Example 6-3
In the figure shown two new cast iron pipes in series, D1 = 0.6 m, D2 = 0.4
m length of the two pipes is 300m, level at A =80 m, Q = 0.5 m3/s (F1 =
0.017, F2 = 0.018). There are a sudden contraction between Pipe 1 and 2,
and Sharp entrance at pipe 1, and Sharp outlet at pipe 2.
1- Find the water level at B, and draw T.E.L & H.G.L
2- If the two pipes are connected in parallel to each other, and the
difference in elevation is 20 m. Find the total flow.

Solution
Kent 0.5,

Kc 0.27,

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Pipes are connected in parallel

Example 6-4
1- Determine the flow rate in each pipe (F=0.015)
2- Also, if the two pipes are replaced with one pipe of the same length
determine the diameter which give the same flow.

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Solution

If the two pipes are replaced with one pipe of the same length

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Pipe line with negative Pressure (syphon phenomena)

:

It is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at a

higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when the two
reservoirs are separated by a hill or high ground
Occasionally, a section of the pipeline may be raised to an elevation that is
above the local HGL.

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Negative pressure exists in the pipelines wherever the pipe line is raised
above the hydraulic gradient line (between P & Q)
The negative pressure at the summit point can reach theoretically -10.33
m water head (gauge pressure) and zero (absolute pressure). But in the
practice water contains dissolved gasses that will vaporize before -10.33 m
water head which reduces the pipe flow cross section.
Example 6-5
Syphon pipe between two pipe has diameter of 20cm and length 500m as
shown. The difference between reservoir levels is 20m. The distance
between reservoir A and summit point S is 100m. Calculate the flow in the
system and the pressure head at summit. F=0.02
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Solution

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Three-reservoirs problem :

This system must satisfy:

The quantity of water brought to junction J is equal to the
quantity of water taken away from the junction:

Q3 = Q1 + Q2

Flow Direction????

All pipes that meet at junction J must share the same pressure at
the junction.

6.5.1 Types of three-reservoirs problem:

Type 1:
Given the lengths , diameters, and materials of all pipes involved;
D1 , D2 , D3 , L1 , L2 , L3 , and e or F
Given the water elevation in any two reservoirs,
Z1 and Z2 (for example)
Given the flow rate from any one of the reservoirs,
Q1 or Q2 or Q3
Determine the elevation of the third reservoir Z3 (for example) and
the rest of Qs.
This types of problems can be solved by simply using:
Bernoullis equation for each pipe
Continuity equation at the junction.
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Example 6-6
In the following figure determine the flow in pipe BJ & pipe CJ. Also,
determine the water elevation in tank C

Solution

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Type 2:
given the lengths , diameters, and materials of all pipes involved;
D1 , D2 , D3 , L1 , L2 , L3 , and e or F
given the water elevation in each of the three reservoirs,
Z 1 , Z2 , Z3
determine the discharges to or from each reservoir,
Q1 , Q2 ,and Q3 .
1- First assume a piezometric surface elevation, P, at the junction.
2- This assumed elevation gives the head losses hf1, hf2, and hf3
3- From this set of head losses and the given pipe diameters, lengths,
and material, the trail computation gives a set of values for
discharges Q1 , Q2 ,and Q3 .
4- If the assumed elevation P is correct, the computed Qs should
satisfy:
5- Otherwise, a new elevation P is assumed for the second trail.
The computation of another set of Qs is performed until the above
condition is satisfied
This types of problems are most conveniently solved by trail and error

Example 6-7
In the following figure determine the flow in each pipe.

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Solution

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CHAPTER 7
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
7.1 Development of the Momentum Equation :
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum principle, which states
that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in
momentum of flow per unit time in that direction .the force acting on
fluid mass m is given by the Newton`s second law of motion
F=mxa
Where a is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force F
But

m is constant and can be taken inside the differential

This equation is known as the momentum principle
This equation can be written as:

F dt = d(mv)
Which is known as the impulse momentum equation and states that:
The impulse of a force acting on a fluid of mass in short interval of time is
equal to the change of momentum (d(mv)) in the direction of force.

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Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a Pipe Bend

7.2

The impulse-momentum equation is used to determine the resultant

force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe bend.
Consider two section (1) and (2), as shown in Fig
Let,
V1 = Velocity of flow at section (1),
P1 = Pressure intensity at section (1),
A1 = Area of cross-section of pipe at section (1) and ,
V1, P1, A1 Corresponding values of velocity, pressure and area at
section (2).
Let Fx and Fy be the components of the forces exerted by the
flowing fluid on the bend in x and y direction respectively.
Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the x and y
direction will be equal to Fx and Fy but in the opposite direction.
The momentum equation in x direction is given by:

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( QV ) out ( QV )in

P1A1 P2A2 cos Fx = (Mass per sec) (change of velocity)

P1A1 P2A2 cos Fx = Q (V2 cos - V1)
Fx = Q (V1 - V2 cos ) + P1A1 P2A2 cos
Similarly the momentum equation in y direction gives
0 P2A2 sin Fy = Q (V2 sin - 0)
Fy = Q ( - V2 sin ) P2A2 sin
Now the resultant force FR acting on the bend

And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is
given by

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7.3 Applications of the Linear Momentum Equation:

A jet of fluid deflected by an object puts a force on the object. This
force is the result of the change of momentum of the fluid and can
happen even though the speed (magnitude of velocity) remains
constant. If a jet of water has sufficient momentum, it can tip over
the block that deflects it.
The same thing can happen when a garden hose is used to fill
sprinkles.
Similarly, a jet of water against the blades of a Pelton wheel turbine
causes the turbine wheel to rotate.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

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CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS & FLUID PROPERTIES

Problem 1-1: Identify the dimensions and units for the following
engineering quantities and terms (in British, and SI units): Density (),
specific weight (), specific gravity (S.G.), discharge (Q), surface tension
(), shear stress (), pressure intensity (p), pressure head (p/), dynamic
viscosity (), kinematic viscosity (), Linear momentum, angular velocity
(),Reynolds number (Rn= VD/), Froude number (Fn= V/gY).
Solution

Problem 1-2: Convert the following:

a) A discharge of 20 ft3/min. to lit/sec.
b) A force of 10 poundals to dynes.
c) A pressure of 30 lb / inch2 to gm/cm2.
d) A specific weight of 62.4 lb / ft3 to kg/lit.
e) A density of 7 gm / cm3 to slug / ft3.
f) A dynamic viscosity of 25 dyne.sec/ cm2 to lb.sec/ ft2 .
g) A dynamic viscosity of 10 gm / cm.sec to slug / ft.sec

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Solution

Problem 1-3: Determine the specific weight, density and specific gravity
of a liquid that occupies a volume of 200 lit., and weighs 178 kg. Will this
liquid float on the surface of an oil of specific gravity (0.8)? Provide
results in SI units.
Solution

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Since S.G of fluid (0.89) is higher than SG of oil (0.80) so the fluid will
not float over the oil (Higher S.G. means denser fluid)
Problem 1-4: Calculate the capillary rise in mm in a glass tube of 6 mm
diameter when immersed in (a) water, and (b) mercury, both liquids being
at C0 20. Assume to be 73103 N/m for water and 0.5 N/m for mercury.
The contact angle for water and mercury are zero and 1300 respectively.
Solution

Problem 1-5: Calculate the internal pressure of a 25 mm diameter soap

bubble if the surface tension in the soap film is 0.5 N/m.
Solution

Problem 1-6: The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid ( = 0.9 N.s

/m2) over a fixed boundary is approximately given by: v = 0.68y - y2 in
which y is the vertical distance in meters, measured from the boundary and
v is the velocity in m/s. Determine the shear stress at the boundary and at
the surface (at y = 0.34m), sketch the velocity and shear stress profiles for
the given flow.
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Solution

Problem 1-7: A square plate of 60 cm side slides down a plane inclined at

300 to the horizontal at a uniform speed of 10 cm/s. The plate weighs 3 kg
and a thin oil film of thickness 1.5 mm fills the spacing between the plate
and the plane. Find the viscosity of the filling oil and the shear at both
surfaces.
Solution

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Problem 1-8: A 25 mm diameter steel cylinder falls under its own weight
at a uniform rate of 0.1 m/s inside a tube of slightly larger diameter. Castor
oil of viscosity 0.25N.s/m2 fills the spacing between the tube and the
cylinder. Find the diameter of the tube. (specific weight of steel = 7.8
t/m3).
Solution

Problem 1-9: A rotating-cylinder viscometer consists of two concentric

cylinders of diameters 5.0 cm and 5.04 cm, respectively. Find the viscosity
of the tested oil which fills the gap between both cylinders to a height of
4.0 cm when a torque of 2 x 105 dyne.cm is required to rotate the inner
cylinder at 2000 rpm.

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Solution

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Problem 1-10: A flat circular disk of radius 1.0 m is rotated at an angular

velocity of 0.65 rad/s over a fixed surface. Find the power required to
rotate the disk if an oil film of viscosity 0.15 poise and thickness 0.5 mm
separates the disk from the surface. Sketch (with values) the shear stress
distribution along a radius of the disk.
Solution

Assume linear velocity distribution

Shear stress distribution along the radius of the disk:

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Problem 1-11: The pressure exerted on a liquid increases from 500 to

1000 kpa. The volume decreases by 1%. Determine the bulk modulus of
the liquid.
Solution

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CHAPTER 2
FLUID PRESSURE AND HYDROSTATIC FORCE

Problem 2-1: For the tank shown in Fig. (1), calculate the pressure in KPa
at points A, B, C, and D.

Solution

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Problem 2-2: The pressure gage in the tank shown in Fig. reads 1.5 KPa.
Determine the elevations of the liquid levels in the open piezometer tubes
B and C.
Solution

Problem 2-3: For the pipes shown in Fig. (3), determine the absolute and
gage pressures at the center of each pipe (A) in N /m2. Find the pressure
head in each the pipe expressed in terms of meters of water.

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Solution

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Problem 2-4: Determine the pressure difference between pipes A and B in

the setup shown in the Fig.

Solution

Problem 2-5: Gate AB in Fig. (5) is 6 m wide and weighs 2 tons. It is

hinged at B and rests against a smooth wall at A. Determine the water
level h at which the gate will start to open.

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Solution
Use pressure distribution method since the gate is rectangular shape.

Problem 2-6: Find the minimum value of Z for which the gate shown in
Fig. will rotates counterclockwise if the gate is (a) rectangular, 1.2 by 1.2
m; (b) triangular, 1.2 m base as axis of motion, height 1.2 m.

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Solution
a. The gate is Rectangular
Use pressure distribution method since the gate is of a planar rectangular
shape.
For the gate to rotate at B, then the reaction at A is equal to zero

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b. The gate is Traiangular

Use general law method.
For the gate to rotate at B, then the reaction at A is equal to zero

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Problem 2-7: (a) A circular butterfly gate pivoted about a horizontal axis
passing through its centroid is subjected to hydrostatic thrust and
counterbalanced by a force F, applied at the bottom as shown in Fig. (7). If
the diameter of the gate is 4 m and the water depth is 1 m above the gate.
Determine the force F, required to keep the gate in position.
(b) If the gate is to retain water to its top level on the other side also,
determine the net hydrostatic thrust on the gate and suggest the new
condition for the gate to be in equilibrium.
Solution

The resultant force passing through the pivot and the gate is in
equilibrium.

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Problem 2-8: Find the magnitude and location of the resultant force on the
cylindrical arc shown in the Fig. if Pg = 120.11 KPa (abs) and the arc is
25m long (normal to the paper).

Solution

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Problem 2-9: The cylindrical dome shown in the Fig. is 10 m long and is
secured to the top of a tank by bolts. If the pressure gauge reads 2.42 bar,
and the tank is full of oil (0.86), calculate the total tension force carried by
the bolts. Neglect own weight of dome.
Solution

Problem 2-10: The cylinder shown in the Fig. retains oil from one side
and water from the other side. Determine the resultant hydrostatic thrust on
the cylinder per unit length and its inclination to the vertical.

Solution

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Problem 2-11: The log shown in the Fig. retains oil and water. Determine
the resultant hydrostatic thrust pushing the log against the wall per unit
length. Also find the specific gravity of the log material, assuming the
reaction of the wall is normal to the log surface.

Solution

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CHAPTER 3
FLUID MASSES SUBJECTED TO ACCELERATION

Problem 3-1: An open rectangular tank is 2m long, 1m wide, and 1.5m

deep. If the tank contains gasoline to a depth of 1m, calculate the
maximum horizontal acceleration with which the tank can move without
spilling any gasoline. Find the amount of gasoline retained in the tank
when it is accelerated at double the previous value.
Solution

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Problem 3-2: A closed rectangular tank 1.2 m high, 2.5 m long, and 1.5
wide is filled with water. The pressure at the top of the tank is raised to 60
KN/m2. Calculate the pressure at the corners of this tank when it is
decelerated horizontally along the direction of its length at 5 m/s2.
Calculate the forces on both ends of the tank and check their difference by
Newton's law.
Solution

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Problem 3-3: A closed rectangular tank 6m long, 2m wide and 2m deep is

partially filled with oil (0.9) to a depth of 1.5 m under a pressure of 0.4
bar. Determine the maximum acceleration with which the tank can move
in the direction of its length if a safety valve that withstands a maximum
pressure of 60 KN/m2 is fitted at the center of its rear end.

Solution

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Problem 3-4: A closed cubic box of side 2.0 m contains water to a depth
of 1.0 in. calculate the pressure force on the top and the bottom sides of the
tank if it moves with horizontal acceleration of 19.6 m/s 2. Sketch the water
surface and the pressure distributions on the four sides.
Solution

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Problem 3-5: Find the force on the bottom side of the tank in problem 3-4,
when the tank moves with the same acceleration, but in the vertical
direction: 1) upwards,
2) downwards.
Solution

Problem 3-6: A 375 mm high opened cylinder, 150 mm diameter is filled

with water and rotated about its vertical axis at an angular speed of 33.5
rad/s. Determine the depth of water in the cylinder when brought to rest.
Find the volume of water that remains in the cylinder if the speed is
doubled.
Solution

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Problem 3-7: A cylindrical tank of 1.0 m diameter, 2.0 m height contains

water to a depth of 1.5 in. if the tank is to rotate around its vertical axis,
what is the range of the angular velocity () would cause spilling of water
but would not uncover the base.
Solution

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Problem 3-8: A closed cylindrical tank 2-m long, 1-m diameter is partially
filled with water to 1.5 m depth. The pressure at the water surface is 40
KN/m2. If the tank is rotated about its vertical axis with an angular velocity
of 12 rad/s, determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank; at its center,
and edge. Also calculate the force on the top of the tank.
Solution

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Problem 3-9: A closed cylindrical tank 2m high and 1 m diameter is filled

with glycerin (1.25) under pressure of 2 t/m2. The tank is rotated about its
vertical axis at a rate of 2000 rpm. If the top plate of the tank is connected
to the cylinder by means of rivets that withstand a force of 50 KN, find the
number of rivers required to hold the top plate to the cylinder.
Solution

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CHAPTER 4
EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES
Problem 4-1: A body is weighed twice while suspended in two different
fluids of specific gravities 0.85 and 1.6. If the balance readings are 30 and
18 kg. Determine the density of the body.
Solution

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Problem 4-2: A cylinder of specific gravity 0.95 and length 80 cm floats

with its axis vertical in a vessel containing oil of specific gravity 0.84 and
water. If it is required that the cylinder become totally immersed, what
should he the minimum depth of oil required to satisfy this condition.
Solution

Problem 4-3: A rectangular tank has dimensions 120 x 66 x 60-cm and

weighs 1410 N. If the tank is allowed to float in fresh water, will the
equilibrium be stable when the 60 cm edge is vertical?
Solution

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Problem 4-4: A hollow wooden cylinder of specific gravity 0.60 has an

outer diameter 0.80 m. an inner diameter 0.40 m, and opened at its ends. It
is required to float in oil of specific gravity 0.85, calculate the maximum
height of the cylinder keep it floating with its axis vertical.
Solution

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Problem 4-5: Check the stability of the floating unit in the shown fig.

Solution

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Problem 4-6: A rectangular pontoon 10.3m long, 7.3m wide, and 2.4 m
deep has a displacement weight of 74 tons. If an empty cylindrical boiler
of 5.5m diameter and 10.3m long is mounted on its deck, check the
stability of the system while floating in sea water (1.03), when the boiler's
axis is: a) horizontal (parallel to pontoon axis), b) vertical. The boiler
weighs 70 Ions.
Solution

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CHAPTER 5
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 5-1: Determine the type of flow in a 305 mm diameter pipe when
a) Water flows at average velocity of 1.0 m/sec and = 1.13 x 10-6 m2/sec.
b) Glycerin flows at a rate of 1.8 lit/min having = 1260 kg/m3 and
= 0.9 N.s/m2.
Solution

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Problem 5-2: Oil of specific gravity 0.9 flows through a vertical pipe of
diameter 5 cm. A pressure gauge reads 6 kg/cm2 while another gauge 20 m
higher reads 2 kg/cm2. Find the direction of flow and the head losses.
Solution

Problem 5-3: A tank where the water level is 25.0 m above an arbitrary
datum feeds a pipeline AB ending at B with a nozzle 4.0 cm diameter. Pipe
AB is 15.0 cm diameter with point A being 20.0 m above datum and point
B at datum. Find:
i) The discharge through the pipeline, the pressures and water velocities
at A & B.
ii) If friction losses in the nozzle are 0.5 m, and between A & B are 5.0
m, resolve (i) and plot the hydraulic gradient and total energy lines.

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Solution

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Problem 5-4: Water (assumed frictionless and incompressible) flows

steadily from a large tank and exits through a vertical constant diameter
pipe as shown in Fig. (1). Air in the tank is pressurized to 50 kN/m2.
Determine: (i) the height (h) to which water rises, (ii) the water velocity in
the pipe, and (iii) the pressure in the horizontal part of the pipe.
.

Solution

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Problem 5-5: Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in the Fig.
For the given difference in peizometer levels, determine the flow rate as a
function of the diameter of the small pipe, D.
.

Solution

Problem 5-6: A 5.0-cm diameter orifice (Cd = 0.6) discharges water from
tank A to tank B as shown in the Fig. The vacuum gauge in tank B reads
0.65 Kg/cm2 below atmospheric pressure, while the air pressure above oil
in tank A is 70 KN/m2, find the discharge from the orifice and the distance
(L).

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Solution

Problem 5-7: The velocity of water in a pipe 10.0 m diameter is 3.0 m/s.
At the end of the pipe there is a nozzle the velocity coefficient of which is
0.98. If the pressure in the pipe is 0.7 kg/cm2, find the jet diameter, the rate
of flow, and the power lost due to friction in the nozzle.
Solution

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Problem 5-8: Water issues from a 10.0-cm diameter circular sharp edged
orifice under a head of 12.0 m. If a volume of 13.6 m3 is collected in 3
minutes, what is the coefficient of discharge? If the diameter of the jet at
the venacontracta is 8.0-cm what are the values for Cv & Cc?
Solution

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Problem 5-9: A rectangular orifice on one side of a tank is 1.00 m broad

and 0.50 m deep, the water level being 1.50 m above the top edge of the
orifice. Calculate the discharge through the orifice per hour. Take Cd
equals 0.60.
Solution

Problem 5-10: A head gate supplies water from a pond to a canal. The
rectangular partially submerged opening is practically a sharp edged
orifice 1.0 m wide by 1.75 m high. The pond water level is 2.0 m above
the top edge of the opening on one side and the canal water level is 0.3 m
below the top edge on the other side. The coefficient of discharge is the
same as for free discharge. Calculate the approximate discharge. Take C d
equals 0.62

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Solution

Problem 5-11: A drowned orifice 1.0 m wide has water columns of height
2.50 m and 2.0 m from the bottom and top of the orifice respectively. Find
the discharge through the orifice if the difference of water levels on
discharge through the orifice is 0.40 m. Take Cd equals 0.62.
Solution

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Problem 5-12: An external mouthpiece converges from inlet up to the

vena-contract to the shape of the jet and then diverges gradually. The
diameter at the vena-contract is 2.0 cm and the head over the center of the
mouthpiece is 1.44 m. The head loss in the contraction may be taken as
1.0% and that in the divergent portion 5.0% of the total energy head before
the inlet. What is the maximum discharge that can be drawn through the
outlet and what should be the corresponding diameter at the outlet.
Assuming that the pressure in the system may be permitted to fall up to 8.0
m below atmosphere, the liquid conveyed being water.

Solution
Applying Bernoullis equation between the reservoir surface and the throat
of the mouthpiece, i.e. section (1),

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Applying Bernoullis equation between the reservoir surface and the exit
of the mouthpiece, i.e. section (2), yields

Using the continuity equation

Problem 5-13: A conical tank with a 100 mm orifice at the bottom is

shown in figure. If the water level outside the tank is constant, how long
will it take for the water level in the tank to drop to the level outside?
Assume Cd = 0.62.

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Solution

The time t required to lower the fluid level from H1 = 6.0 2.0 = 4.0 m to
H2 = 2.02.0 = 0.0 m is

Diameter increases by 4.0 - 0.1 = 3.0 m in a height of 6.0 m, or 3.0 / 6.0 =

0.50 m per meter height.

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Problem 5-14: A swimming pool 20.0 m long and 8.0 m wide is 2.0 m
deep at one end and 1.0 m deep at the other end. The pool is emptied
through an orifice of 0.1 m diameter at the bottom. Find the time required
to empty the pool if Cd = 0.7.
Solution

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Problem 5-15: A swimming pool with vertical sides is 60 m long and 15

m wide. Depth of water at the two ends (along the length) are 4 m and 1m,
respectively, with outlets of 0.5 m diameter, one at each end. What is the
time required to completely drain the pool? Assume Cd equal 0.80.
Solution

Total time = t1 + t2
Where,
t1: time required to empty 1 m depth from top through two outlets, and
t2: time required to empty the bottom 3 m depth, through the bottom
outlet.
To find t1:

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To find t2:

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Problem 5-16: Water collects in the bottom of a rectangular oil tank as

shown in fig. How long will it take for the water to drain from the tank
through a 2.54 cm diameter orifice (Cd = 0.85) fitted to the bottom of the
tank?
Solution

Problem 5-17: Water flows along a rectangular channel 50.0 cm wide and
30.0 cm deep and then over a sharp-edged rectangular weir of 30.0 cm
crest length and Cd = 0.6. If the water in the channel is 18.0 cm above the
weir crest, calculate the discharge.
Solution

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Problem 5-18: A horizontal venturi-meter carries a liquid (S.G.= 0.8) and

has an inlet to throat diameters of 15 / 7.5 cm. If the actual discharge is 40
l/s, and Cd = 0.96, find:
i)the pressure difference between the inlet and the throat, ii) the deflection
in the mercury U-tube manometer connecting these points, and iii) the
energy lost between the inlet and the throat. Also sketch the H.G.L. and
the T.E.L. for the system.
Solution

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Problem 5-19: A venturi-meter is installed in a 30 cm diameter vertical

pipe conveying oil of S.G. = 0.9. The throat diameter is 15.0 cm and the
flow being upward. The difference in elevation between the throat and
inlet is 30.0 cm. A mercury manometer connected to the venturi registers a
deflection of 20.0 cm. If Cd = 0.96, calculate the discharge and the
pressure difference between the inlet and throat. If the discharge remains
constant while the pipe is shifted to the horizontal position, how will the
reading of the manometer be affected?
Solution

When the pipe is shifted to the horizontal position with the same discharge
the reading of the manometer will not be affected.

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Problem 5-20: An orifice-meter having a 0.15/0.075 m pipe to orifice

diameters and Cd = 0.65 is used in measuring the flow of water in a pipe. If
a U-tube mercury differential manometer gives 0.31 m deflection when
connected to the meter, find the rate of flow. What is the maximum
possible rate of flow of water if the pressure at inlet to the meter is
maintained at 3.6 KN/m2 and its vapor pressure is 1.8 KN/m2 abs.
Solution

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Problem 5-21: A pitot-tube is placed in a pipe carrying water. A mercury

differential pressure gauge reads 10.0 cm. Assuming C v = 0.99, what is the
velocity of water in the pipe? If the problem is reversed and mercury is
flowing in the pipe and water is used in the inverted differential gauge
with the same reading, what would be the velocity of mercury in the pipe?
Solution

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CHAPTER 6
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Problem 6-1: The following figure shows pipe system from cast iron steel.
The main pipe diameter is 0.2 m with length 4m at the end of this pipe a
Gate Valve is fixed as shown. The second pipe has diameter 0.12m with
length 6.4m, this pipe connected to two bends R/D = 2.0 and a globe valve.
Total Q in the system = 0.26 m3/s at T=10oC. Determine Q in each pipe at
fully open valves.

Solution

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Problem 6-2: Determine the flow in each pipe and the flow in the main
pipe if Head loss between A & B is 2m & F=0.01

Solution

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Problem 6-3: Find the flow in each pipe & F = 0.01

Solution

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Problem 6-4: A syphon filled with oil of specific gravity 0.8 discharges
220 lit/s to the atmosphere at an elevation of 3.0 m below oil level. The
siphon is 0.2 m in diameter and its invert is 5.0 m above oil level. Find the
losses in the syphon in terms of the velocity head. Find the pressure at the
invert if two thirds of the losses occur in the first leg.
Solution

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CHAPTER 7
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
Problem 7-1: A nozzle 5 cm diameter delivers a jet of water that strikes a
flat plate normally. If the jet velocity is 60 m/sec, calculate he force acting
on the plate if:
- The plate is stationary.
- The plate is moving at 20 m/sec. in the same direction of the jet.
- If the plate is replaced by a series of plates moving at the same speed,
determine the rate of doing work and the efficiency of the system.
Solution

Problem 7-1: Determine the components of divided discharge in the plate

direction, and the force exerted by a jet of water that has an area of 6.5
cm2and moves at 30 m/sec on an inclined fixed flat plate as a function of
its angle of inclination to the jet direction.

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Solution

Problem 7-3: A jet of water having a velocity of 30 m/sec and area 10 cm2
impinges on a curved vane. The jet approaches the vane horizontally and
deviates an angle of 120o. Calculate the force acting on the vane if it is:
- Stationary.
- Moving at 15 m/sec in the direction of the jet.
- If the vane is replaced by a series of vanes moving at the same speed,
calculate the output power and the efficiency of the system.
Solution

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Problem 7-4: A nozzle 3 cm diameter that has a coefficient of velocity of

0.97 is fitted at the end of a pipeline 10 cm diameter. Find the force
exerted by the nozzle on the pipeline if the pressure at the end of the
pipeline is 0.5 kg/ cm2
Solution

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Problem 7-5: Water flows at a rate of 100 lit/sec in a 30 cm diameter

horizontal pipe connected to a 20 cm diameter pipe through a vertical
reducer bend where the change in water direction is 120o. The vertical
distance between the entrance and outlet of the bend is 1.5 m and the
pressure at its entrance is 0.7 kg/ cm2. The total weight of the bend
material and water contained in it is 100 kg. Calculate the horizontal and
vertical components of the force required to hold the bend in place.
Solution

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Problem 7-6: Water flows through a Y-shaped horizontal pipe connection.

The velocity in the stem is 3 m/sec and the diameter is 30 cm. Each branch
is of 15 cm diameter and inclined at an angle 30 to the stem. If the
pressure in the stem is 2 kg/cm2, calculate the magnitude and direction of
the force of water on the Y-shaped pipe connection if the flow rates in both
branches are the same.
Solution

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Problem 7-7: A 45o horizontal reducer elbow has 15 cm diameter at the

upstream end and 10 cm at the other end and is connected at the end of a
pipeline. Neglecting any losses in the elbow, determine the magnitude and
direction of the force affecting the pipeline when a discharge of 75 lit/sec
of water is flowing through the elbow into the atmosphere.
Solution

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Problem 7-8: A rectangular vertical gate has an opening 0.5m high and
coefficients of contraction and discharge of 0.6 and 0.55, respectively. If
the water depth upstream the gate is 5.0 m, calculate the force exerted by
the water on the gate per unit widt, and sketch the dynamic pressure
distribution on the gate.
Solution

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ASSIGNMENTS

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ASSIGNMENT 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS & FLUID PROPERTIES
Q1: Using dimensional analysis, put down the dimensions and units in the
engineering systems {pound (Ib), foot (ft), second (s)} and
{kilogram (kg), meter (m), second (s)} for the following engineering
quantities:
Density (), specific weight (), surface tension (), pressure
intensity (p), dynamic viscosity (), kinematic viscosity (),
energy per unit weight, power, liner momentum, angular
momentum, shear stress ().

Q2: Show that the following terms are dimensionless:

Q3: Find the dimensions for the following terms:

Q4: Convert the following terms:

= 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/sec2
p = 7 kg/cm2
= 710 dyne/cm3
= 4640.84 poise

to
to
to
to
to

Ib/ft3
ft/sec2
N/m2
Ib/ft3, N/m3
Ib.sec/ft2, Pa.sec

Q5: What is the diameter of a spherical water drop if the inside pressure is
15 N/m2 and the surface tension is 0.074 N/m.

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Q6: The pressure within a bubble of soapy water of 0.05 cm diameter is

5.75 gm/cm2 greater than that of the atmosphere. Calculate the
surface tension in the soapy water in S.I. units.
Q7: Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm
diam., when immersed in (i) water and (ii) in mercury. The
temperature of liquid is 20o C and the values of surface tension of
water and mercury at this temperature in contact with air are 0.0075
kg/m and 0.052 kg/m respectively. The contact angle for water = 0
and for mercury = 130.
Q8: To what height will water rise in a glass tube if its diameter is ( =
0.072 N/m)
a) 1.50 cm
b) 2.0 mm
Q9: The space between a square smooth flat plate (50 x 50) cm2, and a
smooth inclined plane (1:100) is filled with an oil film (S.G. = 0.9)
of 0.01 cm thickness. Determine the kinematic viscosity in stokes if
the plate is 2.3 kg. The velocity of the plate = 9 cm/sec.

Q10: For the shown figure, Calculate the friction force if the plate area is
(2m x3m) and the viscosity is 0.07 poise.

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Q11: A piston 11.96 cm diameter and 14 cm long works in a cylinder 12

cm diameter. A lubricating oil which fills the space between them
has a viscosity 0.65 poise. Calculate the speed at which the piston
will move through the cylinder when an axial load of 0.86 kg is
applied. Neglect the inertia of the piston.

Q12: A piece of pipe 30 cm long weighting 1.5 kg and having internal

diameter of 5.125 cm is slipped over a vertical shaft 5.0 cm in
diameter and allowed to fall under its own weight. Calculate the
maximum velocity attained by the falling pipe if a film of oil having
viscosity equals 0.5 Ib.s/ft2 is maintained between the pipe and the
shaft.

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Q13: A cylinder of 0.12 m radius rotates concentrically inside of a fixed

cylinder of 0.122 m radius. Both cylinders are 0.30 m long.
Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between
the cylinders if a torque of 1 N.m is required to maintain an angular
velocity of 2 rad/s.

Q14: The thrust of a shaft is taken by a collar bearing provided with a

forced lubrication system. The lubrication system maintains a film of
oil of uniform thickness between the surface of the collar and the
bearing. The external and internal diameters of collar are 16 and 12
cms. respectively. The thickness of oil film is 0.02 cms. and
coefficient of viscosity is 0.91 poise. Find the horse-power lost in
overcoming friction when the shaft is rotated at a speed of 350 r.p.m.

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ASSIGNMENT 2
FLUID PRESSURE AND HYDROSTATIC FORCE
Q1: A tank full of water as shown below. Find the maximum pressure, and h.

Q2: A tank full of water and oil (S.G = 0.80), as shown. Find the pressure at
the oil/water interface and the bottom of the tank.

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Q3: For the shown figure, find the pressure (P1) if the pressure
KPa (abs)?

(P2) = 60

Q4: If the pressure at point (B) = 300 KPa as shown in figure, find the
followings:
a) The height (h)
b) The pressure at point (A)?

Q5: For the shown figure, where is the maximum pressure (PAB or PBC)?

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Q6: For the shown figure, what is the difference in pressure between points
1,2?

Q7: Pressure gage B is to measure the pressure at point A in a water flow. If

the pressure at B is 9 t/m2, estimate the pressure at A.

Q8: For the shown figure, what is the difference in pressure between points
A, B?

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Q9: For the shown figure, what is the pressure at gauge dial Pg?

Q10: For the shown hydraulic press, find the force (F) required to keep the
system in equilibrium.

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Q11: A vertical triangular gate with water on one side is shown in the figure.
Calculate the total resultant force acting on the gate, and locate the
center of pressure.

Q12: In the shown figure, the gate holding back the oil is 80 cm high by 120
cm long. If it is held in place only along the bottom edge. What is the
necessary resisting moment at that edge.

Q13: In the shown figure, the gate holding back the water is 6 ft wide. If it is
held in place only along the bottom edge. What is the necessary
resisting moment at that edge.

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Q14: (A) Find the magnitude and line of action of force on each side of the
gate.
(B) Find the resultant force due to the liquid on both sides of the
gate.
(C) Determine F to open the gate if it is uniform and
weighs 6000 Ib.

Q15: Find the value of P which make the gate in the shown figure just
rotate clockwise, the gate is 0.80 m wide.

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Q16: Determine the value and location of the horizontal and vertical
components of the force due to water acting on curved surface per 3
meter length.

Q17: Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force acting on
radial gate ABC in the shown figure and their lines of action. What F is
required to open the gate. Take the weight of the gate W = 2000 kg
acting on 1m from O?

Q18: A cylinder barrier (0.30 m) long and (0.60 m) diameter as shown in

figure. Determine the magnitude of horizontal and vertical components
of the force due to water pressure exerted against the wall.

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Q19: Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the hydrostatic

force on the hemispherical dome at the bottom of the shown tank.

Q20: The hemispherical dome in the figure weighs 30 kN, is filled with
water, and is attached to the floor by six equally spaced bolts. What is
the force on each bolt required to hold the dome down.

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ASSIGNMENT 3
FLUID MASSES SUBJECTED TO ACCELERATION
Q1: Calculate the total forces on the sides and bottom of the container shown
in Figure 1 while at rest and when being accelerated vertically upward
at 3 m/s2. The container is 2.0 m wide. Repeat your calculations for a
downward acceleration of 6 m/s2.

Q2: For the shown container in Figure 2, determine the pressure at points A,
B, and C if:
The container moves vertically with a constant linear
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2.
The container moves horizontally with a constant linear
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2.

Q3: A tank containing water moves horizontally with a constant linear

acceleration of 3.5 m/s2. The tank is 2.5 m long, 2.5 m high and the
depth of water when the tank is at rest is 2.0 m. Calculate:
a) The angle of the water surface to the horizontal.
b)
The volume of spilled water when the acceleration is increased
by 25%.
c) The force acting on each side if (ax =12 m/s2).

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Q4: An open cylindrical tank 2.0 m high and 1.0 m diameter contains 1.5 m
of water. If the cylinder rotates about its geometric axis, find the
constant angular velocity that can be applied when:
a) The water just starts spilling over.
b) The point at the center of the base is just uncovered and the
percentage of water left in the tank in this case.
Q5: An open cylindrical tank 1.9 m high and 0.9 m diameter contains 1.45 m
of oil (S.G = 0.9). If the cylinder rotates about its geometric axis,
a)
What constant angular velocity can be attained without spilling
the oil?
b) What are the pressure at the center and corner points of the tank
bottom
when ( = 5.0 rad/s).
Q6: An open cylindrical tank 2.0 m high and 1.0 m diameter is full of water.
If the cylinder is rotated with an angular velocity of 2.5 rev/s, how
much of the bottom of the tank is uncovered?
Q7: A closed cylindrical container, 0.4 m diameter and 0.8 m high, two third
of its height is filled with oil (S.G = 0.85). The container is rotated
about its vertical axis. Determine the speed of rotation when:
a) The oil just starts touching the lid.
b) The point at the center of the base is just clear of oil.
Q8: A closed cylindrical tank with the air space subjected to a pressure
14.8 psi. The tank is 1.9 m high and 0.9 m diameter, contains 1.45 m
oil (S.G = 0.9). If the cylinder rotates about its geometric axis,
a)
When the angular velocity is 10 rad/s, what are the pressure
bar at the center and corner points of the tank bottom.
b) At what speed must the tank be rotated in order that the center
the bottom has zero depth?

of
of
in
of

Q9: A closed cylindrical tank 2 ft diameter is completely filled with water. If

the tank is rotated at 1200 rpm, what increase in pressure would occur
at the top of the tank at that case?

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ASSIGNMENT 4
EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES
Q1: Will a beam of S.G. = 0.65 and length 1500 mm long with a cross
section 136 mm wide and 96 mm height float in stable equilibrium in
water with two sides horizontal?
Q2: A floating body 100 m wide and 150 m long has a gross weight of
60,000 ton. Its center of gravity is 0.5 m above the water surface. Find
the metacentric height and the restoring couple when the body is given
a tilt as shown 0.5m.
Q3: A ship displacing 1000 ton has a horizontal cross-section at water-line as
shown in the figure, its center of bouyancy is 6 ft below water surface
and its center of gravity is 1 ft below the water surface. Determine its
metacentric height for rolling (about y-axis) and for pitching (about xaxis).

Q4: An empty tank rectangular in plan (with all sides closed) is 12.5m
long, and its cross section 0.70 m width x 0.60 m height. If the sheet
metal weights 363 N/m2 of the surface, and the tank is allowed to
float in fresh water (Specific weight 9.81 KN/m3) with the 0.60m
wedge vertical. Show, whether the tank is stable or not?

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Q5: A cylindrical buoy 1.8 m diam., 1.2 m high

sea water of density 1025 kg/m3. Its center
the bottom. If a load of 2 KN is placed on
height of the C.G. of this load above the
remain in stable equilibrium.

and weighing 10 KN is in
of gravity is 0.45 m from
the top; find the maximum
bottom if the buoy is to

Q6: A spherical Buoy

( floating ball) has a 0.50 m in diameter,
weights 500 N, and is anchored to the seafloor with a cable. Although
the buoy normally floats on the surface, at certain times the water
depth increases so that the buoy is completely immersed. What is the
tension on the cable?

Q7: A wooden cylinder 60 cm in diameter, S.G. = 0.50 has a concrete

cylinder 60 cm long of the same diameter, S.G. = 2.50, attached to
one end. Determine the length of wooden cylinder for the system to
float in stable equilibrium with its axis vertical.
Q8: A right solid cone with apex angle equal to 60 is of density k relative
to that of the liquid in which it floats with apex downwards.
Determine what range of k is compatible with stable equilibrium.
Q9: A cylindrical buoy is 5 feet diameter and 6 feet high. It weighs 1500
Ib and its C.G. is 2.5 feet above the base and is on the axis. Show that
the buoy will not float with its axis vertical in sea water. If one end of
a vertical chain is fastened to the centre of the base, find the tension
in the chain in order that the buoy may just float with its axis vertical.

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ASSIGNMENT 4
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

Q1: Determine the type of flow in a 400 mm diameter pipe when

a) Water flows at average velocity of 1.2 m/sec and = 1.13 x 10-6 m2/sec.
b) Glycerin flows at a rate of 2.0 lit/min having = 1260 kg/m3 and
= 0.9 N.s/m2.
Q2: An inclined pipe carrying water gradually changes from 10 cm at A to 40
cm at B which is 5.00 m vertically above A. If the pressure at A and B
are respectively 0.70 kg/cm2 and 0.5 kg/cm2 and the discharge is 150
liters/sec. Determine a) the direction of flow b) the head loss between
the sections.
Q3: A cylindrical tank contains air, oil, and water as shown. A pressure of 6
lb/in2 is maintained on the oil surface. What is the velocity of the water
leaving the 1.0-inch diameter pipe (neglect the kinetic energy of the
fluids in the tank above elevation A).

Q4: For the shown figure calculate the discharge and the value h.

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Q5: A tank where the water level is 30.0 m above an arbitrary datum feeds a
pipeline AB ending at B with a nozzle 5.0 cm diameter. Pipe AB is 20.0
cm diameter with point A being 23.0 m above datum and point B at
datum. Find:
i- The discharge through the pipeline, the pressures and water velocities
at A & B.
ii- If friction losses in the nozzle are 0.5 m, and between A & B are 5.0 m,
resolve (i) and plot the hydraulic gradient and total energy lines.
Q6: The losses in the shown figure equals 3(V 2/2g)ft, when H is 20 ft. What
is the discharge passing in the pipe? Draw the TEL and the HGL.

Q7: Find the discharge and head loss when using sharp- edged orifice (Cc =
0.64). If Cv of the orifice is 0.94 and the water head over the center line
of the orifice is 2.5 m.

Q8: A big square orifice in the side of the tank

has a side length of 40 cm. If the height
of water over the top end of the orifice
is 5 m. Determine the discharge. What
will be the difference in discharge if
treated as a small orifice? (Cd= 0.63)
Resolve if the orifice mentioned was in
the bottom of the tank. Comment.

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Q9: A rectangular orifice 1.5 m wide and 1.2 m deep is fitted in one side of a large
tank. The water level on one side of the orifice is 2 m above the top edge of the
orifice, while on the other side of the orifice, water level is 0.4 m below its top edge.
Calculate the discharge through the orifice (Cd = 0.62).

Q10: A swimming poll 25 ft long and 10 ft wide is 3 ft deep at one end and
6 ft deep at the other end where an orifice 1.5 ft diameter was provide.
It is required to find the time needed to empty the pool completely
through this orifice (Cd = 0.62).
Q11: Calculate the time required to empty a cylinder tank 3 m diameter and 4
m height through a circular orifice 5 cm diameter and C d = 0.62 placed
at the bottom of the tank. The tank was originally full. What will be
effect of connecting a vertical pipe of length 0.5 m to the orifice at the
bottom on the time of emptying the tank?
Q12: Calculate the time required emptying a hemi-spherical vessel full of
water with an orifice at the bottom. The diameter line of the vessel is 2
m. Take the area of the orifice is 44 cm2 and Cd=0.60.
Q13: An orifice is fitted at the bottom of a boiler tank drum (cylinder) for the
purpose of emptying it. The drum is horizontal and half full of water. It
is 10 m long and 2 m in diameter. Find the time required to empty the
boiler, if the diameter of the orifice is 50 mm. (Take Cd = 0.8).
Q14: What is the theoretical rate of flow in m3/sec from the notch shown in
the figure, if the total head above the sill of the notch is 0.15 m?

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Q15: The discharge over a rectangular notch is to be 0.20 m3/s when the
water level is 30 cm above the sill. If the coef. of discharge is 0.65,
calculate the width of notch required.
Q16: If the rate of flow of water over a V-noch having = 80o is 50 lit/s, find
the head in centimeters (Take Cd = 0.8).
Q17: Water in tank discharges through an orifice of 25 cm2 cross-sectional
area and coefficient of discharge is 0.64. The axis of the orifice is 3 m
below the free surface of water in tank. The water, which has passed
through the orifice, flows over a rectangular notch of breadth 0.5 m.
The head over the notch is maintained at 6 cm. Find the coefficient of
discharge for the notch.

Q18: A horizontal venturi-meter carries a liquid (S.G.= 0.9) and has an inlet
to throat diameters of 18 / 9 cm. If the actual discharge is 45 l/s, and Cd
= 0.94, find:
i)the pressure difference between the inlet and the throat, ii) the
deflection in the mercury U-tube manometer connecting these points,
and iii) the energy lost between the inlet and the throat. Also sketch the
H.G.L. and the T.E.L. for the system.

Q19: A venturimeter of throat diameter 4 cm is fitted into a pipeline of 10 cm

diameter. The coefficient of discharge is 0.96. Calculate the flow
through the meter when the reading on the mercury-water manometer
connected across the upstream and throat is 25 cm. If the energy loss in

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the downstream divergent cone of the meter is 10(Vp/2g) Calculate the

head loss across the meter (Vp is the velocity in the pipeline).

Q20: During a test in the laboratory, the water passes through a horizontal
venturimeter and then flows over a right-angled V-notch. The head at
notch being registered. The inlet and the outlet diameters for the
venturimeter are 12 inches and the throat diameter is 5 inches. When a
steady head of 0.604 ft is recorded over the V-notch the differential
pressure head between inlet and throat was found to be 1.075 ft of
water. If the V-notch coefficient of discharge is 0.6, determine the
coefficient of discharge of the venturimeter.

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Q21: An orifice-meter having a 0.15/0.075 m pipe to orifice diameters and C d

= 0.65 is used in measuring the flow of water in a pipe. If a U-tube
mercury differential manometer gives 0.35 m deflection when
connected to the meter, find the rate of flow. What is the maximum
possible rate of flow of water if the pressure at inlet to the meter is
maintained at 4 KN/m2 and its vapor pressure is 2 KN/m2 abs.
Q22: To what height will water rise in tubes A and B? (P = 25 Kpa, Q = 60)

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ASSIGNMENT 6
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Q1: Find the discharge through pipe and the pressure at point C.

Q2: Find difference in the level H between point a and b for the shown figure.

Q3: Find the discharge through pipe for the shown figure.

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Q4: For the shown figure, find the mean and the maximum velocity in the pip.

Q5: For the shown figure, find the head of the pump.

Q6: Determine the shear stress at the inner wall of a 305 diameter pipe when an oil
of kinematic viscosity of 105 x 10-6 m2/s causes a measured head loss of 15 m in
10 km pip length. What is the value of the shear stress at 51 mm from the pip
centerline? Also, calculate the shear velocity, the average velocity and the
maximum velocity in the pip (oil = 0.9 t/m3).
Q7: Two reservoirs are connected by 3 pipes in series as shown in figure. The
velocity of water in the first pipe is 5.73 m/s. considering minor losses, calculate
the difference in levels of the water in the two reservoirs. Sketch the T.E.L and
the H.G.L. showing all vertical dimensions. Kc=0.5.

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Q8: Two pipes are connected in parallel to each other between two reservoirs with
length L1=2400m, D1=1.20m, F1=0.024; L2=2400m, D2=1.0m, and F2=0.02.
Find the total flow, if the difference in elevation is 25m.
Q9: Reservoir A is connected to reservoir B through a pipeline having a length 64
km. The elevation of reservoir A is 180 m higher than that of reservoir B. The
pipeline was designed to convey a flow rate of 28,000 m3/day. It was decided to
raise the flow rate from reservoir A to reservoir B by laying an identical pipe
connected in parallel to the original pipe for a length of 32 km. Find the new
flow rate from reservoir A to reservoir B. (F = 0.016 for all pipes).
Q10: A reservoir A with its surface at elevation 100 ft above datum supplies water to
2 other reservoirs B and C of surface levels of 25 ft and zero ft respectively
above datum. From A to junction J, common pip of 6 inch diameter, 800 ft long
is used, the junction being at a level 20 ft above datum. The branch JB is 4 inch
diameter, 200 ft long and the branch JC is 5 inch diameter, 300 ft long.
Calculate the discharge to B and C. Take F for all pipes is taken 0.0075 .
Q11: The discharge in the network shown is increased from 250 lit/s to 350 lit/s by
adding a new branch pipe BC of length 800 m. calculate the diameter of BC
such that the head loss from A to D remains constant.

Q12: A syiphon filled with oil of specific gravity 0.9 discharges 300 lit/s to
the atmosphere at an elevation of 4.0 m below oil level. The syphon is
0.2 m in diameter and its invert is 5.0 m above oil level. Find the losses
in the syphon in terms of the velocity head. Find the pressure at the
invert if two thirds of the losses occur in the first leg.

Pof.Dr. Anas M. Elmolla & Dr. Amir M. Mobasher

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AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT 7
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
Q1: The force exerted by a 25mm diameter jet against a flat plate normal to the axis
of the jet is 650N. What is the flow in m3/s?

Q2: A water jet 50 mm diameter strikes a 1.20 m plate which is at an angle of 30

with the stream's direction. If the force applied at the edge of the plate, to
maintain equilibrium, is 161 N, calculate the rate of flow. Neglect the weight of
the plate.

Q3: A square plate of uniform thickness and length of side 30 cm hangs vertically
from hinges at its top edge. When a horizontal jet strikes the plate at its center,
the plate is deflected and comes to rest at an
angle of 30 to the vertical. The jet is 25 mm
diameter and has a velocity of 6 m/s.
Calculate the mass of the plate and give the
distance along the plate, from the hinge, of the
point at which the jet strikes the plate in its
deflected position.

Pof.Dr. Anas M. Elmolla & Dr. Amir M. Mobasher

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AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Q4: Water flows from a large tank through an orifice of 3-in-diameter and against a
block, as shown in fig. the water jet strikes the block at the vena contracta. The
block weighs 50 Ib, and the coefficient of friction between the block and the
floor is 0.57. The orifice's coefficient of discharge Cd is 0.60, and it's coefficient
of contraction Cc is 0.62.Find the minimum height to which water must rise in
the tank (y in the figure) in order to start the block moving (to the right).

Q5: A jet of water 75 mm in diameter with a velocity of 12 m/sec meets a vane

having a velocity of 4.8 m/sec in the direction of the jet. If water meets the vane
tangentially and the deflection angle is 120, find the force of water exerted on
the vane.

Q6: A liquid jet is issuing upward against a flat board of

weight 1 Ib and supporting it as indicated in the
figure. Determine the equilibrium height of the
board above the nozzle exit, if the discharge is 1.5
lit/s and the nozzle diameter is 2 cm.

Pof.Dr. Anas M. Elmolla & Dr. Amir M. Mobasher

211

FLUID MECHANICS

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Q7: Find the force exerted on each bolt, when the water is flowing at rate of 0.25
m3/s. The diameters of the pipe and the nozzle are 0.30 m and 0.10m.
respectively.

Q8: A horizontal jet of water 2 x 103 mm2 cross-section and flowing at a velocity of
15 m/s hits a flat plate at 60 to the axis (of the jet) and to the horizontal. The jet
is such that there is no side spread. If the plate is stationary, calculate a) the
force exerted on the plate in the direction of the jet and b) the ratio between the
quantity of fluid that is deflected upwards and that downwards. (Assume that
there is no friction and therefore no shear force).

Q9: The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45 rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
internal angle of 135). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is 100
KN/m2 and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3 m3/s. The volume of the pipe is
0.075m3.

Pof.Dr. Anas M. Elmolla & Dr. Amir M. Mobasher

212

FLUID MECHANICS

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Q10: A conveying elbow turns water through an angle of 120 in a vertical plane.
The flow cross-sectional diameter is 400 mm at the elbow inlet, section 1, and
200 mm at the elbow outlet, section 2. The elbow flow passage volume is 0.20
m3 between sections 1&2. The water flow rate is 0.40 m3/s and the elbow inlet
and outlet pressures are 150 KPa and 90 KPa, respectively. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the horizontal and vertical components of reaction
force exerted by the water on the elbow.

Pof.Dr. Anas M. Elmolla & Dr. Amir M. Mobasher

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