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Education in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India is provided by the public sector as

well as the private sector, with control and funding
coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Under
various articles of the Indian Constitution, free and
compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right
to children between the ages of 6 and 14.

Education in the Republic of India

India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary

education attendance rate and expanding literacy to
approximately three-quarters of the population in the
7-100 age group, by 2011.[4] India's improved education
system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its
economic development.[5] Much of the progress,
especially in higher education and scientific research, has
been credited to various public institutions.
At the primary and secondary level, India has a large
private school system complementing the government run
schools, with 29% of students receiving private education
in the 6 to 14 age group.[6] Certain post-secondary
technical schools are also private. The private education
market in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008,
but is projected to be a US$40 billion market.[7]
As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)
2012, 96.5% of all rural children between the ages of 6-14
were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey
to report enrollment above 96%. Another report from
2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled
in different accredited urban and rural schools of India,
from Class I to XII, representing an increase of 2.3 million
students over 2002 total enrollment, and a 19% increase
in girl's enrollment.[8] While quantitatively India is inching
closer to universal education, the quality of its education
has been questioned particularly in its government run
school system. Some of the reasons for the poor quality
include absence of around 25 percent of teachers
everyday.[9] States of India have introduced tests and
education assessment system to identify and improve such
schools.[10]
It is important to clarify that while there are private
schools in India, they are highly regulated in terms of
what they can teach, in what form they can operate (must
be a non-profit to run any accredited educational
institution) and all other aspects of operation. Hence, the
differentiation of government schools and private schools
can be misguiding.[11]

Indian Department of Education

Ministry of Human
Resource Development

Smriti Zubin Irani

National education budget (20052012)

991 billion

Budget

(US$16 billion)
General details
Primary languages

Hindi, English, or
State language

System type

federal, state, private

Established
Compulsory Education

1 April 2010

Literacy (2011[2])
Total

74% [1]

Male

82.2%

Female

65.5%
Enrollment (2011[3])

Total

(N/A)

Primary

93%

Secondary

69%

Post secondary

25%
Attainment

Secondary diploma

40%

Post-secondary diploma

7%

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In India's education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for
the historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. In
universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to the federal government, there is a minimum 50% of
reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups, at the state level it can vary. Maharashtra had 73%
reservation in 2014, which is the highest percentage of reservations in India.

Contents
1 Education system
1.1 Overview
1.2 Primary education
1.3 Secondary education
1.4 Private schools
1.5 Homeschooling
1.6 Higher education

The University of Mumbai, established

1857, is one of the three oldest modern state
universities in India.

1.7 Technical education

1.8 Open and distance learning
2 Quality
2.1 Literacy
2.2 Attainment
2.3 Public school workforce
2.4 Higher education
2.5 Vocational
3 Women's education
4 Rural education
4.1 Vocational education
4.2 Science education
5 Issues
5.1 Facilities
5.2 Curriculum issues
5.3 Accreditation
5.4 Employer training
6 Central government involvement
6.1 Initiatives
6.2 Budget
6.3 Public expenditure on education in India
6.4 Legislative framework
7 Historical
8 See also
9 References

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10 External links

Education system
Overview
The central and most state boards uniformly follow the "10+2+3"
pattern of education.[12]:3 In this pattern, study of 12 years is done in
schools or in colleges,[12]:44 and then 3 years of undergraduate
education for a bachelor's degree.[13] The first 10 years is further
subdivided into 5 years of primary education, 3 years of upper
primary, followed by 2 years of high school.[12]:5 This pattern
originated from the recommendation of the Education Commission of
196466.[14]
The National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school
education in India.[15] The NCERT provides support and technical
assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects
of enforcement of education policies.[16] Other curriculum bodies
governing school education system are:

Children lining up for school in Kochi.

The state government boards (CISCE)]]. CISCE conducts

three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of
Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian
School Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate
in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12).

A school bus in Indore

The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) conducts two

examinations, namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also
some courses in Vocational Education.
International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge
International Examinations.
Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or
affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, The Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education
Puducherry, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[17] and NCTE
(National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and
teacher accreditation.[18]

Primary education
The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education, also referred to as elementary education, to
children aged 5 to 14 years old.[19] The Indian government has also banned child labor in order to ensure that

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the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[19] However, both free education and the ban on child
labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[19] 80% of all recognized
schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education
in the country.[20]
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will,
this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher
ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training.
Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there
were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.[21] As of March
2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India.[22]
Education has also been made free[19] for children for 6 to 14 years
of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009.[23]
School children, Mumbai

There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the

government. The District Education Revitalization Programme
(DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and
vitalizing the existing primary education system.[24] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government
and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[24] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new
schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5
million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[24]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 9395% for the last three
years in some states.[24] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a
part of this scheme.[24] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the
levels of quality remain low.

Secondary education
Secondary education covers children aged 14 to 18, a
group comprising 88.5 million children according to the
Census, 2001. The final two years of secondary is often
called Higher Secondary (HS), Senior Secondary, or
simply the "+2" stage. The two halves of secondary
education are each an important stage for which a pass
certificate is needed, and thus are affiliated by central
boards of education under HDR ministry, before one can
pursue higher education, including college or
professional courses.
UGC, NCERT and CBSE directives state qualifying ages
Secondary school students
for candidates who wish to take board exams. Those at
least fifteen years old by the 30th of May for a given
academic year are eligible to appear for Secondary board exams, and those seventeen by the same date are
eligible to appear for Higher Secondary certificate board exams. It further states that upon successful
completion of Higher Secondary, one can apply to higher education under UGC control such as Engineering,
Medical, and Business Administration.
A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged
sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational
training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational

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training to help students attain skills for finding a

vocation of his/her choosing.[25] A significant new
feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary
education in the form of the Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan.[26]
A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children
(IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on
Senior School students in Punjab
primary education.[15] but which was converted into
Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[27] Another
notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central
government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya
Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the
same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.[15]
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and
technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school
system.[28]

Private schools
According to current estimates, 29% of Indian children are privately educated.[6] With more than 50%
children enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private schooling
in cities; and, even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-5 were enrolled in private schools.[29]
Most middle-class families send their children to private schools,[29] which might be in their own city or at
distant boarding schools such as Rajkumar College, Rajkot, the oldest private school in India. At such
schools, the medium of education is often English, but Hindi and/or the state's official language is also taught
as a compulsory subject. Preschool education is mostly limited to organised neighbourhood nursery schools
with some organised chains.
Many privately owned and managed schools carry the appellation "Public", such as the Delhi Public
Schools, or Frank Anthony Public Schools. These are modeled after British public schools, which are a group
of older, expensive and exclusive fee-paying private independent schools in England.
According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a multiple of the unit cost of
government schools.[30][31][32] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education
to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders
for their regulation.
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extracurricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[33] The pupil teacher
ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools) and more teachers in private
schools are female. There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to
the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (parateachers) is 54.91% in private, compared
to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training
compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most
schools make profit.[33] However, the number of private schools in India is still low - the share of private
institutions is 7% (with upper primary being 21% and secondary 32% - source : fortress team research).
Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found
that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[32]

Homeschooling

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Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the
issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD
Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her
children to school, the government would not interfere.[34]

Higher education
After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12
examination), students may enroll in general degree programmes
such as bachelor's degree in arts, commerce or science, or
professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or
medicine.[35] India's higher education system is the third largest
in the world, after China and the United States.[36] The main
governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants
Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the
government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the
state.[37] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12
autonomous institutions established by the University Grants
Commission.[38] In India, education system is reformed. In the
future, India will be one of the largest education hubs.
As of 2012, India has 152[39] central universities, 316 state
universities, and 191 private universities. Other institutions include
33,623[40] colleges, including 1,800 exclusive women's colleges,
functioning under these universities and institutions,[37] and 12748
Institutions offering Diploma Courses. The emphasis in the tertiary
level of education lies on science and technology.[41] Indian
educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of
technology institutes.[42] Distance learning is also a feature of the
Indian higher education system.[42] The Government has launched
Rashtriya Uchchattar Shiksha Abhiyan to provide strategic funding to
State higher and technical institutions. A total of 316 state public
universities and 13,024 colleges will be covered under it.[43]

The Auditorium at Indian Institute of

Management Calcutta, Kolkata.

Indian Institute of Management,

Ahmedabad.

Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology

(IITs), Indian Institute of Science and University of Mumbai have
been globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate
education in engineering.[42][44] The IITs enroll about 10,000 students
annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the
private sector and the public sectors of India.[45] However the IIT's
VESIT, Engineering College under
have not had significant impact on fundamental scientific research
Mumbai University
and innovation. Several other institutes of fundamental research such
as the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS),
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harishchandra Research
Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. However,
India has failed to produce world class universities both in the private sector or the public sector.[46]
Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is
also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money.
Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private
universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed
to check on these education shops, which are run by big businessmen & politicians. Many private colleges

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and universities do not fulfill the required criterion by the

Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.)
and take students for a ride. For example, many institutions in
India continue to run unaccredited courses as there is no
legislation strong enough to ensure legal action against them.
Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop
misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the
same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption,
specifically in the case of deemed-universities.[47] In this context
of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions need to
step-up and set higher standards of self-regulation.[48]

Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of

disrepair...In almost half the districts in the country,
higher education enrollments are abysmally low,
almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of
our colleges are rated as below average on quality
parameters... I am concerned that in many states
university appointments, including that of
vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have
become subject to caste and communal
considerations, there are complaints of favouritism
and corruption.

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The social sciences and business

management departments are housed at the
Alipore campus, University of Calcutta in
Kolkata

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007[49]

The Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector and has been trying to bring
reforms, however, 15 bills are still awaiting discussion and approval in the Parliament.[50] One of the most
talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to
establish campuses in India. The bill is still under discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and
effectiveness is questionable as it misses the context, diversity and segment of international foreign
institutions interested in India.[51] One of the approaches to make internationalization of Indian higher
education effective is to develop a coherent and comprehensive policy which aims at infusing excellence,
bringing institutional diversity and aids in capacity building.[52]
Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the world's top 200 universities
Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005
and 2006.[53] Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.[54] The Indian School of
Business situated in Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of
London in 2010[55] while the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader
in medical research and treatment.[56] The University of Mumbai was ranked 41 among the Top 50
Engineering Schools of the world by America's news broadcasting firm Business Insider in 2012 and was the
only university in the list from the five emerging BRICS nations viz Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa.[57] It was ranked at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings for 2013[58] and was India's 3rd best
Multi Disciplinary University in the QS University ranking of Indian Universities after University of Calcutta
and Delhi University.[59]

Technical education

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Institute Main Building, IIT Kharagpur

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From the first Five-year Plan onwards, India's emphasis was to

develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.[60] India's
National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body
for regulation and development of higher technical education, which
came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament.[61] At the
federal level, the Indian Institutes of Technology,the Indian Institute
of Space Science and Technology, the National Institutes of
Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology,
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology are deemed of
national importance.[61]

The Indian Institutes of Technology are among the nation's premier education facilities.[61] Since 2002,
Several Regional Engineering Colleges(RECs) have been converted into National Institutes of Technology
giving them Institutes of National Importance status.
The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology : The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
(MOP&NG), Government of India set up the institute at Jais, Rae Bareli district, Uttar Pradesh through an
Act of Parliament. RGIPT has been accorded "Institute of National Importance" along the lines of the Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT),Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and National Institute of
Technology(NIT). With the status of a Deemed University, the institute awards degrees in its own right.
[61] The

UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common
research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.[62] Besides there
are some British established colleges such as Harcourt Butler Technological Institute situated in Kanpur and
King George Medical University situated in Lucknow which are important centre of higher education.
Central Universities such as Banaras Hindu University, Jamia Millia Islamia University, Delhi University,
Mumbai University, University of Calcutta, etc. too are pioneers of technical education in the country.
In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are supplemented by
a number of recognized Professional Engineering Societies such as
1. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (India)
2. Institution of Engineers (India)
3. Institution of Chemical Engineering (India)
4. Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India)
5. Indian Institute of Metals
6. Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
7. Institute of Town Planners (India)
8. Indian Institute of Architects
9. Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
that conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma) for working
professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications.
In addition to recognized institutes for technical education there are many private technical institutes such as
1. NIIT
2. The Tourism School

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The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over 700,000 in 2011 from 550,000
in FY 2010.[63][64] However, according to one study, 75% of technical graduates and more than 85% of
general graduates lack the skills needed in India's most demanding and high-growth global industries such as
information technology.[65] These high tech global information technologies companies directly or indirectly
employ about 2.3 million people, less than 1% of India's labor pool.[66] India offers one of the largest pool of
technically skilled graduates in the world.
Vocational education
India's All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) reported, in 2013, that there are more than 4,599
vocational institutions that offer degrees, diploma and post-diploma in architecture, engineering, hotel
management, infrastructure, pharmacy, technology, town services and others. There were 1.74 million
students enrolled in these schools.[67] Total annual intake capacity for technical diplomas and degrees
exceeded 3.4 million in 2012.
According to the University Grants Commission (UGC) total enrollment in Science, Medicine, Agriculture
and Engineering crossed 6.5 million in 2010. The number of women choosing engineering has more than
doubled since 2001.

Open and distance learning

At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides opportunities for continuing education
to those who missed completing school education. 1.4 million students are enrolled at the secondary and
higher secondary level through open and distance learning. In 2012 Various state government also introduce
"STATE OPEN SCHOOL" to provide distance education.[68]
At higher education level, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) co-ordinates distance learning.
It has a cumulative enrolment of about 1.5 million, serviced through 53 regional centres and 1,400 study
centres with 25,000 counsellors. The Distance Education Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is
co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119 institutions of correspondence courses in conventional
universities. While distance education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most of these
institutions need an up gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation of courses
covered by distance mode without adequate infrastructure, both human and physical. There is a strong need
to correct these imbalances.[69]
[70] Arjun

Singh Centre for Distance and Open Learning, Jamia Millia Islamia University was established
with the assistance of Distance Education Council in September 2002. Major objectives of the Centre is to
provide opportunities for higher education to those who are not able to draw benefits from formal system of
education. The Open Learning System allows a learner to determine his pace of learning and provides
education at the doorstep of the learner. The mode of transaction is through self-learning print material,
supplemented by audio and video programmes. It has further scope of students accessing material through
internet and various other media.

Quality
Literacy
According to the Census of 2011, "every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write with
understanding in any language is said to be literate". According to this criterion, the 2011 survey holds the
National Literacy Rate to be around 74.07%.[71] The youth literacy rate, measured within the age group of
15 to 24, is 81.1% (84.4% among males and 74.4% among females),[72] while 86% of boys and 72% of girls
are literate in the 10-19 age group.[73]

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Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 93% whereas Bihar averaged 63.8%
literacy.[71] The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute non-literates' in the country
was 304 million.[71]

Attainment
As of 2011, enrollment rates are 58% for pre-primary, 93% for
primary, 69% for secondary, and 25% for tertiary education.[3]
Despite the high overall enrollment rate for primary education,
among rural children of age 10, half could not read at a basic level,
over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the
age 14.[74]
In 2009, two states in India, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh,
participated in the international PISA exams which is administered
School children in Tamil Nadu
once every three years to 15 year olds. Both states ranked at the
bottom of the table, beating out only Kyrgyzstan in score, and falling
200 points (two standard deviations) below the average for OECD countries.[75] While in the immediate
aftermath there was a short-lived controversy over the quality of primary education in India, ultimately India
decided to not participate in PISA for 2012,[76] and again not to for 2015.[77]
While the quality of free, public education is in crisis, a majority of the urban poor have turned to private
schools. In some urban cities, it is estimated as high as two-thirds of all students attend private
institutions,[78] many of which charge a modest US$2 per month. There has not been any standardized
assessment of how private schools perform, but it is generally accepted that they outperform public schools.

Public school workforce

Officially, the pupil to teacher ratio within the public school system for primary education is 35 : 1.[79]
However, teacher absenteeism in India is exorbitant, with 25% never showing up for work.[80] The World
Bank estimates the cost in salaries alone paid to such teachers who have never attended work is US$2 billion
per year.[81]
A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found out that 25% of public
sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers were
absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach,
absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 30% in Bihar. Only
1 in nearly 3000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a
teacher for repeated absence.[82] The same study found "only about
half were teaching, during unannounced visits to a nationally
representative sample of government primary schools in India."[82]

Higher education

Indian School-Girls

As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to

Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,[83] the access to higher education measured in term of gross
enrollment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 196061. By 2006/7 the GER increased to
about 11 percent. Notably, by 2012, it had crossed 20% (as mentioned in an earlier section).

Vocational

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An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever had any sort of vocational
training.[84] However, this figure is likely to be much higher in 2013.

Women's education
Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are
enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.[85] In the
patriarchal setting of the Indian family, girls have lower status and
fewer privileges than boy children.[86] Conservative cultural attitudes
prevents some girls from attending school.[87]
The number of literate women among the female population of India
was between 26% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of
the Republic of India in 1947.[88] Concerted efforts led to
improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.[88] By 2001
literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female
population, though these statistics were still very low compared to
world standards and even male literacy within India.[89] Recently the
Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for
Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy
by half of its present level.
Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in
India:

Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra

Pradesh.

Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide

incentives for girls' school attendance through
programmes for midday meals, free books
(http://www.samacheerkalvi.co.in/books), and uniforms.
This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between
1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education
decided to restructure education in tune with the social
framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It
emphasized that education was necessary for democracy,
and central to the improvement of women's condition. The
new policy aimed at social change through revised texts,
curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the
numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis
was placed on expanding girls' occupational centres and
primary education; secondary and higher education; and
rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect
problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the
dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care.
The National Literacy Mission also worked through
female tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage
age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married
much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female
dropout rates are high.[90]

Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains

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professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the
same positions.[90]
The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving livings standards in the country. A
higher women literacy rate improves the quality of life both at home and outside of home, by encouraging
and promoting education of children, especially female children, and in reducing the infant mortality rate.
Several studies have shown that a lower level of women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and
infant mortality, poorer nutrition, lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make decisions within
a household.[91] Women's lower educational levels is also shown to adversely affect the health and living
conditions of children. A survey that was conducted in India showed results which support the fact that
infant mortality rate was inversely related to female literacy rate and educational level.[92] The survey also
suggests a correlation between education and economic growth.
In India, it was found that there is a large disparity between female literacy rates in different states.[93] For
example, while Kerala actually has a female literacy rate of about 86 percent, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have
female literacy rates around 55-60 percent. These values are further correlated with health levels of the
Indians, where it was found that Kerala was the state with the lowest infant mortality rate while Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh are the states with the lowest life expectancies in India. Furthermore, the disparity of female
literacy rates across rural and urban areas is also significant in India.[94] Out of the 24 states in India, 6 of
them have female literacy rates of below 60 percent. The rural state Rajasthan has a female literacy rate of
less than 12 percent.[95]
In India, higher education is defined as the education of an age group between 18 and 24, and is largely
funded by the government. Despite women making up 24-50% of higher education enrollment, there is still a
gender imbalance within higher education. Only one third of science students and 7% of engineering
students, are women. In comparison however, over half the students studying education are women.[96]

Rural education
Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool
for bringing social change through community development.[97] The
administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in
1952, the government grouped villages under a Community
Development Blockan authority under national programme which
could control education in up to 100 villages.[97] A Block
Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of 150 square
miles (390 km2) which could contain a population of as many as
70000 people.[97]
Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves
divided further into individual-based, community based, or the
Individual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of
development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:

A primary school in a village in

Madhya Pradesh

The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry,

cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads,
buildings), health and sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare,
child care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and literacy,
youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of development there are
several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and tapering off

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covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small
and marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.[97]

Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from
private institutions.[98] A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the
Gandhigram Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks were established
in India.[99] Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for
women were set up.[99]
The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from
bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation.[99] However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains
made by rural education institutes of India.[100] Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor
and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little results.[100] Today, government rural
schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the Rural Development
Foundation (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural schools, but the number of students served is
small.
Education in rural India is valued differently from in an urban setting, with lower rates of completion. An
imbalanced sex ratio exists within schools with eighteen percent of males earning a high school diploma
compared with only ten percent of females. The estimated number of children who have never attended
school in India is near 100 million which reflects the low completion levels. This is the largest concentration
in the world of youth who haven't enrolled in school.[101][102][103][103]

Vocational education
The government of India is taking many positive steps to turn the education vocational and job oriented.
Recently the duration of Graduation in Delhi University has been turned of 4 years from 3 years. Moreover
government is taking lots of steps to promote small vocational institutes which provides job oriented courses
like aviation related or travel & tourism related courses to name few examples.

Science education
Urban India has made very impressive progress to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century but rural
school education in India is far behind. Due to the lack of adequate laboratories, the level of science
education is not satisfactory. For last 25 years Vidnyan Vahini (http://vidnyanvahini.org/) a not-for-profit
organization has worked very effectively to reduce this gap as much as possible, at least at the educational
level in Maharashtra. Vidnyanvahini, through its MSL (Mobile Science Lab) (http://vidnyanvahini.org
/mobile-science-lab.php/), gives an opportunity to perform science experiments any where and every where.
The experiments are chosen primarily from curriculum designed by Maharashtra State Board for 8th, 9th and
10th grade students.

Issues
Facilities
A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools had no drinking water and
89% had no toilets.[104] 200304 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
revealed that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 1216%.[105]
In fact, the number of secondary schools is almost half the number of upper primary schools available in the

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country.

Curriculum issues
Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than problem solving.
New Indian Express says that Indian Education system seems to be producing zombies since in most of the
schools students seemed to be spending majority of their time in preparing for competitive exams rather than
learning or playing.[106] BusinessWeek criticizes the Indian curriculum, saying it revolves around rote
learning[107] and ExpressIndia suggests that students are focused on cramming.[108] Preschool for Child
Rights states that almost 99% of preschools do not have any curriculum at all.[109]

Accreditation
In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university status from as many as
44 institutions. The Government claimed in its affidavit that academic considerations were not being kept in
mind by the management of these institutions and that "they were being run as family fiefdoms".[110]
The University Grant Commission found 39 fake institutions operating in India.[111]

Employer training
Only 10% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in
China.[112]

Central government involvement

Initiatives
Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for the backward Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes
was published by the central government.[113] An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified
841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled Tribes.[113] The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes combined was found to be 22.5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17
percent and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent.[113] Following the report many
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language
terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which literally means "oppressed".[113]
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's educational programmes.[114]
Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a
reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in
Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes.[114] Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in many schemes and educational facilities in India.[114] The remote and far-flung regions
of North East India are provided for under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since
19981999.[115] The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote areas.[115]
Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila Samakhya
Scheme, initiated in 1989.[116] Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise
awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels.[116] The government allowed 340 million
(US$5.5 million) during 200708 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21, 000
villages.[116]

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Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to

the National Bal Bhavan.[117] The scheme involves educational and
social activities and recognising children with a marked talent for a
particular educational stream.[117] A number of programmes and
activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural
exchanges and participation in several international forums.[117]
India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally
backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992
amendment of the Indian National Policy on Education (NPE).[118]
The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme
for Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial
Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its
revised Programme of Action (1992).[118] Both these schemes were
started nationwide by 1994.[118] In 2004 the Indian parliament passed
an act which enabled minority education establishments to seek
university affiliations if they passed the required norms.[118]
Surprisingly, in the field of Sindhi language, (an 8th schedule
language, which is prevalently spoken by the Sindhis of India who
have no state of their own) government has not made any significant
contribution. Sindhis are linguistic minority and most of the states
have no Sindhi schools or schools with Sindhi language as an optional
paper. Sindhis with around ten million population have less than 100
teachers in this language. Sindhi, basically draws its origin from Indus
Valley civilsation. While the language has Indo-aryan origin, it is
prevalently spoken in Pakistan and patronized by the Pakistan
Government. Most of the Sindhi associations fear that due to apathy
of Indian Government, Sindhi language and culture will only be a
story for the future generations. Rajesh Thadani, President of Bihar
Sindhi Association, which was constituted by the first Governor of
Bihar, Jairamdas Doulatram, has started awareness compaign in this
direction. This compaign has gathered momentum and it has started
recognition worldwide.

Budget
As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (20022007), the central
government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of its total
education budget of 438 billion (US$7.1 billion) i.e. 288 billion
(US$4.7 billion) on elementary education; 9.9% i.e. 43.25 billion
(US$700 million) on secondary education; 2.9% i.e. 12.5 billion
(US$200 million) on adult education; 9.5% i.e. 41.765 billion
(US$680 million) on higher education; 10.7% i.e. 47 billion
(US$760 million) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e.
6.235 billion (US$100 million) on miscellaneous education
schemes.[119]

Public expenditure on education in India

Non-formal education centre in

Udaipur, Rajasthan. Educational
programme by Seva Mandir, an NGO
working for the development of the
rural and tribal population in Udaipur
and Rajsamand districts of southern
Rajasthan

The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque

in Srirangapatna.

Elementary School in Chittoor. This

school is part of the 'Paathshaala'
project. The school currently educates
70 students.

During the Financial Year 2011-12, the Central Government of India

has allocated Rs 389.57 billion for the Department of School
Education and Literacy which is the main department dealing with primary education in India. Within this

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allocation, major share of Rs 210 billion, is for the flagship programme 'Sarva Siksha Abhiyan'. However,
budgetary allocation of Rs 210 billion is considered very low in view of the officially appointed Anil Bordia
Committee recommendation of Rs 35,659 for the year 2011-12. This higher allocation was required to
implement the recent legislation 'Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. In recent
times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in
India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United
Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure
on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to
increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central
government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and
poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 614 years. (e)
To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.
However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been seen on this front.
Although the country targeted towards devoting 6% share of the GDP towards the educational sector, the
performance has definitely fallen short of expectations. Expenditure on education has steadily risen from
0.64% of GDP in 1951-52 to 2.31% in 1970-71 and thereafter reached the peak of 4.26% in 2000-01.
However, it declined to 3.49% in 2004-05. There is a definite need to step up again. As a proportion of total
government expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1 per cent in 20002001 to around 9.98 per cent
during UPA rule, even though ideally it should be around 20% of the total budget. A policy brief issued by
[Network for Social Accountability (NSA)][120] titled "[NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in
Union Budget: UPA Rule and the Education Sector][121] " provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to
a declining priority of education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth
in the private expenditure on education also. [As per the available information, the private out of pocket
expenditure by the working class population for the education of their children in India has increased by
around 1150 percent or around 12.5 times over the last decade].[122]

Legislative framework
Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:

The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement
of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete
the age of fourteen years.[123]

This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set
of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual
letter was not followed.[124] However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate
since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle
within the Indian constitution to have a time limit.[124]
Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill
suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[125]
The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to
fourteen years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine.[126]

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Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:

Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The
State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until
they complete the age of sixteen years.[126]

Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case
may be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years.[126]

The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on 28
November 2001.[127] It was later passed by the upper housethe Rajya Sabhaon 14 May 2002.[127] After
being signed by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time
and the bill came into effect.[127] Since then those between the age of 614 have a fundamental right to
education.[128]
Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:

The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'.[71]

Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335,
338342.[71] Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.[71]

Historical
Takshasila was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is
debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest universitysystem of education in the world in the modern sense of university.[129]
Secular institutions cropped up along with Hindu temples, mutts and Buddhist monasteries. These institutions
imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible
from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE.The important urban centres of learning were Taxila (in
modern day Pakistan) and Nalanda in Bihar, among others. These institutions systematically imparted
knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as Vedic and Buddhist literature,
logic, grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers of Takshasila,
associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.
Brahmin gurus historically offered education by means of donations, rather than charging fees or the
procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, temples also became centres of education;
religious education was compulsory, but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be
brahmacharis or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the

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society had to perform. The priest class, the Brahmins, were

imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other
ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya,
were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business
class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working
class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational
advantages. The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the
treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the
influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and
understanding of the world at the time.

See also
List of schools in India
Macaulayism historical background to the
implementation of English education in India.
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education

The remnants of the library of Nalanda

University, built in the 5th century by Gupta
kings. It was rebuilt twice after invasion, first
after an invasion from the Huns in the 5th
century and then after an invasion from the
Gaudas in the 7th century, but abandoned after
the third invasion by Turkic invaders in the 12th
century.

National Translation Mission

Two Million Minutes (documentary film)

References
Notes
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10 October 2013.
2. ^ Estimate for India, from India (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article1587153.ece?homepage=true),
The Hindu
3. ^ a b "World Development Indicators: Participation in education" (http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.11). World
Bank. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
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5. ^ India achieves 27% decline in poverty (http://sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=14757040), Press Trust of
India via Sify.com, 2008-09-12
6. ^ a b "Over a quarter of enrollments in rural India are in private schools" (http://www.thehindu.com/features
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9. ^ Sharath Jeevan & James Townsend, Teachers: A Solution to Education Reform in India
(http://www.ssireview.org/blog/entry/teachers_are_a_solution_to_education_reform_in_india) Stanford Social
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bc

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India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 233

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17. ^ "National University of Educational Planning and Administration" (http://www.nuepa.org). Nuepa.org.
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bcd

Blackwell, 9394

20. ^ [1] (http://www.dise.in/ar2005.html)

21. ^ flashstatistics2009-10.pdf (http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publications/Publications%202009-10
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bcde

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25. ^ Blackwell, 9495

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(Editors). New Delhi: Sage
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2008.
31. ^ Geeta Gandhi Kingdon. "The progress of school education in India" (http://www.gprg.org/pubs/workingpapers
/pdfs/gprg-wps-071.pdf).
32. ^ a b Amit Varma (15 January 2007). "Why India Needs School Vouchers" (http://online.wsj.com/article
/SB116882502361976702.html). Wall Street Journal.
33. ^ a b "Private Education in India can Benefit Poor People" (http://www.globalenvision.org/library/8/767).

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34. ^ "RTE: Homeschooling too is fine, says Sibal" (http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting

/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIPU%2F2010%2F09%2F08&
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External links
Official website (http://mhrd.gov.in/)
India Education Data (https://www.quandl.com/c/india/india-education-data)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_in_India&oldid=637472785"
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