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Test 1 Underground Mining: Question 1a

The document discusses underground mining methods. It provides details on required ore body characteristics, development requirements, production processes, equipment needs, and advantages and disadvantages for block caving mining. It also answers questions about locating water in a shaft, dewatering, shaft centering, and exploration. The second question discusses ground freezing for stabilizing shaft collars and describes room and pillar and cut and fill mining applications.

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Tamani Moyo
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450 views

Test 1 Underground Mining: Question 1a

The document discusses underground mining methods. It provides details on required ore body characteristics, development requirements, production processes, equipment needs, and advantages and disadvantages for block caving mining. It also answers questions about locating water in a shaft, dewatering, shaft centering, and exploration. The second question discusses ground freezing for stabilizing shaft collars and describes room and pillar and cut and fill mining applications.

Uploaded by

Tamani Moyo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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TEST 1

MINING

UNDERGROUND

Question 1a

Required Ore Characteristics


- large massive orebodies (veins should have steep dip) of regular shape with sides
dipping steeply
- should have proper fracture pattern
For good fracturing, there must be at least 2 vertical joints, perpendicular to each
other, and one horizontal joint. At least 50% of the ore should break in sizes
less than 1.5 m, as most finger raises are of that diameter.
An idea on potential rock fragmentation is also obtained by various methods
such as RQD or MRMR or Laubscher Caving Stability Graph. MRMR or
mining RMR is similar to RMR but includes mining induced and blasting
induced stresses in its rating. The Laubscher graph plots the MRMR against
the hydraulic radius to identify stable and caving regions. Hydraulic radius is
ratio of the surface area of the unsupported area and its perimeter.
- To relate to active mines, Palabora mine (copper) in South Africa has MRMR
between 57-70, which is on the higher side for block caving (typically
block caving is not advised for MRMR over 50). The Henderson
molybdenum mine outside of Denver, CO, has an average RQD of 49,
while RMR ranges from 27 to 60 respectively.
Note that regional stress fields also have a say in the fragmentation pattern as
well as the stability of the blocks.
- should be able to withstand undercutting
- no restrictions on grade, though usually used on low grades
Development
- extensive. requires
undercutting
first, several parallel drifts driven at undercut level
long holes drilled and blasted from these drifts. Drawn from draw
points
in some cases, cones, grizzly level, and finger raises
production level and/or haulage level

for trackless mining, some of the development is reduced (see Fig. 2.14 in the
textbook)
- block sizes depend on ore characteristics
when ore is weak or highly fractured, small blocks are preferred as a large block
may not be able to take the undercutting
when ore is of medium strength, panel caving is best
for strong ore, mass caving is used as a large undercut is necessary to get caving
started
- the height of the block should be as high as possible as i) development per unit
height gets reduced and ii) ratio of capping to ore reduced
the height also depends on ore geometry and strength
- the following should be considered in deciding the draw point spacing:
ore breakage sizes. The area affected by a draw point or its zone of disturbance is
small when ore pieces are small. Therefore, draw points should be close when
small ore pieces are anticipated. The opposite is true for large pieces
the zone of disturbance for adjacent draw points should overlap so that no ore is
left behind
to ensure quick loading of trains, the spacing should be adjusted so that multiple
cars can be loaded at the same time
Production
- a balance should be maintained between draw and caving
this is to ensure that uniform contact is maintained between broken ore and
ore/cap above
it also reduces dilution
- if a stable arch forms, making caving difficult, widen to re-start caving
in rectangular openings, widening the length may not help if the arch formed
over the breadth
- draw rapidly following an undercut to ensure no pillar is left as support
- control draw to control dilution
Caving
- initial caving area about the same as undercut area in weak rock. For strong rocks, it
is smaller than the undercut area
- eventually, the caving area extends beyond the undercut area, following a 45 degree line
from the undercut area
- most secondary blasting is done during the first 30% of caving
- sometimes the boundary is weakened to limit spreading of caving

Equipment
- designed for high production
multi-boom drill jumbos
high tonnage mucking

large scapers with low scraping distance, or


LHDs
- good haulage system
long trains with big cars can be used for haulage
in-pit crushing and conveying if long hauls

Advantages
- cheap, as little drilling and blasting
- drilling and blasting may be higher if the fragmentation is bad. In Palabora, 70%
of the ore may require secondary breakage in the first year. Depending on
layout, mines can also use rock-breaker type equipment for breaking large
fragments rather than blasting. In Palabora, a special remote controlled high
reach (21m) drill rig is used to d&b high hang-ups.
- centralized production leads to easy supervision and safe working area
- easy ventilation
- If diesel LHDs are used, ventilation requirements get stringent
- high production rates
- Some mines cites 317 tons/hr from their LHDs
- good for low grades undercut caving limits
Disadvantages
- narrow range of applicability
- high initial (development) cost
- difficult to maintain drifts in production area
- sudden increase in demand difficult to accommodate
- stoppage of drawing may close ore block due to weighting. Stoppage typically
happens when product prices go down (example: Henderson mine and price of
molybdenum)
- ore recovery could be low in adverse situations.
- bad draw practices may lead to high dilution.
- difficult to switch method of mining once started
Question 1(b)

Locating Water: When the shaft is reached to the water table or beyond it, water inflows
inside it, to remove this water usually face or sinking pumps are used.
Dewatering: Removing water can also be done by driving deep wells or well point systems
around the shaft, that results in lowering the water table around the shaft.
Shaft centering: Using the reference points, which are fixed before, to fix the shaft center.
The shaft center is checked from time to time by the use of centering device installed at the
surface.
Exploration: the hole will be used to explore what is below

Question 2 a

The freezing method is considered the most reliable means to support a collar excavation in
deep overburden. The method may be used for ramp entries; however, ground freezing is
unusual for deep entries due to the large number of pipes required and because of the
difficulty in arranging the piping to obtain a freeze in the overburden above and beneath the
proposed excavation.
Shaft collars have been sunk employing ground freezing for over a century and so today the
procedure is well understood and straightforward. Normal practice is to engage a contractor
that specializes in ground freezing. A number of vertical freeze holes will be drilled around
the perimeter of the proposed excavation to form the freeze circle. The spacing between the
freeze holes varies from 2 feet (0.8m) for shallow excavations with small freeze pipes and
to 6 feet (2m) for very deep excavations with larger freeze pipes. Each freeze column
extends into the bedrock. Two pipes are installed in each freeze hole, one inside the other.
The larger pipe is sealed at the bottom so that chilled brine directed in a continuous flow
down the inner pipe will return to surface in the annular space between the pipes. Having
taken up heat in the ground, it is then recooled in a refrigeration plant. Traditionally, the brine
velocity in the annular space was designed high enough to obtain turbulent flow and assure
good heat transfer.

Question 2 b

Room and Pillar Mining


Application
- Large, flat or nearly flat deposits (less than 30 degree dip)
has been used for small bodies too
in very thick deposits, pillar degradation is possible, requiring larger pillars or
pillar reinforcement
problems with very thin seams too.
- competent roof and floor
however, this could be applied to various kinds of orebodies (host rock strength
between 344.7 27.5 Mpa and at depths from 15-915 m). Essentially, that
range covers any rock that will withstand development w/o massive supports
- examples of room-and-pillar mines are in lead (Buick mine, Missouri), zinc, salt,
trona (Wyoming), sandstone mining, limestone
Cut and Fill
Application
- steeply dipping orebody
- reasonably firm and competent orebody
use of hydraulic fill makes it possible to apply this method to a vast variety of
ore/rock type
- no restrictions on ore boundaries
Sublevel Caving
Application

- weak walls and strong ore preferred though weak ore can be mined too
- steep dip
a vertical dip is best, while dip>60 is fine too. Loss of ore minor in non-vertical
steep dips
considerable loss of reserves in flat dips
- preferably, the ore and the rock should be easily separable
- surface should be amenable to caving (not an inhabited or the watershed area etc)

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