Q1) Write 15 select Syntax and define Select Statement.

Ans)The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SELECT * FROM table_name
1) Select <Column_name> from <table_name>;
2) Select <Column_name> from <table_name> where <condition>;
3) Select <Column_name> from <table_name> where <condition>
like <pattern>;
4) Select <Column_name> from <table_name> where <condition>
order by <expression>;
5) Select <Column_name> from <table_name> where <condition>
group by <expression>;
6) Select <Column_name> from <table_name> where <condition>
having <expression>;
7) Select <Column_name1> from <table_name1> Minus
Select <Column_name2> from <table_name2> ;
8) Select <Column_name1> from <table_name1> Intersect
Select <Column_name2> from <table_name2> ;
9) Select <Column_name1> from <table_name1> Union
Select <Column_name2> from <table_name2> ;
10) Select <Column_name1> from <table_name1> Union All
Select <Column_name2> from <table_name2> ;
Q2) Write different SQL Statements with Example and define it.
Ans) What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language

SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

SQL Statements

1) Select Statement
2) Delete Statement:- DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value

3) Commit
4) Rollback

5) Alter:- ALTER TABLE table_name

RENAME TO new_table_name

6) Update:- UPDATE table_name

SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value

7) Modify:-

Alter TABLE "table_name"

ALTER COLUMN "column 1" "New Data Type

8) Union:- SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

UNION
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

9) Union All:- SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

UNION ALL
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

10)

Intersect:- SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

SELECT Date

Intersect

FROM Internet_Sales

11)

Minus:- SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

Minus
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

12)
13)

Where
Like

Q3) Define Trigger, types of Trigger .syntax of triggers with examples

Triggers
Ans) Triggers are named database objects that are implicitly fired
when a triggering event occurs. The trigger action can be run before
or after the triggering event. Triggers are similar to stored procedures
but differ in the way that they are invoked.
Support for triggers in MySQL is only included beginning with
release 5.0.2. A trigger can only be associated with a table and defined
to fire when an INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE statement is
performed on the table. MySQL does not permit two triggers with the

same trigger timing (BEFORE or AFTER) and trigger event or

statement (INSERT, DELETE, or UPDATE) to be defined on a table.
For example, you cannot define two BEFORE INSERT or two
AFTER UPDATE triggers for a table. All triggers defined on MySQL
are row triggers, which mean that the action defined for the triggers is
executed for each row affected by the triggering statement.
Error handling during trigger execution for transactional tables
ensures that either both the triggering statement and trigger action is
completed successfully or neither the trigger statement nor the trigger
action is executed, that is all changes made are rollback on failure. For
non-transactional tables, all changes made prior to the point of error
remains in effect.
Types of Triggers in Oracle
1. Before Trigger
2. After Trigger
3. Row level trigger
4. Schema Trigger
5. Instead of Trigger
6. Database Trigger
7. Statement level Trigger

The following is the syntax to create a trigger

CREATE TRIGGER <trigger name>
{ BEFORE | AFTER }
{ INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE }
ON <table name>
FOR EACH ROW
<triggered action>

In Oracle, triggers can be fired when one of the following operations

occurs:

DML statements (INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE) that modify

data on a table or view
DDL statements

User events such as logon and logoff

System events such as startup, shutdown, and error messages

Oracle allows multiple triggers with the same trigger timing and
trigger event to be defined on a table; however, these triggers are not
guaranteed to execute in any specific order. Triggers can be defined as
row triggers or statement triggers. Statement triggers are fired once
for each triggering statement regardless of the number of rows in a
table affected by the triggering statement. For example if a DELETE
statement deletes several rows from a table, a statement trigger is only
fired once.
The execution model for Oracle triggers is transactional. All actions
performed as a result of the triggering statement, including the actions
performed by fired triggers, must all succeed; otherwise, they are
rolled back.

Q4) Define procedure, syntax of procedure and difference between

procedure and stored procedure.
Ans) A procedure is a subprogram that performs a specific action.
You must declare and define a procedure before invoking it. You can
either declare or define it at the same time, or you can declare it first
and then define it later in the same block or subprogram.
Syntax
Procedure declaration: =

Procedure heading: =

Procedure definition: =

Keyword and Parameter Descriptions

Body
The required executable part of the procedure and, optionally, the
exception-handling part of the procedure.
Declare section
The optional declarative part of the procedure. Declarations are local
to the procedure, can be referenced in body, and cease to exist when
the procedure completes execution.
Procedure declaration
Declares a procedure, but does not define it. The definition must
appear later in the same block or subprogram as the declaration.
A procedure declaration is also called a procedure specification, or
procedure spec.
Procedure definition
Either defines a procedure that was declared earlier in the same block
or subprogram, or declares and defines a procedure.
Procedure name

The name that you give to the procedure that you are declaring or
defining.
Stored Procedures
Stored procedures provide a powerful way to code application logic
that can be stored on the server. MySQL and Oracle both use stored
procedures and functions. Stored functions are similar to procedures,
except that a function returns a value to the environment in which it is
called. In MySQL, stored procedures and functions are collectively
called routines.
The following sections compare stored procedures in MySQL and
Oracle:

Individual SQL Statement

Variables in stored Procedures

Error Handling in Stored Procedures

3.2.1 Individual SQL Statements

This section describes considerations related to the following
statements or constructs:

REPLACE Statement
DO Statement

Compound DECLARE Statement

Compound SET Statement

3.2.1.1 REPLACE Statement

The REPLACE statement in MySQL is a dual-purpose statement. It
works like the INSERT statement when there is no record in the table
that has the same value as the new record for a primary key or a
unique index, and otherwise it works like the UPDATE statement.

Oracle does not have any built-in SQL statements that supports the
purposes of the MySQL REPLACE statement. To convert this
statement to Oracle, an emulated function using both the INSERT and
UPDATE statements has to be created. An attempt is first made to
place the data into the table using the INSERT statement; and if this
fails, the data in the table is then updated using the UPDATE
statement.
DO Statement
As its name implies, the DO statement in MySQL does something but
does not return anything; specifically, it executes the commadelimited list of expressions specified as its parameters. The DO
statement is converted to a SELECT expr1 [, expr2,] INTO
FROM DUAL statement in Oracle.
Compound DECLARE Statement
MySQL uses the DECLARE statement to declare local variables in
stored procedures. PL/SQL does not allow multiple declarations; each
declaration must be made separately. To convert compound
DECLARE statements into functionally equivalent PL/SQL code,
each MySQL multiple declaration statement should be converted into
logically equivalent separate statements, one for each declaration.
For example, consider the following MySQL simple declaration and
multiple declaration statements:
/* Simple declaration */
DECLARE a INT;
/* Compound declaration */
DECLARE a, b INT DEFAULT 5;
The PL/SQL functionally equivalent statements are:
/* Simple declaration */
a INT;

/* Multiple declarations */
a INT := 5;
b INT := 5;

Q5) Define the following term

1)

Concurrency Control

Definition
Concurrency control is a database management systems (DBMS)
concept that is used to address conflicts with the simultaneous
accessing or altering of data that can occur with a multi-user system.
Concurrency control, when applied to a DBMS, is meant to
coordinate simultaneous transactions while preserving data integrity.
[1] The Concurrency is about to control the multiuser access of
Database
Illustrative Example
To illustrate the concept of concurrency control, consider two
travellers who go to electronic railway reservation counter at the same
time to purchase a train ticket to the same destination on the same
train. There's only one seat left in the coach, but without concurrency
control, it's possible that both travelers will end up purchasing a ticket
for that one seat. However, with concurrency control, the database
wouldn't allow this to happen. Both travellers would still be able to
access the train seating database, but concurrency control would
preserve data accuracy and allow only one traveler to purchase the
seat.
This example also illustrates the importance of addressing this issue
in a multi-user database. Obviously, one could quickly run into

problems with the inaccurate data that can result from several
transactions occurring simultaneously and writing over each other.
The following section provides strategies for implementing
concurrency control.
i)

Transaction processing

A type of computer processing in which the computer responds

immediately to user requests. Each request is considered to be a
transaction. Automatic teller machines for banks are an example of
transaction processing.
The opposite of transaction processing is batch processing, in which a
batch of requests is stored and then executed all at one time.
Transaction processing requires interaction with a user, whereas batch
processing can take place without a user being present.

ii)

Optimization

The maximizing or minimizing of a given function possibly subject to

some type of constraints.
Broadly, the efforts and processes of making a decision, a design, or a
system as perfect, effective, or functional as possible. Narrowly, the
specific methodology, techniques, and procedures used to decide on
the one specific solution in a defined set of possible alternatives that

will best satisfy a selected criterion. Also known as system

optimization.
An act, process, or methodology of making something (as a design,
system, or decision) as fully perfect, functional, or effective as
possible; specifically: the mathematical procedures (as finding the
maximum of a function) involved in this