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Contents

Preface

1. Why Record Spectra of Astronomical Objects?

1.1
1.2

A Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What One Can Learn from Studying Spectra . . . . . . . .

2. The Nature of Spectra

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absorption and Emission . . . . . . . . . .
Other Measures of Transition Probabilities
Stimulated Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Optical Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Critical Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wavelength or Frequency? . . . . . . . . . .
The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . .

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3. Atomic Hydrogen
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8

1
3

7
8
10
10
11
12
13
14
17

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Schrodinger

Equation of Hydrogen-Like Atoms

Reduced Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atomic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wavefunctions for Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Levels and Quantum Numbers . . . . . . .
H-Atom Discrete Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H-Atom Spectra in Different Locations . . . . . . . .
3.8.1 Balmer series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii

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17
17
18
19
20
21
23
29
29

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Astronomical Spectroscopy

viii

3.9

3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16

3.8.2 Lyman series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.8.3 Infrared lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H-Atom Continuum Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.1 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.2 H-atom emission in H II regions . . . . . . . . .
Radio Recombination Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radio Recombination Lines for Other Atoms . . . . . .
Angular Momentum Coupling in the Hydrogen Atom
The Fine Structure of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyperfine Structure in the H Atom . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allowed Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrogen in Nebulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4. Complex Atoms
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

4.8
4.9
4.10

General Considerations . . . . . . . . . .
Central Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indistinguishable Particles . . . . . . . . .
Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . .
The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular Momentum in Complex Atoms .
4.7.1 LS or RussellSaunders coupling
4.7.2 jj coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3 Why two coupling schemes? . . .
Spectroscopic Notation . . . . . . . . . . .
Parity of the Wavefunction . . . . . . . . .
Terms and Levels in Complex Atoms . . .

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5. Helium Spectra
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

He I and He II Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection Rules for Complex Atoms . . . . . .
Observing Forbidden Lines . . . . . . . . . . .
Grotrian Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Potential Felt by Electrons in Complex Atoms .
Emissions of Helium-Like Ions . . . . . . . . .

51
52
54
55
56
58
59
59
61
61
62
63
64
69

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6. Alkali Atoms
6.1

33
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35
35
36
38
40
43
44
45
46
47

Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69
71
74
75
77
78
81
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Contents

6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

Spin-Orbit Interactions . . . . . .
Fine Structure Transitions . . . .
Astronomical Sodium Spectra . .
Other Alkali Metal-Like Spectra .

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7. Spectra of Nebulae
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Nebulium . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Bowen Mechanism . . . . . . .
Two Valence Electrons . . . . . . .
Autoionisation and Recombination

99
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8. Spectra in Magnetic Fields

8.1
8.2
8.3

8.4

Uniform Magnetic Field . . . . . . . .

Strong Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . .
Weak Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 The normal Zeeman effect . .
8.3.2 The anomolous Zeeman effect
Spectra in Magnetic Field . . . . . . .

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Inner Shell Processes . . . . . . . . . . .

The Solar Corona . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Structure of Highly Ionised Atoms
Isotope Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6

116
117
118
118
119
120
123

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10. Molecular Structure

10.1
10.2

100
104
107
109
115

9. X-Ray Spectra
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

84
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89
93

The BornOppenheimer Approximation . . . .

Electronic Structure of Diatomics . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Labelling of electronic states . . . . . .
10.2.2 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 State labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schrodinger

Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Nuclear motion in diatomic molecules
Fractionation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VibrationRotation Energy Levels . . . . . . .
Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1 Rotational state populations . . . . . .
10.6.2 Vibrational state populations . . . . . .

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127
131
135

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137
140
141
143
144
144
149
150
152
152
154

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Astronomical Spectroscopy

10.6.3 Electronic state populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

11. Rotational Spectra
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7

157

Rotational Structure of Polyatomic Molecules

Selection Rules: Pure Rotational Transitions .
Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Isotope Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rotational Spectra of Other Molecules . . . .
Rotational Spectra of Molecular Hydrogen .
Maser Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12. Vibration-Rotation Spectra

12.1
12.2

12.3

175

Vibrations in Polyatomic Molecules . . . . . .

Vibrational Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Structure of the spectrum . . . . . . . .
12.2.2 Isotope effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.3 Hydrogen molecule vibrational spectra
Astronomical Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13. Electronic Spectra of Diatomic Molecules

13.1
13.2

13.3
13.4
13.5

Electronic Transitions . . . . . . . .
Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 Vibrational selection rules
13.2.2 Rotational selection rules .
Transition Frequencies . . . . . . .
Astronomical Spectra . . . . . . . .
Non-1 Electronic States . . . . . .

157
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161
166
166
170
170

175
177
178
181
181
183
187

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187
188
189
190
192
193
195

Solutions to Model Problems

199

Further Reading and Bibliography

215

Index

217