What is a compiler?

A compiler is a program that reads a program written in one language the source language and
translates it into an equivalent program in another language-the target language. The compiler
reports to its user the presence of errors in the source program.
2. What are the two parts of a compilation? Explain briefly.
Analysis and Synthesis are the two parts of compilation.
The analysis part breaks up the source program into constituent pieces and creates an
intermediate representation of the source program.
The synthesis part constructs the desired target program from the intermediate representation.
3. List the subparts or phases of analysis part.
Analysis consists of three phases:

Linear Analysis.

Hierarchical Analysis.

Semantic Analysis.

4. Depict diagrammatically how a language is processed.

Skeletal source program

Preprocessor

Source program

Compiler

Target assembly program


Assembler

Relocatable machine code

Loader/ link editor library, relocatable object files

Absolute machine code

5. What is linear analysis?
Linear analysis is one in which the stream of characters making up the source program is read
from left to right and grouped into tokens that are sequences of characters having a collective
meaning.
Also called lexical analysis or scanning.
6. List the various phases of a compiler.
The following are the various phases of a compiler:

Lexical Analyzer

Syntax Analyzer

Semantic Analyzer

Intermediate code generator

Code optimizer

Code generator

7. What are the classifications of a compiler?

Compilers are classified as:

Single- pass

Multi-pass

Load-and-go

Debugging or optimizing

8. What is a symbol table?

A symbol table is a data structure containing a record for each identifier, with fields for the
attributes of the identifier. The data structure allows us to find the record for each identifier
quickly and to store or retrieve data from that record quickly.
Whenever an identifier is detected by a lexical analyzer, it is entered into the symbol table. The
attributes of an identifier cannot be determined by the lexical analyzer.
9. Mention some of the cousins of a compiler.
Cousins of the compiler are:

Preprocessors

Assemblers

Loaders and Link-Editors

10. List the phases that constitute the front end of a compiler.
The front end consists of those phases or parts of phases that depend primarily on the source
language and are largely independent of the target machine. These include

Lexical and Syntactic analysis

The creation of symbol table

Semantic analysis

Generation of intermediate code

A certain amount of code optimization can be done by the front end as well. Also includes error
handling that goes along with each of these phases.
11. Mention the back-end phases of a compiler.

The back end of compiler includes those portions that depend on the target machine and
generally those portions do not depend on the source language, just the intermediate language.
These include

Code optimization

Code generation, along with error handling and symbol- table operations.

12. Define compiler-compiler.

Systems to help with the compiler-writing process are often been referred to as compilercompilers, compiler-generators or translator-writing systems.
Largely they are oriented around a particular model of languages , and they are suitable for
generating compilers of languages similar model.
13. List the various compiler construction tools.
The following is a list of some compiler construction tools:

Parser generators

Scanner generators

Syntax-directed translation engines

Automatic code generators

Data-flow engines

14. Differentiate tokens, patterns, lexeme.

Tokens- Sequence of characters that have a collective meaning.

Patterns- There is a set of strings in the input for which the same token is produced as
output. This set of strings is described by a rule called a pattern associated with the token

Lexeme- A sequence of characters in the source program that is matched by the pattern
for a token.

15. List the operations on languages.

Union L U M ={s | s is in L or s is in M}

Concatenation LM ={st | s is in L and t is in M}

Kleene Closure L* (zero or more concatenations of L)

Positive Closure L+ ( one or more concatenations of L)

16. Write a regular expression for an identifier.

An identifier is defined as a letter followed by zero or more letters or digits.
The regular expression for an identifier is given as
letter (letter | digit)*
17. Mention the various notational shorthands for representing regular expressions.

One or more instances (+)

Zero or one instance (?)

Character classes ([abc] where a,b,c are alphabet symbols denotes the regular
expressions a | b | c.)

Non regular sets

18. What is the function of a hierarchical analysis?

Hierarchical analysis is one in which the tokens are grouped hierarchically into nested
collections with collective meaning.
Also termed as Parsing.
19. What does a semantic analysis do?
Semantic analysis is one in which certain checks are performed to ensure that components of a
program fit together meaningfully.
Mainly performs type checking.
20. List the various error recovery strategies for a lexical analysis.
Possible error recovery actions are:

Panic mode recovery

Deleting an extraneous character

Inserting a missing character

Replacing an incorrect character by a correct character

Transposing two adjacent characters

Compiler Design Set 2

1. Define parser.
Hierarchical analysis is one in which the tokens are grouped hierarchically into nested
collections with collective meaning.
Also termed as Parsing.
2. Mention the basic issues in parsing.
There are two important issues in parsing.

Specification of syntax

Representation of input after parsing.

3. Why lexical and syntax analyzers are separated out?

Reasons for separating the analysis phase into lexical and syntax analyzers:
o Simpler design.
o Compiler efficiency is improved.
o Compiler portability is enhanced.
4. Define a context free grammar.
A context free grammar G is a collection of the following

V is a set of non terminals

T is a set of terminals

S is a start symbol

P is a set of production rules

G can be represented as G = (V,T,S,P)

Production rules are given in the following form
Non terminal (V U T)*
5. Briefly explain the concept of derivation.
Derivation from S means generation of string w from S. For constructing derivation two things
are important.
i) Choice of non terminal from several others.
ii) Choice of rule from production rules for corresponding non terminal.
Instead of choosing the arbitrary non terminal one can choose
i) either leftmost derivation leftmost non terminal in a sentinel form
ii) or rightmost derivation rightmost non terminal in a sentinel form
6. Define ambiguous grammar.
A grammar G is said to be ambiguous if it generates more than one parse tree for some sentence
of language L(G).
i.e. both leftmost and rightmost derivations are same for the given sentence.
7. What is a operator precedence parser?
A grammar is said to be operator precedence if it possess the following properties:
1. No production on the right side is .
2. There should not be any production rule possessing two adjacent non terminals at the right
hand side.
8. List the properties of LR parser.
1. LR parsers can be constructed to recognize most of the programming languages for which the
context free grammar can be written.
2. The class of grammar that can be parsed by LR parser is a superset of class of grammars that
can be parsed using predictive parsers.
3. LR parsers work using non backtracking shift reduce technique yet it is efficient one.

9. Mention the types of LR parser.

SLR parser- simple LR parser

LALR parser- lookahead LR parser

Canonical LR parser

10. What are the problems with top down parsing?

The following are the problems associated with top down parsing:

Backtracking

Left recursion

Left factoring

Ambiguity

11. Write the algorithm for FIRST and FOLLOW.

FIRST
1. If X is terminal, then FIRST(X) IS {X}.
2. If X is a production, then add to FIRST(X).
3. If X is non terminal and X Y1,Y2..Yk is a production, then place a in FIRST(X) if for some
i , a is in FIRST(Yi) , and is in all of FIRST(Y1),FIRST(Yi-1);
FOLLOW
1. Place $ in FOLLOW(S),where S is the start symbol and $ is the input right endmarker.
2. If there is a production A B, then everything in FIRST() except for is placed in
FOLLOW(B).
3. If there is a production A B, or a production A B where FIRST() contains , then
everything in FOLLOW(A) is in FOLLOW(B).
12. List the advantages and disadvantages of operator precedence parsing.
Advantages

This typeof parsing is simple to implement.

Disadvantages
1. The operator like minus has two different precedence(unary and binary).Hence it is hard to
handle tokens like minus sign.
2. This kind of parsing is applicable to only small class of grammars.
13. What is dangling else problem?
Ambiguity can be eliminated by means of dangling-else grammar which is show below:
stmt if expr then stmt
| if expr then stmt else stmt
| other
14. Write short notes on YACC.
YACC is an automatic tool for generating the parser program.
YACC stands for Yet Another Compiler Compiler which is basically the utility available from
UNIX.
Basically YACC is LALR parser generator.
It can report conflict or ambiguities in the form of error messages.
15. What is meant by handle pruning?
A rightmost derivation in reverse can be obtained by handle pruning.
If w is a sentence of the grammar at hand, then w = n, where n is the nth right-sentential form
of some as yet unknown rightmost derivation
S = 0 => 1=> n-1 => n = w
16. Define LR(0) items.
An LR(0) item of a grammar G is a production of G with a dot at some position of the right side.
Thus, production A XYZ yields the four items
A.XYZ

AX.YZ
AXY.Z
AXYZ.
17. What is meant by viable prefixes?
The set of prefixes of right sentential forms that can appear on the stack of a shift-reduce parser
are called viable prefixes. An equivalent definition of a viable prefix is that it is a prefix of a right
sentential form that does not continue past the right end of the rightmost handle of that sentential
form.
18. Define handle.
A handle of a string is a substring that matches the right side of a production, and whose
reduction to the nonterminal on the left side of the production represents one step along the
reverse of a rightmost derivation.
A handle of a right sentential form is a production A and a position of where the string
may be found and replaced by A to produce the previous right-sentential form in a rightmost
derivation of . That is , if S =>Aw =>w,then A in the position following is a handle of
w.
19. What are kernel & non-kernel items?
Kernel items, whish include the initial item, S .S, and all items whose dots are not at the left
end.
Non-kernel items, which have their dots at the left end.
20. What is phrase level error recovery?
Phrase level error recovery is implemented by filling in the blank entries in the predictive parsing
table with pointers to error routines. These routines may change, insert, or delete symbols on the
input and issue appropriate error messages. They may also pop from the stack.

Compiler Design Set 3

1. What are the benefits of intermediate code generation?
o A Compiler for different machines can be created by attaching different back end
to the existing front ends of each machine.

o A Compiler for different source languages can be created by proving different

front ends for corresponding source languages t existing back end.
o A machine independent code optimizer can be applied to intermediate code in
order to optimize the code generation.
2. What are the various types of intermediate code representation?
There are mainly three types of intermediate code representations.

Syntax tree

Postfix

Three address code

3. Define backpatching.
Backpatching is the activity of filling up unspecified information of labels using appropriate
semantic actions in during the code generation process.In the semantic actions the functions used
are mklist(i),merge_list(p1,p2) and backpatch(p,i)
4. Mention the functions that are used in backpatching.

mklist(i) creates the new list. The index i is passed as an argument to this function where
I is an index to the array of quadruple.

merge_list(p1,p2) this function concatenates two lists pointed by p1 and p2. It returns
the pointer to the concatenated list.

backpatch(p,i) inserts i as target label for the statement pointed by pointer p.

5. What is the intermediate code representation for the expression a or b and not c?
The intermediate code representation for the expression a or b and not c is the three address
sequence
t1 := not c
t2 := b and t1
t3 := a or t2
6. What are the various methods of implementing three address statements?

The three address statements can be implemented using the following methods.

Quadruple : a structure with atmost four fields such as operator(OP),arg1,arg2,result.

Triples : the use of temporary variables is avoided by referring the pointers in the
symbol table.

Indirect triples : the listing of triples has been done and listing pointers are used instead
of using statements.

7. Give the syntax-directed definition for if-else statement.

1. S if E then S1
E.true := new_label()
E.false :=S.next
S1.next :=S.next
S.code :=E.code | | gen_code(E.true : ) | | S1.code
2. S if E then S1 else S2
E.true := new_label()
E.false := new_label()
S1.next :=S.next
S2.next :=S.next
S.code :=E.code | | gen_code(E.true : ) | | S1.code| | gen_code(go to,S.next) | |
gen_code(E.false :) | | S2.code

Compiler Design Set 4

1. Mention the properties that a code generator should possess.

The code generator should produce the correct and high quality code. In other words,
the code generated should be such that it should make effective use of the resources of
the target machine.

Code generator should run efficiently.

o Define and use the three address statement a:=b+c is said to define a and to
use b and c.
o Live and dead the name in the basic block is said to be live at a given point if
its value is used after that point in the program. And the name in the basic block is
said to be dead at a given point if its value is never used after that point in the
program.
2. List the terminologies used in basic blocks.
3. What is a flow graph?
A flow graph is a directed graph in which the flow control information is added to the basic
blocks.

The nodes to the flow graph are represented by basic blocks

The block whose leader is the first statement is called initial block.

There is a directed edge from block B1 to block B2 if B2 immediately follows B1 in the

given sequence. We can say that B1 is a predecessor of B2.

4. What is a DAG? Mention its applications.

Directed acyclic graph(DAG) is a useful data structure for implementing transformations on
basic blocks.
DAG is used in

Determining the common sub-expressions.

Determining which names are used inside the block and computed outside the block.

Determining which statements of the block could have their computed value outside the
block.

Simplifying the list of quadruples by eliminating the common su-expressions and not
performing the assignment of the form x := y unless and until it is a must.

5. Define peephole optimization.

Peephole optimization is a simple and effective technique for locally improving target code. This
technique is applied to improve the performance of the target program by examining the short
sequence of target instructions and replacing these instructions by shorter or faster sequence.

6. List the characteristics of peephole optimization.

Redundant instruction elimination

Flow of control optimization

Algebraic simplification

Use of machine idioms

7. How do you calculate the cost of an instruction?

The cost of an instruction can be computed as one plus cost associated with the source and
destination addressing modes given by added cost.
MOV R0,R1 1
MOV R1,M 2
SUB 5(R0),*10(R1) 3
8. What is a basic block?
A basic block is a sequence of consecutive statements in which flow of control enters at the
beginning and leaves at the end without halt or possibility of branching.
Eg. t1:=a*5
t2:=t1+7
t3:=t2-5
t4:=t1+t3
t5:=t2+b
9. How would you represent the following equation using DAG?
a:=b*-c+b*-c

Compiler Design Set 5

1. Mention the issues to be considered while applying the techniques for code
optimization.

The semantic equivalence of the source program must not be changed.

The improvement over the program efficiency must be achieved without changing the
algorithm of the program.
o The machine dependent optimization is based on the characteristics of the target
machine for the instruction set used and addressing modes used for the
instructions to produce the efficient target code.
o The machine independent optimization is based on the characteristics of the
programming languages for appropriate programming structure and usage of
efficient arithmetic properties in order to reduce the execution time.

Available expressions

Reaching definitions

Live variables

Busy variables

2. What are the basic goals of code movement?

o To reduce the size of the code i.e. to obtain the space complexity.
o To reduce the frequency of execution of code i.e. to obtain the time complexity.
3. What do you mean by machine dependent and machine independent optimization?
4. What are the different data flow properties?
5. List the different storage allocation strategies.
The strategies are:

Static allocation

Stack allocation

Heap allocation

6. What are the contents of activation record?

The activation record is a block of memory used for managing the information needed by a
single execution of a procedure. Various fields f activation record are:

Temporary variables

Local variables

Saved machine registers

Control link

Access link

Actual parameters

Return values

7. What is dynamic scoping?

In dynamic scoping a use of non-local variable refers to the non-local data declared in most
recently called and still active procedure. Therefore each time new findings are set up for local
names called procedure. In dynamic scoping symbol tables can be required at run time.
8. Define symbol table.
Symbol table is a data structure used by the compiler to keep track of semantics of the variables.
It stores information about scope and binding information about names.
9. What is code motion?
Code motion is an optimization technique in which amount of code in a loop is decreased. This
transformation is applicable to the expression that yields the same result independent of the
number of times the loop is executed. Such an expression is placed before the loop.
10. What are the properties of optimizing compiler?
The source code should be such that it should produce minimum amount of target code.
There should not be any unreachable code.
Dead code should be completely removed from source language.
The optimizing compilers should apply following code improving transformations on source
language.

i) common subexpression elimination

ii) dead code elimination
iii) code movement
iv) strength reduction
11. What are the various ways to pass a parameter in a function?

Call by value

Call by reference

Copy-restore

Call by name

12. Suggest a suitable approach for computing hash function.

Using hash function we should obtain exact locations of name in symbol table.
The hash function should result in uniform distribution of names in symbol table.
The hash function should be such that there will be minimum number of collisions. Collision is
such a situation where hash function results in same location for storing the names.