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MODULE 1

EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE

The ability to compose business correspondence, although a rare marketable skill, is not
an unattainable one. It is not a skill one is born with.
People learn how to write, just as they learn how to read, to type or to operate computers.
But, just like learning to type, learning to write takes work and practice. One gets better at it the
more one writes.
Of all the different kinds of letters, perhaps none are more important for your personal
career than those letters you write to apply for a job. Your curriculum vitae (or resume in
American English), and accompaning letter of application, if well planned and written, can do
much to help you secure the job of your choice.

CURRICULUM VITAE
The curriculum vitae also called resume or data sheet is an outline of all you have to
offer a prospective employer.
It is a presentation of your qualifications, your background, and your experiences,
arranged in such a way as to convince a busines sperson to grant you an interview.
It must look professional and exemplify those traits you want the employer to believe
you possess
It must be typed on business-size band.

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It must have overall neat appearance: margins should be wide and balanced. Headings
should stand out and should be parallel. Corrections should be invisible: the finished product
must be perfect.
The information contained on your CV must be accurate, expressed in short phrases,
rather than whole sentences, and complete. It should consist of facts. Nowadays, it is preferable
to keep a resume to one page. This means that you must be efficient in selecting the facts to
include and clever in arranging them. In making these decisions, keep in mind the specific job
for which you are applying.
A curriculum vitae must be factual, objective and brief and it usually contains the
following sections:

Personal data: name, address, date and place of birth, sex, marital

status,number of children, nationality.

Employment objective: many career conselors recommend that this be

included and listed first, immediately after your name and address. Mentioning a clearly
defined job goal creates the favorable impression that you are a well-directed, motivated
individual.

Education: list, in reverse chronological order, the schools you have

attended, with names, dates of attendance, and degrees or diplomas awarded.

Work experience: each job experience should be listed ( again, with the most

recent job first ) with your position or title, employers name and address, dates of
employment, and a brief description of your responsibilities.

Extracurricular activities and Special skills: list anything that might help

you to get the job, any facts that dont fit under Education or Work Experience, but which
demonstrate an important aspect of your value to an employer (e.g. computer skills,
command of foreign laguages, speed in taking decisions, skills in using high-tech office
tools, communication skills, etc.).

References: The last section of your CV is a list of those people willing to

vouch for your ability and experience. Former employers and teachers (especially teachers of
job- related courses) are the best references. Each reference should be listed by name,
position or title, business address and telephone number. A minimum of three names is
recommended.
You need not use all of these sections; use ,of course only those that are most relevant. Also,
the order in which you list the categories is flexible. You may list your strongest sections first,
or you may list first the section that is most relevant to the job in question.

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Some companies send application forms which contain more or less the same
information as a CV. In that case it is not necessary to send a separate CV.

Model of CURRICULUM VITAE

CURRICULUM VITAE

Personal data

First name: Cristian

Surname / Family name: Andone
Date of birth:
Place of birth: ..
Marital status: ..
Nationality: Romanian
Home address: .
Phone No.: ...
Business address: Romanian Bank for Development, IT Department
Phone No.:

Employment objective

Feeling capable of assuming more responsibility in an emerging market economy, I would like
the challenge of applying new concepts in real life.

Education

9 Banking College of the Romanian Banking Institute graduated in 1997, specialised in

banking
9 1995-1996 Bucharest, one week specialised courses on different banking matters run
within the Training Center of the Romanian Banking Institute (RBI).
9 March-April 1996: a three week Fulbright scholarship in Denver-Colorado.
9 Work Experience: bank clerk for the Bancoop (1994-1996 - computer assisted
accountant for BRD (up to now).

Present position

Head of the Computer Assisted Accountancy Unit of the IT Department,

Romanian Bank for Development.

Special skills
9 computer skills
9 command of English, French, German
9 speed in taking decisions
9 communication skills

Other personal details

9

I am a hard working person

I enjoy team work

I never need an extra day off

Date: 14th of September 1999

Cristian Andone

LETTER OF APPLICATION
The purpose of a letter of application is to attract an employers attention and persuade
him or her to grant you an interview. To do this, the letter presents what you can offer the
employer, rather than what you want from the job.
Like a CV, a letter of application is a sample of your work, and it is, as well, an
opportunity to demonstrate, not just talk about, your skills and personality.
Because a letter of application must sell your qualifications, it must do more than simply
restate your CV. It should state explicitly how your background relates to the specific job and it

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should emphazise your strongest and most pertinent characteristics. The letter should
demonstrate that you know both yourself and the company.
When writing a letter of application, keep in mind the following principles:
9 start by attracting attention
9 continue by describing your qualifications
9 assure the employer that you are the person for the job
9 conclude by requesting an interview
A complete application should contain both a letter of application and a CV. It is always
most professional to include both.

Model of APPLICATION LETTER

APPLICATION LETTER
----------------------Street
---------------------------Phone:-----------------------Mrs. Lesly Quirk
Information Engineering Group Ltd.
Lloyd House
22 Lloyd Street
Manchester
M2 5WA
Dear Mrs. Quirk,
I would like to apply for ...

advertised in .
As you can see . I have had
I enclose and I will be available .-

Yours sincerely,

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EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases:

application = a request for something, e.g. a job, a place in a college.

application form = a document which is filled and signed by a person who is applying for
something, e.g. a job, a passport, a driving license
applicant = a person who puts in an application for something.
asset = something that is owned by a person or a company, such as money, a building, a car.
to asses = to judge the quality or worth of ( a person or thing )
grant = a gift of money, e.g. from the government especially for education
to advertise = to make ( something, usually goods or services) known to companies or the
general

public e.g. by means of newspaper, magazines, posters, cinema,

television or radio.
advertisment = a notice of something which is being advertised
vacancy = the state of being vacant, a post which is vacant
consumer market = all the people who buy to satisfy their own needs or those of their families.
cost effectiveness = is a method etc., giving value for money, often in comparison with
something else, e.g. spending money on advertising in newspaper instead
of television.

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Read the following advertisment and write your CV and a letter of

application for the position mentioned. Before writing them have a look at the explanatory
notes above:

MARKET RESEARCH SPECIALIST

MONSATO has a vacancy in its fast growing Agricultural Products Company, for a
MARKET RESEARCH SPECALIST (M/F) with responsibility for a selection of European
countries. The position is based at our European Headquarters in Brussels and reports to the
Market Research Mgr, Europe.
The ideal candidate will be a university graduate, preferably with a degree in agricultural
sciences or economics and have three to five years experience in the consumer market research
area. Experience in advertising research as well as acquaintance with basic operations research
would be assets. Frequent travel will be called for, and fluency in English as well as French
and/or German is useful.
The position holds responsibility for quality, methodology, cost effectiveness analysis
and impact of market research projects in Europe.
Opportunities for career growth associated with this appointment are exceptionally good.
A competitive salary is offered and overall conditions are in line with what is expected of a
major international company.
Application in confidence should be addressed to L.Borrill Manager, Personnel at
Monsato Europe S.A., avenue de Tervuren 270-272 at 1150 Brussels.

ANIMAL SCIENCE

Animal science deals with the selection, breeding, nutrition and management of domestic
animals for economical production of meat, eggs, milk, hides and other animal products.
Cattle, horses, mules, sheep and goats, swine and poultry are some of the domestic
animals raised by man throughout the world.
Cattle are usually divided into two groups: beef and dairy cattle.Beef is the flesh from
cattle older than 6 months, but when we speak of beef cattle we mean cattle raised for meat
production.The sire is called bull.The female cow and their progeny calf.
Sheep are raised for both meat and wool. The sheep meat is called mutton. The sire is
called ram, the female ewe and the offspring lamb.
Swine raising is another branch of the animal husbandry.The primary products of swine
are pork, lard and hides. The female is called sow, the male is called pig or hog, and the sire
,boar.
Poultry include chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese but do not include game or wild
birds.The life cycle of these domesticated birds includes the incubation of the eggs, the growing
of the stock for either meat or egg production, the egg laying phase and the breeding stage. The
chickens are the most valuable of all domesticated birds.
The ordinary farm animals belong to the large group known as vertebrata, or animals
with a backbone..Fishes,amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals all have a backbone.The
capability to produce milk to feed young is one of the distinctive features of the ordinary farm
animals and hence they are classified as Mammalia.
All domestic animals are divided into three main classes: herbivorous, carnivorous and
omnivorous.Herbivorous animals , such as cattle, deer, horses, sheep and rabbits live chiefly on
plants.Carnivorous (flesh eating animals) such as cats , dogs sharks, etc. live on the bodies of
other animals. Omnivorous animals such as pigs, rats, bears and others utilize both plant and
animal food.

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EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

animal husbandry = zootehnie (creterea

animalelor)
animal science = zootehnie
to breed = a ameliora
breeding = ameliorare
dairy cattle = taurine de lapte
beef cattle = taurine de carne
beef = carne de vit
pork = carne de porc
mutton = carne de oaie
bull = taur
calf = viel
boar = vier
sow = scroaf
piglet = purcel
hog = porc
hide = piele
lard = untur
ram = berbec
ewe = oaie
lamb = miel
male = mascul
female = femel
stock = efectiv
to rear = a crete animale
sire = reproductor
game = vnat
duck = ra
turkey = curcan

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EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Give the feminine or masculine, as required of the following animals.

1. bull

..

2. duck

3. ram

4. goose
5. hen

..

6. stallion .
7. sow

For each animal below give the name of its young from the following list:

calf, duckling, kid, kitten, chicken, lamb, colt, gosling, piglet, pup
1.cow

6.cat

2.dog

7.duck

3.goat

8.hen

4.horse

9.sheep

5.pig

10. goose

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MODULE 2

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF FARM ANIMALS

When an animal eats, the food passes along the digestive tract. This is the tube which runs
from the mouth to the anus, or in the case of poultry, the vent. It is known as the alimentary
canal.Into this tube digestive juices, or enzymes are secreted. These enzymes break down the food
into a form which the animal can digest, or absorb into the body through the bloodstream and use.
The undigested part is rejected in the form of excrement.For example food protein is broken down
into amino acids. These substances are the basic building blocks of body protein. They are absorbed
into the body and used to build new proteins in the animal such as muscle and milk.
Different types of farm animals have different alimentary tracts. Cattle, for example, have
highly developed stomach systems which are made up of four parts. When a cow eats grass, it does
not chew it but swallows it at once.The grass passes down the oesophagus to the stomach, or rumen,
where it is stored. When the cow has filled its stomach, it often lies down. But, it goes on moving its
jaws. This is because it is ruminating. The cow brings up, or regurgitates, some of the grass from its
first stomach for a second chewing, or cudding, with its molar teeth.When the grass is well chewed
and broken down, the cow swallows it again. This time, however, the food goes into the second
stomach, or reticulum, where organisms start to attack the cellulose in the grass in order to release
the nutrients which are enclosed within the cell walls.From here, the food passes through the
omasum into the fourth stomach, or abomasum, into which the digestive juices are secreted.These
enzymes kill the organisms in the food and make them available for digestion.Digestion and
absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine.What remains undigested is then rejected
through the anus as excrement.
Cows and other animals with similar stomach system ruminate because their digestive
systems are made to digest and transform roughages. These are fibrous materials such as hay, grass
and straw. Hence, cows, goats, sheep and camels are known as ruminants.

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Non-ruminants such as pigs and poultry have a single or simple stomach in which the acid
digestive juices exist. Such stomachs,therefore, are unsuitable for the activity of organisms. In these
animals the caecum is the place where there is most organism activity.However, since the products
of this organ will pass out of the animal, the activity of organisms in the caecum is of limited
value.Poultry have a crop which stores food before it enters the digestive tract.The gizzard is a
muscular organ which grinds up the food in order to make digestion easier.
Differences in the digestive system of animals are reflected in different feeding
practices.Ruminants are fed mainly roughages. The stomach organisms use the protein in the
roughage and non-protein nitrogenous substances to manufacture their own body protein.Nonruminants can make little use of hay and straw, unless the caecum is highly developed, as it is in the
horse. This is because no conversion of roughage takes place in their stomachs.Therefore, nonruminants are fed on higher quality proteins such as barley and maize or fish and bonemeal.However, the very young ruminant is treated as a non-ruminant as regards food protein until
its stomach is fully developed.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

to chew = a rumega, a mesteca

to swallow = a nghii (mncare)
alimentary tract = tubul / tractul digestiv
rumen = rumen, burduf (la rumegtoare)
reticulum = reea, ciur (la rumegtoare); membran reticular
omasum = omasum
ruminant = rumegtor
nutrient = aliment / substan nutritiv
gizzard = pipot

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EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer these questions:
1) How do the enzymes which are secreted into the digestive tract function ?
2) Why are amino acids so important ?
3) How does food protein get used to build up muscle and milk ?
4) What is a cow doing when it is ruminating ?
5) Why is necessary to break down the cellulose in roughage ?
6) Why are cows and goats etc classified as ruminants ?
7) What effect does the difference in the alimentary tract of different animals have on animal
husbandry ?
8) Why can it be costly to bring up non-ruminants ?

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Ruminants, unlike

ourselves, people, have four stomachs. Actually ruminants eat very

quickly. They dont chew their food very much, and when they swallow it, they also swallow a lot
of saliva.This food and saliva enters the first stomach,called the rumen.After the food has been
partially digested by bacteria in the rumen, the food passes into the second stomach, called the
reticulum.From here small balls of food are forced back into the cows mouth, where they are
chewed again.We call this action chewing the cud.When the food is fine enough, the cow will
swallow it again. This time the food goes into the omasum, which is the third stomach.The walls of
the omasum are folded, in folds.These folds press on the food and strain some of the liquid out of
it.Finally the food passes to abomasum. We often call the abomasums the true stomach, because it is
the only stomach which produces enzymes. From here the food passes on to the small intestine.

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Translate into English:

Fiinele nu pot s triasc dect prin consumul nencetat de materii din mediul ambiant,

denumite substane alimentare.Acestea sunt fie de natur animal (lapte, ou, carne, grsimi ), fie de
natur vegetal ( iarb, fn, trifoi, etc.) cnd poart n general numele de furaje.Substanele
alimentare, pentru a putea fi ntrebuinate de ctre celule i esuturi, trebuie s sufere o serie de
transformri, cunoscute sub numele de digestie.Animalele superioare au un aparat n care se
produce digestia, numit aparat digestiv.

FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

The constituents of foods. Food accounts for the major proportion of the production costs
of all animal products, and errors in feeding can seriously reduce the farmers profit. A sound
knowledge of foods, and of rationing, therefore, forms an integral part of the art of stockmanship.
A study of feedingstuffs reveals that they are made up as follows:
Water
Food
Dry Matter (Carbohydrate, Fats and Oils, Proteins,Minerals,Vitamins)
The feeding value of the dry matter varies considerably between different foods, and in
certain cases it can be of more value to some classes of stock than to others.
Carbohydrates supply most of energy which farm animals require to enable their muscles
to do work, to keep themselves warm, and, for example, to produce milk.They are compounds of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The simplest carbohydrates are the sugars. An example is glucose which plants can produce
in their leaves.To do this they combine water from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air and the
suns energy.Plants then build this glucose up into more complex carbohydrates such as starch, for
storage, or cellulose, which forms the young plants cell walls.

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As plants become older their cell walls may be strengthened by lignin. This largely accounts
for the very fibrous nature of old plants.The stems of hay made from very mature grass are typical
examples of lignified foods.
The cellulose and lignin within a food are frequently referred to together as the fibre.In
general, when plants become older, and their fibre content increases, they reduce in feeding
value.This because a large proportion of the fibre is indigestible.
Cows and sheep have a digestive system which is adapted to deal with fibre.
Most animal feedingstuffs are derived from plants and, consequently, our livestock are almost
entirely dependent upon plants from their supply of energy.
Fats and oils. Fats and oils are chemically very similar to each other, but at normal
temperatures fats exist in a solid state and oils are liquids. Like carbohydrates, they contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, but they differ in the proportions in which these elements are combined.
Just as the simplest building blocks in the carbohydrates were the sugars, such as glucose,
the simplest building blocks in the fats are glycerol and fatty acids.
Fats contain more than twice the energy of carbohydrates. When animals have a surplus of
energy they convert most of it into fat for storage.This can be re-utilised if required in times of
need.Fats and oils in the diet are also used as a source of energy, and can be converted into animal
fat. Some feedingstuffs, for example flaked maize, contain oils which cause animals to lay down
soft fat.Excessive fat in the diet may lead to digestive troubles. Consequently, although fat is very
rich in energy, most of the energy requirements of farm animals are supplied by carbohydrates.
Proteins. Proteins are required by animals to build up lean meat or muscle. They also use
them to form internal organs, hair, wool, skin and to repair damaged body tissues. In addition , the
milking animal will require protein to help to produce milk.
Like carbohydrates and fats, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.However, they also
contain nitrogen and some contain sulphur, phosphorus or iron.
There are many different types of protein, but they are all built up from different
combinations of simpler substances called amino acids.Over twenty amino acids are known to be
important to farm animals.Stock produce many of them in their own bodies by conversion from
other amino acids or from nitrogen containing substances within their food.These are called the
essential amino acids. Foods which contain a wide range of these essential amino acids are said to
be of high biological value.

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Care should be taken not to overfeed stock with protein. They have the ability to extract the
nitrogen and liberate the energy, but this puts a strain on the liver and kidneys.Protein-rich foods are
also normally more expensive than those rich in carbohydrates.
Minerals. Minerals also form an important part of an animals diet since they play a vital
role in a very large number of the bodys normal functions.Those minerals which are required in
comparatively large quantities are known as essential minerals.{Table 1}
TABLE 1

The Functions Associated with the Essential Minerals

Calcium, phosphorus

Bone and teeth formatiom

Growth of soft tissues
Fertility

Magnesium

Function of the nervous system

Bone formation

Iron

Blood formation

Sodium, potassium

Regulation between acidity and alkalinity of body fluids

Food digestion

Sulphur

Part of certain proteins, e.g. hair protein

Although minerals only constitute about 3% of the total body, about 80% of the mineral
matter, chiefly calcium and phosphorus, is found in the skeleton. It is , therefore , particularly
important to ensure that young animals whose skeleton is growing rapidly obtain a good supply of
minerals.
The types and quantities of minerals found in differenr feedingstuffs are extremely variable.
Animals feeding on certain diets may , therefore, need supplementary mineral rations to prevent
deficiency diseases. A wide range of mineral supplements is available from commercial firms,
although home mixes using a proportion of steamed bone flour, ground chalk and common salt are
sometimes used to supply the essential minerals.

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Other minerals which are only necessary in small quantities are called trace elementsThese
include iodine, manganese, cobalt, copper and zinc.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

carbohydrate = hidrocarbonat
supply = aprovizionare; furnizare; livrare; rezerv, stoc
supply and demand = cerere i ofert
maintenance = meninere, pstrare; ntreinere

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1.Does all dry matter have the same feeding value ?
2.What are carbohydrates made up of ?
3.Why are some older plants fibrous ?
4.Why do fibrous plants have less feeding value ?
5.Which contain more energy, fats or carbohydrates ?
6.Why can too much fat be undesirable ?
7.How are proteins built up ?
8.Which foods are said to be of high biological value?
9.Which are the essential minerals ?
10.What are trace elements ?

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PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian:
Food is made up of varying proportions of several substances. These substances include water,
carbohydrates, fats and oils, proteins and minerals. Water has a number of functions. It carries
nutrients from the intestinal wall to the cells and tissues. This process of transportation is carried out
by the blood, the basis of which is water. Another function is to facilitate digestion by assisting the
passage of food through the alimentary tract.
Translate into English:
Srurile minerale intr n constituia tuturor celulelor.Ele sunt necesare n special formrii
scheletului, prului, lnii i laptelui. n corpul animalelor srurile minerale se gsesc n
diferite proporii variabile cu starea fiziologic, cu alimentaia i cu starea de sntate.Srurile
minerale sunt ncorporate prin alimente i ap i eliminate prin urin, fecale i transpiraie.n timpul
creterii tineretului, n timpul gestaiei la femele,ca i n timpul lactaiei intense la vaci, animalele
sufer uneori de insuficien a srurilor minerale.

FEEDINGSTUFFS
Feedingstuffs used on farms can be divided into two main groups: bulk foods and
concentrates. Bulk foods contain a limited amount of nutrients in a given weight of food. Hay
contains roughly 35 lb. of starch per 100 lb weight. Concentrates are richer in nutrients. Barley
contains twice as much starch per 100 lb weight, or twice the amount of energy in an equivalent
weighing of foodstuff.Both these groups of foodstuff are used in feeding livestock.The bulk foods
satisfy the animals appetite. Concentrates are given to ensure that the animals have taken sufficient
nutrients. Ruminants are particularly suited to consume bulk foods, because of their ability to break
down fibre, but their diet should be supplemented with concentrates.The rations of non-ruminants
consist mainly of concentrated foods because their simple stomachs cannot utilize fibre.
Bulk foods consist of coarse fodders such as hay and straws, and succulent foods such as
roots, green fodders (kales and grass) and silage.The former are low in protein and minerals; the
latter have a high moisture content which makes them palatable. Three types of hay can be

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distinguished: meadow hay, which usually contains a large number of grass species and clovers;
clover hay, which is produced from fields planted with a clover crop; and seed hay which is more
fibrous and coarse than meadow hay.
Concentrates can be sub-divided into foods rich in carbohydrates such as oats, barley, wheat
etc.; protein rich foods of vegetable origin, such as oil cakes and meals of linseed, groundnuts or
soya beans; protein rich foods of animal origin including fish meals or meat meals; and homegrown foods rich in protein including leguminous crops such as peas and beans.The production of
high quality home-grown feed is very important to reduce costs.
Balance is an essential element of animal feeding. The balance of the total food ration
should be correct otherwise the animal will be receiving an excess or deficiency of starch or protein.
An imbalance in feeding ration may lead to unnecessary expenses and so reduce profits. Balance
also applies to the effect which the foods in the total diet have on the digestive system.The best
balance is a feeding ration which is palatable and mildly laxative. In addition, minerals and vitamins
must be balanced to keep the animal healthy and productive.An incorrect balance in the calciumphosphorous ratio can lead to infertility in cattle.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

clover = trifoi
meadow = pajite, livad, fnea
meadow clover = trifoi rou
hay = fn
silage = siloz
high feeding value = valoare nutritiv ridicat
digestible = digestibil, asimilabil, care poate fi mistuit
digestible energy = asimilare de energie
meal = fin;pudr, praf;mncare, mas
moisture = umiditate, umezeal
oil cake = turt de oleaginoase
straws = paie

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green fodder = nutre verde
coarse = brut, neprelucrat, grosier
EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1.On what basis can feeding stuffs be classified ?
2.Why does the diet of ruminants usually consist of both bulk foods and concentrates ?
3.What characteristic of foods such as green fodder and silage make them valuable in a diet
4. How can a livestock farmers costs be reduced ?
5.What effect can an imbalance in food rations have on the animal and on the farmer ?
6.What harm can a mineral imbalance in the diet have on an animal ?

PROGRESS TEST
Translate into English:
Nutreurile sunt produse de origine organic, anorganic sau un amestec al acestora, care au
rolul de a furniza animalelor energia necesar funciilor vitale, fiind totodat folosite de organism
pentru obinerea diferitelor produse. Dup originea lor nutreurile se clasific n trei categorii:
nutreuri de origine vegetal, animal i mineral. Totalitatea resurselor de hran folosite n
alimentaia animalelor alctuiesc baza furajer. Majoritatea resurselor care intr n componena
bazei furajere sunt produse de plante, au deci origine vegetal. n funcie de coninutul lor n
substane nutritive, nutreurile de origine vegetal se mpart n urmtoarele grupe: concentrate,
fibroase i suculente.
Sursele principale care asigur nutreurile de origine vegetal sunt urmtoarele: culturi de
cereale i leguminoase pentru boabe care produc cea mai mare parte din nutreurile concentrate
(porumb, orz, ovz, soia, mazre,etc). Aceste culturi asigur totodat i nutreurile grosiere (paiele,
vrejii, cocenii, etc.); culturile pentru nutre (anuale i perene) care produc nutreul verde, fanul,
silozul i semisilozul; pajitile permanante i cultivate care asigur nutreul verde, fnul i n parte
silozul.

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THE ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT OF FOOD

Absorption involves the passage of food materials from the digestive tract into the blood
stream. The blood then transports the food round the body.
Most absorption takes place in the small intestine which is specially adapted for the purpose.
In the cow it is 40 m long and in the pig it is 15m long.Its inner surface is folded into finger like
projections called villi which greatly increase the surface area for absorption. Within the viili there
are fine blood capillaries and lymphatic vessels. The amino acids and glucose enter the blood
stream directly, but most of the fatty acids enter the lymphatic system.(The latter eventually joins up
with the blood stream).In the ruminant some fatty acids, produced from the breakdown of cellulose,
are absorbed directly through the wall of the rumen.
The blood stream carries the food nutrients, together with oxygen from the lungs, to the
parts of the body where they are required. The lymph is then able to pass through the walls of the
blood capillaries and can bathe the actual tissues of the body.At the same time it carries food
substances to these tissues.
Digestibility of foodstuffs. Some of the food eaten by farm animals cannot be digested and
passes out of the body as dung. The digestibility of the food is therefore very important and it is
essential to consider it when feeding stock. In practice farmers actually use the term D-value to
compare the digestibility of foods. This is the percentage of digestible organic matter contained in
the dry matter of the food. The higher the D-value the higher the digestibility.
This can be illustrated by reference to grass and silage. As grass gets older its cell walls get
toughened with lignin and its digestibility falls. When making top quality silage farmers will aim to
make a product which has a 70 D-value.This is very suitable for high yielding dairy cows but it can
only be made from relatively young grass.As a result the yield per ha may be reduced compared to
silage made from grass cut at a later stage.When feeding the dry, in-calf, beef cow some farmers
consider quantity and bulk to be more important than quality. They cut the grass at a later stage to
obtain silage with a D-value as low as 55 to 60, or even lower.
A low D-value will probably result in the slowing down of the food in its passage through
the body.This will limit the quantity eaten by the animal. In high yielding dairy cows, or beef cattle
required to make good liveweight gains, this can be a serious disadvantage.With both classes of
stock it is essential that a large amount of food nutrients are digested and made available for use in

22
the body.This is especially so with dairy cows in early lactation to avoid excessive loss of body
weight and to promote high yields.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

breakdown = descompunere
stuff = materie brut
digestibility = digestibilitate
dung = blegar
tissue = esut
lungs = plmni
bulk = mrime, cantitate (mare), magnitudine

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Are the following statements correct or incorrect ?
1.The small intestine carries food materials round the body.
2.The lymphatic system never joins the blood stream.
3.Both food nutrients and oxygen are carried by the blood stream.
4.Farm animals digest all the food they eat.
5.Food with a D-value of 65 is more digestible than a food with a D-value of 60.
6.Silage with a D-value of 70 can be made from old grass.
7.All farmers agree that quality silage is better than quantity.
8.Animals eat less of a low D-value silage.
9.A low D-value is better for dairy cows in early lactation.

23

PROGRESS TEST

Ask 6 wh questions based on the text about the digestibility of foodstuffs .Use the
prompts below:
a. What ----------------------------------------------------------------?
b. When ---------------------------------------------------------------?
c. Where --------------------------------------------------------------?
d. How ----------------------------------------------------------------?
e. Which --------------------------------------------------------------?
f. Why ----------------------------------------------------------------?

Translate into English:

Absorbia este un proces biologic, n care rolul activ l are epiteliul de absorbie, care las s
treac n vasele sanguine i limfatice principii nutritive. Cunotinele actuale de fiziologie permit s
privim absorbia ca un proces fiziologic legat de peretele intestinal organ de absorbie cu celule
specializate n aceast direcie.Organele principale ale absorbiei sunt vilozitile a caror dispoziie
mresc enorm suprafaa liber a mucoasei intestinale.

24

MODULE 3

REPRODUCTION IN FARM ANIMALS

Reproduction in farm stock is controlled by complex chemical substances called hormones.
These are produced by various glands wihin the body and in addition to influencing sex and
reproduction, some members of the hormone group influence growth and lactation.
OESTRUS CYCLE.
Farm animals start life when a female egg cell is fertilized by a male sperm.Although there
are many thousands of undeveloped eggs on the females ovaries, this fertilization process can only
take place at a definite period within the females reproductive cycle, i.e. when one or more of these
eggs has matured.It is therefore,essential to mate her at the correct time.
After a certain age, called puberty, the females reproductive life is characterized by a series
of what are called oestrus cycles.At the beginning of each of these oestrus cycles it is
usual for one of the many thousands of undeveloped eggs to start to mature in the cow, and possibly
two or even three in the sheep.
When the eggs are mature the ovaries produce a hormone, oestrogen, which causes the
female to come on heat or in season, and she will stand for service by the male.The eggs are shed
into one of the fallopian tubes and pass on into a branch or horn of the uterus.
If successful mating has not occurred the eggs die and pass out the reproductive tract
unnoticed.A further oestrus cycle will then follow.
PREGNANCY
When mating does take place the male deposits many thousands of sperms into female
vagina.These pass through the cervix, which protects the uterus or womb from external damage, and
meet the eggs on their way down from the ovaries, but only one sperm is required to fertilise each
egg.

25
When an egg is successfully fertilized, the cell which is produced divides many times and
begins to grow into the young unborn animal. After a short period it becomes attached to the
mother, within the uterus, by a navel cord.After this stage it becomes known as the embryo.Food
substances can then pass from the mother to the offspring and waste products can travel in the
opposite direction.
During the initial stages of pregnancy the unborn animal makes little demands upon its
mother.In the latter stages, during which it makes most growth, it requires a good supply of
minerals for bone formation, and plenty of protein for the growth of internal organs and muscle.
The length of time between fertilization and the birth of a young animal is known as the gestation
period.
VARIATIONS BETWEEN FARM ANIMALS
Although the basic principles of reproduction are the same within the different types of farm
animals, there are one or two important differences in detail. In addition to the differences between
the number of the eggs shed at the mating period, the other main variations are as follows:

Usual length of heat

Cow

Sheep

16-24 hr

27 hr

21 days

14-19 days

281-284 days

144-150 days

or

or

9 months 1 week

21 weeks

Average interval
between heat periods
Gestation period

Heat periods occur at regular intervals throughout the year in healthy, non-pregnant animals,
although they may be of relatively short duration in late winter.

26
EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

ovule = ovul
oestrus = oestrum, perioada de clduri la animalele domestice i de rut la cele slbatice
fertilize = a fecunda; a fertiliza/a ngra (agr.)
spermatozoon, pl. spermatozoa = spermatozoid
cervix, pl cervices = col uterin
embryo = embrion, germen;fetus
to come on heat or in season = a intra n clduri
vagina ,pl.vaginae = vagin
navel cord = cordon ombilical
offspring = urma, progenitur

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1.How are hormones produced ?
2.When can fertilization take place ?
3.What happens at the beginning of oestrus cycle ?
4.Which hormone causes heat ?
5.What happens after unsuccessful mating ?
6.How is an unborn animal connected to the mother ?
7.When does the unborn animal make most demands on the mother ?

27

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

The mating of animals, or reproduction, is extremely important in animal husbandry. It is the

farmers duty to make sure that mating is carried out correctly and that the animal is well looked
after its pregnancy and at the time of birth.
At the time of ovulation the egg or eggs which are released pass into the fallopian tube,
together with the fluids from the follicle. The egg remains at the top of the tube for a while in a clot
of fluids. When this clot dissolves the egg passes down the tube into the uterusWhile the egg is in
this clot, or just emerging from it, fertilization that is, the union of the sperm and the egg
occurs.At the time of mating the male sperm is deposited in the female tract near the cervix.It
therefore has to travel the full length of the uterus and up the fallopian tube to fertilize the egg.Only
one sperm enters the egg although several may swim around it.After that the two nuclei, one from
the sperm and one from the egg , are joined or fused.The animal has now been conceived.

Translate into English:

Ciclul sexual se repat n tot cursul perioadei genitale i nceteaz o dat cu dispariia ovulaiei

i a cldurilor. Durata fiecrui ciclu i a perioadelor sale depinde de specie, ras, climat, alimentaie,
ntreinere i individ. n faza genital n cursul unui an, exist o perioad n care viaa se manifest
mai intens, cunoscut sub numele de sezon sexual..Sezonul sexual este mai evident la animalele
slbatice, la care nmulirea este legat de sezonul de primvar, cnd condiiile climatice i de
ntreinere sunt mai favorabile. La animalele slbatice, ntr-un an se manifest un singur ciclu
oestral. La carnasiere se manifest ntr-un an dou cicluri sexuale. Celelalte animale domestice
(ovine, bovine, ecvine, porcine ) ntr-un an manifest mai multe cicluri sexuale.

28

INFERTILITY
Infertility in farm stock represents a very serious financial loss to the farmer.Several causes
of infertility are known.Prompt action and good management helps to minimize their effect.
When an egg is shed from the ovary, a yellow body grows in the cavity left by the egg.
The yellow bodys main function is to produce a hormone. This hormone prevents more eggs from
ripening in the pregnant animal.Normally the yellow body {will) disappear(s) if the animal is not
pregnant.But sometimes it remains and prevents the animal from coming on heat again.And an
animal that cant come into season is, of course, infertile.The cure for the farmer here is to call the
vet. The vet can help, especially with cows because he can burst the yellow body with his fingers.
The second cause of infertility is disease organisms. Disease organisms in the uterus, or
womb.Some of these disease organisms can stop the embryo from becoming attached to the
mother.And thats clearly no good. Some disease organisms, on the other hand, can make the young
animal separated from the mother in the second half of pregnancy. And thats equally no good to
the farmer.
Infection of the uterus is very common in cows after they have had a difficult time calving.If
the farmer sees a thick, white discharge he must call the vet, who will wash out the uterus.The effect
of infection of the uterus is that it can kill the sperm before they can reach the egg and fertilise it.
Wrong feeding can also cause infertility.For example, if the animal does not get enough of
certain proteins, vitamins and minerals, its normal breeding pattern is affected.It is known that if
cattle dont get enough of the mineral iodine, it can cause infertility.
Overfeeding can just as easily lead to the same sorry state of affairs: infertility.If an animal
is overfed, fat can be deposited round the ovaries. This fat round the ovaries may prevent the normal
development of egg cells, and that of course will lead to an infertile animal.
The fourth cause of infertility is abnormalities.For example if a cow gives birth to twins,
two calves at the same time, one male and one female, then the female may be what we call a
freemartin.In a freemartin the sex organs are not properly developed, and so of course the animal
cant breed.The cause is probably that the female has received male sex hormones through the
blood stream while in the uterus with her twin male.So, twins are not always a good thing if one is
male and another female.

29
Another abnormality affects the male rather than the cow.Some bulls produce abnormal
sperms, that is sperms that are incapable of fertilization.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

yellow body = corpul galben

blood stream = flux sangvin
mating = mperechere

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Are these statements correct or incorrect:
1.Protein deficiency is not a cause of infertility.
2.Iodine deficiency is a cause of infertility.
3.A freemartin is always infertile.
4.The probable cause of a freemartin being infertile is the presence of male sex hormones.

PROGRESS TEST
Make complete sentences out of the following notes, putting the verbs in the right
tense.

Very/financial/infertility/farm/serious/the/to/stock/farmer/a/in/loss (represent)
Egg/ovary/when/an/the/from (shed), cavity/the/left/a/by/in/the/egg/yellow body (grow)
Hormone/eggs/pregnant/in/this/more/animal/from/the (prevent; ripen)
Such/assistance/in/veterinary/cases (need)

30
It/animal/heat/again/sometimes/and/from/but/the/on (remain; prevent; come)
Function/yellow bodys/a/the/hormone/main (be; produce)
Yellow body/if/the/normally/not/pregnant/the/animal (disappear; be)

Translate into English:

Corpul galben este o gland endocrin, al crui hormon este cunoscut sub numele de

progesteron sau lutein.El se prezint la suprafaa ovarului, cu un aspect sferic, de diferite mrimi,
cu perei sbrcii de o coloraie glbuie.Corpul galben evolueaz n cteva zile i dup ce a ajuns la
dezvoltare complet, elaboreaz intens luteina. Acest produs hormonal acioneaz asupra uterului,
provocnd procese proliferative i secretorii.

MODULE 4

SELECTION OF BREEDING ANIMALS

Farmers endeavour to select the best animals to breed from, but the performance of an
animal is not always a good guide to the performance of the offspring. There are two main reasons
for this.The first is that an animals performance is very much influenced by the environment, such
as the food it receives, the diseases it contracts and the way it is managed.This in addition to the
influence of its genetic make up. The second reason is that many of the factors, or traits of
economic importance are controlled by a large number of genes and not one gene. The permutations
possible when genes are distributed during sperm and egg production are therefore enormous.Thus
it is possible for the poorest characters of two excellent parents to come together to produce a poor
offspring.

31
Some traits are very much more heritable than others and there is a greater chance that if
such a trait is seen in the parents it will be seen in the offspring. A scale of 0-100% can be used to
denote the heritability of traits although the terms high, medium and low heritability can be
employed.Highly heritable factors include economy of liveweight gain and rate of liveweight gain;
the medium category includes butterfat percentage from dairy cows and fleece weight in sheep; low
factors include milk yield in cattle.In general growth rates tend to be high, but fertility and ability to
survive are low.
When selecting animals it is important to limit the number of traits being considered to those
that are important.The larger the number of traits the greater the number of permutations possible
and the more difficult is to achieve progress. Quicker progress will be made with traits of high
heritability.
It is obviously very important to select the correct sire since he can influence more offspring
in a herd or flock than a single female.The proportion of the females selected for breeding
replacements depends upon the number of replacements required.For example, with dairy cows the
selection pressure can be higher in a herd with static number of cows, and where each cow has a
long herd life, than in a herd which is expanding in size and where animals are culled after a limited
number of lactations.
The time between when an animal is born and when it produces young itself is also
important since it can influence the speed of improvement.

SELECTION TECHNIQUES
Production records help to spotlight both the good and bad animals within the group.Stock
showing superiority in those commercial qualities required can be used for breeding replacements.
Performance testing is the technique whereby measurements of the animals own
performance are used to give a guide to the possible performance of its offspring. It is of value for
traits which are highly heritable and is used, in particular, to assess the value of potential boars and
beef bulls. Special testing centers have been established where the young animals are taken and
their growth rate, economy of food conversion into liveweight gain and other highly heritable
factors are measured.The best animals are then selected for use as sires. They can later be progeny
tested.

32
Progeny testing involves a careful study of the performance of an animals offspring. Those
sires whose progeny consistently perform better than their contemporaries produced by other sires
are then selected for extensive use. Sires with poor progeny, are slaughtered.The technique is
particularly valuable in testing for traits with poor heritability, such as milk yield, and for traits
which can only be assessed after slaughter or measured in one sex only.The main disadvantages of
the system are that it is expensive and that it takes a considerable amount of time.
Artificial insemination provides a means of making extensive use of the best sires.
Although a bull only produces about 5 ml of semen at one time the semen contains a high
concentration of sperm.One ejaculation can be diluted to serve a large number of cows.Boars
produce 200 ml or more of semen, but it has a low concentration and can only be diluted for use on
a limited number of sows.
Artificial insemination is particularly important to small dairy farmers.Thus artificial
insemination service can place much better bulls at their disposal than they can afford
themselves.Keeping a young bull out of a good cow involves a lot of risk. The chances of him being
good are not high.For example, it has frequently been shown that two full brothers can have entirely
different effects on the milking ability of their daughters.A bad bull used by natural service can
have sired a large part of a herd before it is known through his daughters that he is bad.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

performance = productivitate, randament;performan, realizare

breed = ras,soi, neam
breeder = cresctor (de animale ); animal de prsil
breeding = reproducere, nmulire; cretere (a animalelor)
development = dezvoltare, transformare
gain = ctig; spor; avantaj; profit
trait = trstura, linie; particularitate
slaughter = tiere, sacrificare ( a vitelor )
herd = ciread, turm

33
EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1.What do you know about the performance of an offspring ?
2.What is important when selecting animals ?
3.What is performance testing ?
4.What does progeny testing involve ?
5.What are the main disadvantages of the system ?
6.What do you know about artificial insemination ?

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Groups of animals became associated with the country, valley, or geographical area where they

were selected or developed, and often became known by the name of that area.Most breeders who
were involved in these breed development processes over a period of years or centuries were
probably not aware that they were developing a breed as we know it today. In contrast to early
development of our presently popular dairy breeds, beef breeds, and some of the sheep breeds,
many of today,s swine breeds are of recent differentiation.This does not mean that hog raisers
centuries earlier did not have breeds. History indicates they did. It probably does mean that the
higher prolificness of swine has allowed swine raisers to develop new breeds more rapidly, to more
adequately fit the environmental conditions.

Translate into English:

n mare , selecia se refer la alegerea i nmulirea indivizilor, care corespund nsuirilor

urmrite, care de regul au n vedere o fecunditate i prolificitate ridicat, precocitate pronunat, o

mare capacitate de valorificare a hranei i producii superioare, sub raport cantitativ i calitativ
acestea pe plan economic, iar din punct de vedere biologic, se are n vedere capacitatea de adaptare,
viabilitatea, vitalitatea, rezistena la mbolnviri etc.n funcie de scopul propus, obiectivele seleciei
pentru o mai mare eficacitate pot avea n vedere mbuntirea unui caracter sau a mai multor
caractere economice.

34

MODULE 5

LIVESTOCK HEALTH
THE SYMPTOMS OF ILL HEALTH
Livestock diseases cost farmers millions of pounds annually.In addition to deaths they cause
loss of production and frequently a loss of body condition.Unthrifty animals require more food and
take longer to fatten than healthy stock.
The good stockman must be capable of detecting early symptoms of disease so that prompt
action can be taken to reduce loss, and to prevent the disease from spreading.
The typical symptoms of disease are:
1.Variation in temperature can be measured by inserting a clinical thermometer into the
rectum of an animal for 30 sec. High temperatures are usually associated with the increased activity
of the body in fighting off disease.Young animals, females in late pregnancy and excited stock
frequently have higher temperatures than the normal figures given below.
Cattle 38.6 0C (range acceptable 37.8-39.2 0C)
Sheep 39.4 0C (range acceptable 38.9-40.0 0C)
2.Variations in pulse reflect the rate at which the heart pumps blood through the body.They
can be measured with the index finger where arteries pass near the surface of the body. For
example, in cattle the pulse can be taken under the tail. Normal pulse rates:
Cattle

50-60 beats per minute

Sheep

70-90 beats per minute

3. Rapid and irregular breathing occurs in fevered conditions.Serious lung complaints

may cause the animal to grunt with pain as it breathes.
4. Loss of appetite is common to many diseases, but mouldy or unpalatable food may be
responsible.

35
5.The coat should not have bald patches.These usually indicate rubbing to relieve irritation
caused by parasites such as lice.The condition of the coat will vary with housing conditions and
grooming, but when cattle are infected with worms, or have wasting diseases, their coat loses its
bloom or lustre.In sheep the coat must not be dull and show signs of falling off.
6. The skin condition in pigs can indicate several diseases.Pigs with one form of swine
erysipelas are covered with purple patches. A tight skin over the ribs of cattle is particularly
undesirable and is common to several ailments.
7. The dung and urine are stained or darkened if they contain blood.Scouring is common to
many diseases, but this may occur when an animal is fed on a very laxative diet.
8. Milk yield in dairy cows will fall even if the cows have only a slight chill. Blood and
clots within the milk indicate a disease of the udder probably mastitis.
9.The behaviour of stock with certain diseases is abnormal. Animals with foot and mouth
disease paddle their feet and produce large quantities of saliva, because they have sores on their feet
and in their mouths.Cattle with grass staggers become excited and go into fits.
10. The eyes in healthy animals are bright and alert. When they are injured by pieces of
straw, they become watery and produce a discharge.Animals with fevers usually have sunken eyes.
11. The head of a healthy animal is usually held fairly upright. Sick stock hang their head
low and have a dejected appearance.The combination of symptoms shown by an animal will help to
diagnose the disease from which it is suffering.The responsibility of the stockman is to detect the
early symptoms.In some cases he will be able to treat the animal himself, e.g. by
drenching.However, the prompt action of a veterinary surgeon, who has training and laboratory
facilities behind him, may be necessary in many cases.
Symptoms which can be seen by examination of the live animal on the farm are called
clinical symptoms. Animals can have mild forms of a disease which do not produce sufficient
symptoms for the stockman to see.Such conditions of disease are said to be sub-clinical..

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

condition = condiie, stare, situaie

the condition of his health = starea/condiia sntii sale

36
fever = febr, temperatur
lung = plmn
to grunt = a grohi; a mormi
complaint = boal; plngere
coat = hain; nveli;strat
louse ,pl. lice = pduche
groom = grjdar;vt. a esla, a ngriji caii
ailment = boal
rib = coast
dung = blegar
chill = rceal;rcoare
clot = cheag
udder = uger
foot and mouth disease = febr aftoas
to stagger = a se cltina; a se blbni;a ovi
sunken = scoflcit; scobit; supt;nfundat (d. ochi) n fundul capului

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1. Why should a stockman be able to recognize symptoms ?
2. What temperature should cattle normally have ?
3. What is the normal pulse rate of a sheep ?
4. What symptom does an animal with a serious lung complaint show ?
5. What may be the cause of an animal not eating properly ?
6. What are the possible causes of a poor coat ?
7. How does a healthy animal hold his head ?
8. When should the stockman call the vet ?

37

THE CAUSES OF ILL HEALTH

SPREAD OF DISEASE
Bacterial diseases are contagious. This means that they can be passed from one animal to
another. Some bacterial diseases can only be spread by contact between stock and may be
controlled by isolation. Others are highly infectious, and can be spread on stockmans clothes, in
food and on lorry wheels.
Bacteria enter the body through the mouth, nose, eyes, and other body orifices.Wounds and
breaks in the skin are also common paths of entry. Infection may be only local, that is, confined to
the site of access, or it may be carried all over the body.
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and are very infectious. A warm humid building is
particularly conducive to the spread of virus diseases.Foot and mouth disease is a typical example
of a virus disease and the ease with which it spreads is well known.

IMMUNITY
Certain bacteria and viruses cause disease because fluids which they produce are poisonous,
or toxic, to stock. The animal body has several defensive mechanisms against them.The most
important of these are substances called antibodies, which either destroy the disease organisms or
neutralize the effect of their toxins.
There are several ways in which an animal can get immunity. Some are natural, others are
artificial, or man-made.
Natural immunity. When an animal contracts a disease it produces antibodies against it. If
the defensive organisms of the body are sufficient the animal will recover. However, the body will
usually continue to produce antibodies against the disease for several years, or throughout its life.
The body has, therefore, acquired immunity naturally.It is prepared for a subsequent attack and,
unless it becomes heavily infected, it will destroy the disease organisms before they can multiply
and produce symptoms of the disease.
Unfortunately, antibodies are fairly specific. This means that the antibodies against one
disease will not attack organisms which can cause a different disease.
Mothers are capable of passing on some immunity to their offspring, either while they are
pregnant or, more particularly, in their first milk, the colostrum.This is why it is essential to see that

38
all young animals get their mothers milk within the first day of life.It is particularly important to
sheep farmers who produce an artificial immunity in the ewe against lamb dysentery, which she
passes on to the lambs in her milk.
Certain species are immune naturally to disease which attack other species.For example,
horses and poultry do not suffer from foot and mouth disease.
Artificial immunity. Artificial immunity can be induced in animals by inoculating them
with vaccines. These are fluids which contain bacteria or viruses in suspension that have been
killed, or modified to slow down their activity. The body then produces antibodies against them and
may develop an active immunity, lasting for several years, against the particular disease which they
cause.
If an animal already has a disease vaccines must not be used. They take several days to
produce immunity and inoculation at this time may even add to illness. However, an injection with
a serum, which already contains antibodies against the disease, will prove effective. It does not
stimulate the body to produce antibodies itself, because no disease organisms are actually
introduced.It therefore confers a passive immunity which only lasts a short time.

EXERCISES
SELF-EVALUATION
Complete these statements correctly:
Some bacteria bring disease because
1.they produce toxic fluids.
2.they contain antibodies
3.they destroy the animals antibodies
4.they attack the animals fluids.
An animal acquires natural immunity when :
1.it is injected with antibodies
2.it is given artificial antibodies
3.its own body produces antibodies
4.it has recovered from a disease

39
Antibodies
1.will attack any disease the animal gets
2.will not attack any disease the animal gets
3.are directed against a particular disease
4.only defend the animal when it is heavily infected

Are these statements correct or incorrect ?

1.An active immunity will last the whole life.
2.Vaccines do not contain viruses.
3.You use a vaccine when an animal already has a disease.
4.You use a serum when an animal already has a disease.

MODULE 6

ANIMAL HOUSING
Adequate knowledge of nutritional needs or desirable breeding programes are usually not
the factors which limit the success of livestock and poultry production enterprises today. We do not
need to increase our comprehension and mastery of these areas, and producers can make greater
application of what is known, but the general area of management---shelter, equipment and disease
control is often the bottleneck.
We need to know the optimum climate temperature, humidity, and air movement for most
efficient production, and the degree of impairment that results above or bellow the optimum. Only

40
then can we calculate the relative profitability of providing shade, fully insulated buildings, artificial
heat, artificial cooling, fans, ventilators, dehumidifiers, sprinklers, etc.
Animals vary in their reactivity to climatic stress. These variations are economically
important especially in areas of the country where climatic extremes are typical.
Animals must frequently be housed in order to comply with the demands of domestication,
for the safety of their keepers, during illness, and as protection against the weather and predatory
animals. Newly born young creatures must be given protection from chilling.
Two important things must be said at the outset. The first is that, generally speaking given
windbreaks, the possibility of shelter in inclement weather and of shade in summer, the avoidance
of muddy conditions and of overstocking --- animals kept out-of-doors are likely to be healthier
than those which are housed for long periods. In the past, housing of animals so often meant
overcrowding in dark, damp, draughty or ill-ventilated buildings. Under such conditions disease is
almost inevitable rickets, pneumonia or scours in calves, infertility in the bull, tuberculosis in the
dairy cow.Some modern and costly buildings still have ventilation defects, leading to condensation
inside and resulting in ill-health of the housed stock.
The second thing is that, from a healthy point of view, not every development is an
advance.Commercial competition may dictate the overcrowding of chickens to the point where
feather-picking has to be counteracted by red lighting or debeaking; this may lead to shorten
economic gains, but it is the antithesis of good animal husbandry, and the solving of the veterinary
problems raised must be viewed accordingly.Intensivism can surely be pushed to a stage where not
research but only a return to good husbandry, will succed in reducing the incidence of disease--- and
also, incidentally, the size of the drug bill.On the other hand, the dairy cow has undoubtedly
benefited from another dictate of economythe change from cowshed to the yard -- and parlour
system for instead of being yoked or closely chained for long periods, she is free to move around;
and such an exercise is in itself important.
Intensivism had led to development on forced-draught ventilation, and to the efficient
insulation of walls and roof of animal houses by means of Polystyrene, Fibreglass, and other
substances.It costs over four times as much to keep an animal warm by feeding concentrates an
internal fuel as by warming the livestock house. Minimum economic temperatures are given
below.
Housing has an important bearing upon the feeding of animals.Pigs, for instance, confined
on concrete have no opportunity for the normal scavenging which can obviate mineral or vitamin
deficiencies, and special rations accordingly become necessary for such housed animals. Vitamin A

41
and B deficiencies are particularly likely to occur.In store cattle, lack of a vitamin A supplements
causes blindness on many farms. Residual infection is obviously important.
CATTLE. An adjustable open-ridge method of ventilation is still recommended as the best
for cowsheds. In winter, the optimum temperature inside appears to be within 44-55 0F. Milk yields
are said to be depressed when the temperature falls below freezing point.In summer, there is an
upper limit of about 77 0F, at which point cattle begin showing distress.High humidity, at
temperature above 6O 0F, appears to diminish milk yield.
For young calves, the temperature should be provided at the highest point, with a gap of 2
feet between the top of the walls and the eaves.Open-fronted covered yards should not have a gap.
PIGS. Given adequate straw, the most primitive arks on range will yield better results than
a cold, damp house. A warm environment will reduce the risk of overlying by the sow. While
different optimum temperatures have been given by different research workers, it seems that 70 0F
is about the figure to aim at the farrowing house.For artificial rearing, a temperature of 86 has been
recommended for the first 4 days.Cold, damp floors result in liver disorders which do not appear in
buildings where the pigs have a warm, dry bed.Pregnant sows are better not housed. For fattening
pigs, an optimum temperature would appear to be about 65 ;and 60

should be the

minimum.Humidity does not appear to have adverse effect, though few authorities recommend it.
Good ventilation is advocated.
SHEEP.In general, the disease problem associated with the housing of sheep have been less
serious than might have been expected, and there is a credit side as well as a debit side. For
example, if lambs are born and reared to market weight indoors, there is far less risk of worm
infestation causing trouble. It is recommended that pens should not contain more than 15-25 ewes,
grouped according to lambing dates.Ewes housed for the winter after grazing should be wormed
during the first week. Lambs must be protected against lamb dysentery, and any from unvaccinated
ewes should be given antiserum.Infestation with lice may be aggravated by housing and spread
more rapidly.Since it can cause serious loss of condition, dipping or spraying before housing is
recommended.
E.coli infections are as much a threat to the housed lamb as to the housed calf.
Overcrowding and dirty conditions at lambing predispose to coli septicaemia, which is usually a
sequel to navel infection. In early weaned lambs, the quality of the milk substitute is important if
scouring is to be avoided; and measures should be taken to minimize contact between housed sheep
and their dung,Slatted floors, regular cleaning, copious use of bedding material, periodical

42
disinfection all help in this direction.Good ventilation can go a long way towards reducing the risk
of acute pneumonia.
Infections which give rise to abortion may prove more troublesome indoors than out, and
vaccination against enzootic abortion, caused by a virus, seems worthwhile.
POULTRY. Chickens probably do best at temperatures between 55

and 65 0F. Egg

production declines at temperatures below 40 or above 75 0F. A relative humidity of 50 percent is

considered the optimum for grown birds. A cold, dry house is better than a warm, wet one.
Ventilation requirements vary; for example, a bird may need as much as 1 cubic foot per minute per
lb bodyweight in the hottest weather, but only one-sixth of this in the coldest weather.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

shelter = adpost, acoperi;opron; umbrar,paravan

building = cldire, construcie
overcrowding = supraaglomerare, ngrmdire
wound = ran, plag
to insulate = a izola, a separa
to fan = a ventila; a rcori; a face vnt
feather = pan ( de pasre )
yoke = jug; pereche de boi; cobili; vt. a njuga, a uni
to house = a adposti
to comply = a ceda
shed = ur
to worm = a deparazita
pen = arc
weaned lambs = miei nrcai
coat = blan de animale

43
EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
Translate into English:
Majoritatea animalelor domestice sunt inute n adposturi sau grajduri pentru protecia n
special contra frigului i cldurii. Mediul protector procur confort i deci o mai mare
productivitate, ns gradul de producie nu indic ntotdeauna gradul de confort.
Clima adposturilor depinde de tipul de construcie al acestora, de amenajrile fcute pentru
modificarea sistemului de nclzire i rcire, ventilaie i iluminri, etc.
Efectul condiiilor de confort microclimatic asupra productivitii animalelor depinde de
specia animal. Astfel, vaca de lapte este un animal destul de tolerant la frig, prezentnd o mai mare
rezisten la temperaturi joase dect la cldur
Pe msur ce relaiile i productivitatea animalelor n diferite condiii de clim devin din ce
n ce mai cunoscute i tehnica construciilor mai avansat, apare posibilitatea amenajrii unor astfel
de ncperi n care s se realizeze microclimate ct mai apropiate de limitele optime, cerute de
organismele animalelor.

ECOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

The terms used in a discussion of agriculture become more complex as we begin to realize
the many relations that are involved in a field of production that is absolutely necessary to everyone.
Sound environmental management is essential for sustained agricultural development.Yet
environmental degradation is evident throughout the developing world. Soil erosion, siltatation of
rivers and reservoirs, flooding, overgrazing, poor cropping practices, desertification, salinity and
waterlogging, deforestation, energy depletion, loss of biodiversity, and chemical pollution have
become major problems.
Soil erosion is slowly undermining agricultural productivity in many parts of the world. The
extent of the world erosion problem is very difficult to assess because few nations have
systematically surveyed the condition of their soil resources.Nevertheless, the amount of agricultural

44
land now being retired due to soil erosion is estimated to be at least 20 million hectares per year.The
effects on productivity are potentially serious.Eroded soils typically are at least twice as rich in
nutrients and organic matter as the soil left behind.Soil nutrient losses can be partially replaced by
increased use of chemical fertilizers, but only up to a point, and fertilizer can be expensive. At any
rate, the yields with fertilizers are lower than they would be in the absence of erosion, so that erosion
reduces productivity below its potential.
Desertification involves the depletion of vegetative cover, exposure of the soil surface to
wind and water erosion, and reduction of the soil organic matter, soil structure, and water-holding
capacity.Intensive grazing, particularly during drought years, reduces vegetative cover; the loss of
vegetation reduces organic matter in the soil and thus changes soil structure.Moderate desertification
may cause a 25 percent loss of productivity while severe desertification can reduce productivity by
5o percent or more.
Deforestation creates environmental problems on land and in the air.Forest play a vital role
providing food, fuel, medicine, fodder for livestock, and building material.They provide a home for
innumerable and diverse plant and animal species.They protect the soil, recycle moisture, and reduce
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.But forests are being cleared at an alarming rate throughout the
world.Every year more than 11 million hectares are cleared, and the rate of cutting is increasing.
Chemical pollution.The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers has contaminated the land
and water in many countries, damaging the health of producers and consumers, stimulating the
emergence of pests resistant to pesticides, destroying the natural enemies of pests,and reducing fish
populations or rendering them unsafe for human consumption.Acute pesticide poisonings are
common, and little is known about potential long-term health effects.

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Answer the following questions:

1.Why are people so interested in environmental protection?
2.How does peoples health and life depend on the environment?
3.Who needs protection nowadays?

45

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND POLICIES

Environmental degradation can result from physical, economic, and institutional factors.
Many environmental problems are interrelated; for example, deforestation, erosion and siltation of
rivers and reservoirs are all linked. Natural resource degradation usually has both direct and
indirect causes. For example, desertification can directly result from overgrazing and poor cropping
practices, but indirectly result from poverty and population growth.Understanding the true causes of
environmental degradation requires a searching for and analysis of complex direct and indirect
physical, economic,and institutional linkages.
Physical causes of natural resource degradation. Physical or technical causes of natural
resource degradation are often the most visible and direct, even though a series of complex linkages
may be involved.Land clearing for timber, fuelwood, cattle ranching, or farming causes
deforestation.Deforestation results in loss of biodiversity and soil erosion.If the area is semi-arid,
loss of forests can contribute to desertification. Desertification can also result from overgrazing,
which itself is caused by too many cattle eating grass in an area subjected to dry spells or
droughts.Many other examples of physical causes of natural resource degradation can be cited.
It is important to identify physical causes of environmental problems, but it is even more
important to identify the underlying economic and institutional causes including social, cultural, and
policy-related causes.
Economic causes of natural resource degradation. Poverty and environmental degradation
go hand in hand.Poverty drives people to farm marginal lands intensively, to seek fuelwood
relentlessly, and to follow other agricultural practices that produce food at the potential sacrifice of
future production. Poverty reinforces population growth, which is a major cause of deforestation,
overgrazing, and farming on steep slopes,drylands,and flood plains.
Institutional causes of natural resource degradation. A major cause of environmental
degradation is institutional failure, both private and public.Institutions are rules of behavior that
affect private incentives. Existing social structures and local customs may not be adequate to
preserve the environment as population growth and economic development proceed.
Poverty, high rates of return to capital,

debt problems, rapid population growth, and

misguided public policies conspire against solutions. Environmental problems are interrelated,and
understanding their causes requires sorting out complex physical,economic,and institutional
linkages. Technical solutions are needed for each of these problems, but economic and institutional

46
changes must provide the incentives for behavioral change. As incomes grow, populatio pressures
are reduced, and the demand for environmental protection increases. Economic development means
more resources in the long run for addressing environmental problems.Changes in taxes,subsidies,
regulations, and other policies can influence local incentives for conservation. Balancing benefits
with costs, obtaining local input in the decision making process, and compensating losers are
needed for effective solutions to local and global environmental problems. Because transactions
costs must be reduced for natural resource conservation to occur, information flows must be
improved and human capital must be developed. Education also becomes vitally important. Thus ,
focusing on communications infrastructure and human-capital development are two of the keys to
environmental improvement.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
policy

= (1) a plan of action; (2) a statement of aims;(3) a document which contains a

contract of insurance

to evolve

= to develop gradually and naturally

incentive

= incitement (to action,to do ) provocation, motive, payment or concession to

stimulate greater output by workers

output

= (1) what is made, production; (2) information from a computer

infrastructure

= all the systems which support a countrys industry and economy, e.g. road,rail,
post and airway systems, factory, hospital,housing and education systems; radio,
television and telephone systems; water,gas and electric systems

sustainable development = development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

47

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Are the poorest countries the most vulnerable to environmental degradation? Why,
or why not?

Translate into Romanian:

The only way to understand our new role as a co-arhitect of nature is to see ourselves as part
of a complex system that does not operate according to the same simple rules of cause and effect we
are used to. The problem is not our effect on the environment so much as our relationship with the
environment. As a result, any solution to the problem will require a careful assessment of that
relationship as well as the complex interrelationship among factors within civilization and between
them and the major natural components of the earths ecological system.
(Adapted fromEarth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit by Al Gore 1992,
page 34)

MODULE 7

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT
The historical progression of agricultural development can be broadly broken into four
distinct periods. From the time they first appeared on earth until the invention of settled
agriculture, roughly 10,000 years B.C., human beings hunted and gathered their food.A
combination of climatological changes and over predation of large game following the end of the

48
last Ice Age created conditions for settled agriculture. People, first in the Middle East, began
collecting grains of wild plant-precursors of modern barley, wheat, and rye and planting them. This
collection and planting of grains marked the end of agricultures first period.
Agricultures second period began with the invention of settled agriculture and proceeded
through the founding and evolution of traditional means of crop and animal production, many of
which exist today. These systems evolved responding to the population pressures and resource
bases and to the relative scarcity of different factors of production. The wide variety of agricultural
systems found around the developing world is testimony to the resourcefulness with which
traditional farmers adapt to pressures they face.
The third period of agricultural development, propelled by scientific knowledge and
industrial growth, began in the middle of the nineteenth century. This period was marked by the
mechanization of agriculture, the development of more efficient crop varieties and animal strains,
the application of science to develop chemical fertilizers and pest controls, and the creation of
industry and infrastructure to integrate agriculture into the modern economy. The expansion of
agricultural output has largely been a product of more intensive production on existing land.
The creation and maturing of institutions government policies, legal structures, marketing
structures, etc. help define the fourth period of agricultural development.Development efforts
focus on improving the institutional environment to promote agricultural growth. Education and the
creation of marketing infrastructure, as well as policy reforms to create incentives for farmers, are
all part of this institutional revolution. Responsive institutions to generate, disseminate, and promote
technologies are a critical part of this fourth period.

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Put the regular and irregular verbs in italics in the

translate the text into ROMANIAN:

SIMPLE PAST and then

49
AMERICAN FARM LIFE IN THE PAST
In the past farmers (work)_______ hard through the year.
In the spring they (sow)_________ the seeds to grow the crops.
In the summer they (mow)_______ the grassy areas around their farms.
In the fall they (harvest)_______ the crops and (go)______ to county fairs.
At the county fairs the farmers (show) _______their prized animals and (talk)______about crops.
In the winter the men (repair)______ their farm equipment.
Although they (work)______ hard, farmers (love)_______ life on the farm.

TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE
The world food-income-population problem is serious, and the solution to this problem
depends in part on agricultural development.Before we discuss means for fostering agricultural
development, we need to be aware of current condition in agriculture in developing countries.
Without this awareness, it is impossible to understand the types of chances needed to promote the
development in agriculture, and how these changes will affect the people involved in.
The term traditional agriculture conveys part of its own meaning. The word traditional
means to do things the way they have usually been done.Because natural resources, culture,
history and other factors vary from place to place, the way things have usually been done also
differs greatly from one location to another.And, because conditions change, no type of farming
system, no matter how traditional, is ever completely stable.Nevertheless,farms in traditional
agriculturel systems do have several common characteristics.
Traditional agriculture is generally characterized by small peasant farms in which farming
and family decisions are intermixed.Traditional farm families consume, sell, or trade most of their
products locally.Their labor use and land area per farm are small, but labor input per hectare is
high.These product and labor sales and purchases mean that farmers are, in general, closely linked
to the local economy and respond to market signals.Productivity and use of purchased inputs are
low but efficiency is high.
Although family labor is important, traditional farms may hire some labor as well, at least
during the busy times of the year. Low wages caused by high underemployment in peasant

50
agriculture create incentives to hire laborers. That is, traditional farmers can hire labor or buy a
small amount of leisure and enhance their social status at relatively low costs.Therefore the people
with the lowest economic and social status are not the owners of small traditional farms, but the
landless workers hired by those farmers.
Livestock play many roles, including extending the food supply;providing a buffer against
poor harvest; improving the quality of the diet;generating fertilizer, fuel, hides, and hair.They also
provide power and transport and meet social and cultural needs.
Traditional farms differ by region, and as farms change some people, particularly the
landless, may be left behind unless new technologies are accompanied by improved institutions and
education.
Traditional farms are efficient but poor. As population continues to grow, poverty
increases. Agriculture must change if the situation is to improve. But change brings the danger of
increasing income disparities. The distribution of income generated through new plant varies and
power tillers will be affected by asset distribution patterns and institutions which govern the rules of
behavior in society.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
asset = something that is owned by a person or a company, such as mony, a building
incentive = something offered to encourage greater effort
buffer stock = reserve of commodity to offset price fluctuations
disparity = inequality, difference

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian:
Livestock play many vitally important roles in traditional farming system.In most traditional
farming systems, livestock consume little grain, and meat production is often one of the least
important roles of livestock.

51
Farm animals provide a special protection to farm families, acting as a buffer between the
family and a precarious food supply. Animals are like a savings bank.Farmers can invest surpluses
in them, they grow, and they can be consumed or sold during crop failures.
In most of the traditional agriculture, livestock do not directly compete with crops because
they eat crop residues, feed off steep slopes and poor soils, and generally consume materials which
extend the food supply.Many types of animals are ruminants (e.g. cattle, goats, sheep, buffalo) that
eat grass and other forages that humans cannot and can then convert the forages to products for
human consumption.
Of course livestock make an important contribution to extending the quality of the diet as
well, by providing meat,milk, and eggs. Small amounts of these high-protein foods can have a
significant impact on human health.
Animal manure is vitally important as a source of both fertilizer and fuel in several
countries. For example, in the remote hills of Nepal, it is difficult to obtain chemical fertilizer.
Animal manure adds both fertility and organic matter to the soil. In countries where wood is a
scarce, animal dung is dried and burned for fuel. In many countries, these two uses of animal
manure compete.Dung that is burned cannot be used to increase soil fertility.
Few livestock products are wasted in traditional society. Clothing and blankets are made
from animal hides and hair of not only cattle and sheep, but buffalo, goats, and other livestock.
In many countries, livestock are the principal source of power. They plow the fields,
transport products to market, and carry out processing tasks like grinding sugarcane.Tractors are a
recent phenomenon in the world. The large investments needed to purchase tractors make them
prohibitively expensive for traditional farmers.And, on the steep slopes and rough terrain in parts of
some developing countries, it will be many years, if ever, before mechanical power replaces animal
power.
Livestock, particularly cattle and goats, are highly valued in some societies for social and
cultural reasons.A familys social status may be measured by the number of animals it owns. Cattle
are given as gifts during ceremonial occasions. While livestock serve major economic functions,
they also serve these other social and cultural functions as well. Of course, it is possible that the
social and cultural values placed on livestock have evolved over the years because of their
importance as capital and income-earning assets.

52

Answer the following questions:

1.Why are livestock important in many traditional farming systems ?
2.Why is hired labor often important in traditional agriculture ?

MODULE 8

MODERNIST PERSPECTIVES
ON AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Modern agriculture begins on the research station, where researchers have access to all
necessary inputs of fertilizers, pesticides and labour at all the appropriate times. But when the
package is extended to farmers, even the best performing farms cannot match the yields the
researchers get.For high productivity per hectare, farmers need access to the whole package: seeds,
water, labour, capital or credit, fertilizers and pesticides. Many poorer farming households simply
cannot adopt the whole package.If one element is missing, the seed delivery system fails or the
fertilizer arrives too late, or there is insufficient irrigation water, then yields may not be much better
than those for traditional varieties.Even if farmers want to use external resources, very often
delivery systems are unable to supply them on time.
Where production has been improved through these modern technologies, all too often there
have been adverse environmental and social impacts. Many environmental problems have increased
dramatically in recent years.These include:

contamination of water by pesticides, nitrates, soil and livestock wastes,causing harm

to wildlife, disruption of ecosystems and possible health problems in drinking water;

53

contamination of food and fodder by residues of pesticides, nitrates and antibiotics;

damage to farm and natural resources by pesticides, causing harm to farmworkers and
public, disruption of ecosystems and harm to wildlife;

contamination of the atmosphere by ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane and products of

burning, which play a role in ozone depletion, global warming and atmospheric pollution;

overuse of natural resources, causing depletion of groundwater, and loss of wild foods and
habitats, and of their capacity to absorb wastes, causing waterlogging and increased salinity;

the tendency in agriculture to standardize and specialize by focusing on modern varieties,

causing the displacement of traditional varieties and breeds;

new health hazards for workers in the agrochemical and food-processing industries;
Agricultural modernization has also helped to transform many rural communities, both in

the Third World and industrialized countries.The process has had many impacts. These include the
loss of jobs, the further disadvantaging of women economically if they do not have access to the use
and benefits of the new technology, the increasing specialization of livelihoods, the growing gap
between the well-off and the poor, and the cooption of village institutions by the state.
Despite these problems, many scientists and policy makers still argue vigorously that
modern agriculture, characterized by externally developed packages of technologies that rely on
externally produced inputs, is the best, and so only , path for agricultural development.Influential
international institutions, such as the World Bank, the FAO and some institutions of the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural research, have long suggested that the most certain
way to feed the world is by continuing the modernization of agriculture through the increased use of
modern varieties of crops and breeds of livestock, fertilizers, pesticides and machinery.Remarkably,
these international institutions often appear unaware of what can be achieved by a more sustainable
agriculture.The modernist perspectives are not the only ones that are value-laden.Those who
promote an alternative or sustainable agriculture are equally value-laden.
There are many terms that are used to describe alternatives to modern agriculture.These
include sustainable, alternative, regenerative, low external input, low input sustainable agriculture,
agro-ecological, organic, biodynamic and permaculture.These are often presented in opposition to
modernized agriculture, which is described by terms such as conventional, resource-degrading,
industrialized, intensive or high external input.

54
EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
Point out the differences between traditional and modern agriculture.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE---AN ALTERNATIVE TO

MODERN AGRICULTURE
During the past 50 years, agricultural development policies have been remarkably successful
at emphasizing external inputs as the means to increase food production. This has produced
remarkably growth in global consumption of pesticides, inorganic fertilizer, animal feedstuffs, and
tractors and other machinery.
These external inputs have, however, substituted for natural control processes and resources,
rendering them more vulnerable. Pesticides have replaced biological, cultural and mechanical
methods for controlling pests, weeds and diseases; inorganic fertilizers have substituted for
livestock manures, composts and nitrogen-fixing crops; information for management decisions
comes from input suppliers, researchers and ext ensionists rather than from local sources.What were
once valued internal resources have often now become waste products.
The basic challenge for sustainable agriculture is to make better use of these internal
resources.This can be done by minimizing the external inputs used, by regenerating internal
resources more effectively or by combinations of both.
A sustainable agriculture, therefore, is any system of food or fibre production that
systematically pursues the following goals:

a more thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen

fixation and pest-predator relationships into agricultural production processes;

a reduction in the use of those off-farm, external and non-renewable inputs with the greatest
potential to damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers, and a
more targeted use of the remaining inputs used with a view to minimizing variable costs;

55

a more equitable access to productive resources and opportunities, and progress towards
more socially-just forms of agriculture ;

a greater productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;

a greater productive use of local knowledge and practices, including innovative approaches
not yet fully understood by scientists or widely adopted by farmers;

an increase in self-reliance among farmers and rural people;

profitable and efficient production with an emphasis on integrated farm management, and
the conservation of soil, water, energy and biological resources.
When these components come together, farming becomes integrated, with resources used

more efficiently and effectively.Sustainable agriculture, therefore, strives for the integrated use of a
wide range of pest, nutrient, soil and water management technologies.Sustainable agriculture aims
for an increased diversity of enterprises within farms, combined with increased linkages and flows
between them.By-products or wastes from one component or enterprise become inputs to
another.As natural processes increasingly substitute for external inputs, so the impact on the
environment is reduced.
Sustainable agriculture does not imply a rejection of conventional practices, but an
incorporation of recent innovations that may originate with scientists, farmers or both.It is common
for sustainable agriculture farmers to use recently developed equipment and technology, complex
rotation patterns, the latest innovations in reduced input strategies, new technologies for animal
feeding and housing, and detailed ecological knowledge for pest and predator management.
Sustainable agriculture represents economically and environmentally viable options for all
types of farmers, regardless of their farm location, and their skills, knowledge and personal
motivation.
Sustainable agriculture needs more than new technologies and practices. It needs
agricultural professionals willing and able to learn from farmers; it needs supportive external
institutions; it needs local groups and institutions capable of managing resources effectively;and
above all it needs agricultural policies that support these features.
For the transition to a more sustainable agriculture to occur, governments must facilitate the
process with an appropriate range and mix of policy instruments and measures. They could
decentralize administrations to reach down to local people.They could reform land tenure to
individuals and give communities the right to manage their local resources. They could encourage
new institutional frameworks that would be more sensitive to the needs of local people.

56
Governments wishing to support the spread of sustainable agriculture can either offer
incentives to encourage resource conservation, and/or penalize those polluting the environment.A
more sustainable agriculture can only be achieved by integrated action at farm, community and
national levels.For it to succeed, this will require the integration of policies too.
Despite the vision of a sustainable agriculture, in which farmers, rural communities,
environments and national economies could all benefit, there are still many obstacles, threats and
uncertainties. Many existing power structures will be threatened by change and it may not be
possible for all to benefit in the short term. In addition, there are always winners and losers.The
greatest challenge will be to ensure that the biases of the current development paradigm are not
repeated, with the poorest and disadvantaged once again marginalized by improvements. The
threats occur from international to local levels.
At international level, markets and trade policies have been tending to depress commodity
prices, so reducing returns to farmers and economies.Agrochemical companies will be seeking to
protect their markets against alternatives that imply reduced use of their products.
At national level, macro and micro-economic policies that still hinder the development of a
more sustainable agriculture have to be targeted and changed.In some cases, this will be politically
very difficult, particularly when it comes to implementing promised land reforms, which would give
farmers the security to invest in sustainable practices.
The bureaucratic nature of large institutions is a further threat. They face difficulties in
trying to work in a way that empowers local communities, as this implies giving up some power.
Finally, farmers themselves face transition costs in the process of adopting sustainable
agriculture practices and technologies, and aquiring new management and learning skills.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
land tenure = the rights and patterns of control over land
sustainable development = development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
technology = the method for producing something; new technologies are often imbedded in
inputs, for example seeds or machines; hence higher yielding seeds or more efficient
machines are often referred to as improved technologies;technological progress
occurs when more output is obtained from the same quantity of inputs

57
World Bank = the major multilateral-funded organization that makes loans to developing countries
FAO= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
In no more than 30 lines comment on the advantages and disadvantages of modern
agriculture v.s.sustainable agriculture.

THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Agricultural research generates new and improved technologies and institutions that increase
agricultural productivity, moderate food prices, generate foreign exchange, and reduce pressures on
the natural resource base.Agricultural research can have distributional effects by farm size and
tenure, by region, by income level, by factor of production and so forth. Consumers, particularly
low-income consumers, are major beneficiaries of agricultural research, as the poor may spend 80
percent of any income increases on food and food prices tend to fall as productivity
increases.Agricultural research can influence nutrition by raising farm incomes, lowering food
prices, and reducing the variability in food production.Agricultural research can generate
technologies, institutional changes, and higher incomes that lead to reduced pressures on the
environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESEARCH.The concern over environmental
degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, pesticide pollution, etc., have become
serious problems in many countries, and research can play a significant role in their solution.
First, new technologies for mitigating soil erosiom, providing alternative energy sources,
and substituting for chemical pesticides can be generated through research.
Second, research can be used to design improved government policies that provide increased
incentives to adopt management practices and help sustain the integrity of the natural resource base.

58
Third, the higher incomes generated through research-induced productivity increases will
put downward pressure on population growth in the long run.
Fourth, higher income streams will also reduce the pressures to abuse the environment in the
short run just to obtain food and fuel.
Finally, income growth will create more demand for environmental quality.Thus agricultural
research is critically important for encouraging environmentally sound and sustainable agricultural
growth.
CATEGORIES OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH.Agricultural research can be
categorized into basic research, applied research, adaptive research and testing.
Basic research develops knowledge with little or no specific use in mind. Studies of
evolution, genetics, biochemical processes, etc., may discover fundamental principles of substantial
significance to more applied researchers, but the specific end use of the research results are often
difficult to identify prior to the research.Most basic research is carried out in developed countries or
in the largest of the developing countries.
Applied agricultural research is aimed at solving particular biological, chemical, physical,
or social science problems affecting one or more countries or areas in a state or region.
Development of new plant varieties, methods for controlling specific insects and diseases in plants
and animals, and animal nutrition research are examples of applied research.Applied research may
take place at international research centers or in national research systems.
Adaptive research takes the results of applied research and modifies or adapts them to local
conditions within a country or region.A plant variety developed for a broad area may need to be
modified for a specific microclimate. Fertilizer recommendations, methods for controlling soil
erosion, and many other technologies require adaptation to the local setting. Most of this research
takes place on local experiment stations or on farms.
Much applied and adaptive agricultural research involves what has been called
biotechnology research. Traditional biotechnology research includes well-established techniques in
plant breeding, biological control of pests, conventional animal vaccine development, and many
other types of research. Modern biotechnology research includes use of recombinant DNA,
monoclonal antibodies, and novel bioprocessing techniques.
Testing research is conducted on local experiment station or on farm to assess whether
research results from other locations are suitable for solving local problems.Improved pesticides,
management practices, or plant varieties are examples of research results thar may be tested.All
countries conduct some testing research; much testing is conducted by farmers themselves.

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These categories of research are linked and dependent on each other. A research center may
be involved in several categories. The expanding linkages among research institutions in developed
countries, international agricultural research centers, and national research systems in developing
countries has increased the efficiency of agricultural research in all categories.
Research is conducted on national and local experiment stations and to be effective, must
contain an on-farm component.Farming systems research has been developed to treat the farm in a
holistic manner and strengthen on-farm interactions in the research system.Since 1960, a system of
International Agricultural Research Centers has provided new technologies, and institutional
changes suitable to several developing countries.Research can be transferred across national
borders, but the ease of transfer depends on the type of research, the relative cost of transfer and
indigenous research, the natural resource base, and other factors.Agricultural development today
requires a research system with internal and external linkages that bring in appropriate technologies;
screen,adapt, and produce new technologies and institutions;and perform both on-station and onfarm testing.National and local experiment stations must interact with on-farm research and
extension. This national research system also must maintain ties with the international research
centers.If any of these linkages is weak or missing, agricultural productivity growth will be slowed.
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION.The development and utilization of new technologies and
institutions are critically dependent on an educated workforce.Education may help motivate farmers
toward change, teach farmers improved decision-making methods, and provide farmers with
technical and practical information. In adult education, often called extension education in
agriculture, farmers are the primary clientele and the programs are mostly oriented toward
production problems facing farmers. Extension accelerates the dissemination of research results to
farmers and ,in some cases helps transmit farmersproblems back to researchers.Extension workers
provide training for farmers on a variety of subjects and must have technical competence, economic
competence, farming competence, and communication skills.

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EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
Answer the following questions:
1. How might agricultural research help improve the environment?
2. What is the purpose of education for the farmers?
3. How might research, education and extension be complementary activities?

Explain the significance of the follwing remark:

The man who farms as his forefathers did cannot produce much food no matter how

rich the land or how hard he works.

( Schultz W.Th. Transforming Traditional Agriculture Chicago Press,1964,p.3 )

MODULE 9

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic agriculture aims to be in harmony rather in conflict with natural systems. This idea
pervades all aspects of a farm, from how pests and diseases are controlled, through the treatment of
livestock and the integration of the farm with the natural environment, to marketing, labour
relations and health. The powers of nature are harnessed and developed to their fullest extent, rather
than dominated.

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Organic agriculture adopts an approach that minimizes the use of non-renewable forms of
energy. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are either synthesized from oil or require large amounts
of oil to extract and process them. It seems extraordinary that food production, the only method we
have of actually producing energy, or rather of tapping the suns abundant energy, has itself
developed into a prodigious net user of energy. It is even more extraordinary that one suggested
solution to the overproduction problem is to produce crops that can be turned into energy such as
ethanol.
The organic world strives to be localized. Local markets, decentralized systems of
distribution and processing are sought.
Organic agriculture does not use artificial fertilizers or chemical pesticides; it is not
however, a low-input system.
Organic agriculture does not pollute the environment. Residual poisons that stay in
circulation to the detriment of other living things, including mankind, are not used.The waste
products of conventional agriculture, that are so much of a problem in the current farming world,
are not wastes to organic agriculture. Rather, they are the foundation upon which sound agriculture
practices are based, for the return to the soil that which has been taken out.
BIOLOGICAL CYCLE. Another corner-stone of organic farming is the careful use of all
waste products. This means returning back to the soil all manures and plant residues produced on
the farm in the best form possible, that is, with minimum loss and maximum stability of nutrients.
On organic farms the waste products are the means by which the soil is fed. They allow
completion of the biological cycle.The food chain which culminates with humans, passing through
soil microbes, plants and animals on the way, provides a direct link from the soil to ourselves.It
does not stop here, however: it continues {or should do} from animals and man back to the soil
microbes, to complete the cycle and to maintain and build fertility. This is a very important aspect
of organic agriculture it must be regarded as a whole system.All parts of the farm are linked in the
biological cycle. What is done to one part affects all the rest in the end. No part can be treated in
isolation.
PLANT AND ANIMAL HEALTH. Pests and diseases are all parts of this
interconnectedness. They are often the result of something wrong in the organic system, and are not
merely a symptom of an immediately obvious problem.A specific problem must be attended to
without harming the rest of the system, but then comes the important part an organic farmer will
ask what the problem reveals about the rest of the system, why it has arisen and what can be done to
prevent it from happening again.He recognizes that such a problem is really a symptom of an

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underlying cause and it is that cause which he must find and tackle in the long run, using all his skill
and knowledge.Generally speaking organic farms are not bedeviled with pests and diseases. This is
one of the hardest things for conventional farmers to grasp, for they are always worried about being
without their armoury of pesticides. Basically they are not needed on an organic farm.Some
naturally occurring pesticides can be used if necessary, along with biological control techniques, as
they do not harm the rest of the system. These are usually sufficient.
BALANCE. Another important aspect of organic agriculture is that of balance. This is one
reason why pests and diseases are not a significant problem in organic systems. In the natural
environment all organisms are kept in check by constraints around them. Predators and parasites,
food supply and competition all maintain a dynamic balance.Only when things get out of balance
do populations explode, or die out.Similarly, pests and diseases have their own predators and
parasites to control them. Unfortunately pesticides usually knock out the predators far more than
they do their targets, besides disrupting the rest of the system that we have been trying to build up.
Let us sum up some of the basic characteristics of organic systems:

the enhancement of biological cycles, involving micro-organisms, soil fauna, plants and
animals;

sustainable crop rotations

the extensive and rational use of manure and vegetable wastes;

the use of appropriate cultivation techniques

the avoidance of fertilizers in the form of soluble mineral salts

the prohibition of agro-chemical pesticides

the use of animal husbandry techniques which meet the animals physiological, behavioural
and health needs.

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Discuss the implications that the characteristics of organic farming systems

have for agricultural development.

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ORGANIC LIVESTOCK HUSBANDRY

Common sense, humanity and good husbandry should be regarded as the base line from
which organic livestock production starts.
The ideal organic farm should maintain an equilibrium between livestock and crops.
However, on smaller farms economic pressure will tend to tip that balance in the direction of crops,
as these are likely to be more profitable. This is made easier if there is access to outside sources of
manure to provide the nutrient cycling and fertility that a farms own livestock would otherwise
contribute.Nevertheless, livestock on a farm do complement the arable side and make the smooth
running of the whole that much easier and more complete.
Livestock demand greater and more constant care and attention than the crops if they are to
give of their best, and therefore it is the responsibility of all farmers who keep livestock, and
particularly of organic farmers, to provide them with that.
The conditions under which livestock are kept should be suited to their physiological and
ethological needs.This means that housing should allow free movement and have maximum amount
of fresh air and daylight, bedding should be adequate, and there should be regular access to pasture
in fair weather.No stock should be permanently housed;de-beaking, de-tailing, hormone implants or
injections are all prohibited.Synthetic ingredients, growth promoters, in-feed medications or animal
by-products are not permitted. Seaweed powder, rock salt and natural sources of vitamins, such as
cod-liver oil and yeast, are the preferred supplements in the event that any are needed.
Perhaps the most difficult area of organic livestock production is in the treatment of disease.
Livestock tend to be more susceptible to disease than the crops, mainly because they can be abused
more, by an inadequately designed rotation, poor housing, overstocking and by being pushed too
far. Intensive livestock production covers up such potential problems by recourse to the vet and the
often routine use of anthelmintics, antibiotics and a host of other drugs. All these things should be
used only in cases of emergency on the organic farm.
As with crop production, the organic approach to animal husbandry requires a greater
understanding of the situation in order to proceed and succeed. This is also true of the two forms of
medicine that are recommended for use: homoeopathy and herbal medicine.In common with all
alternative medicines they regard and treat the organisms as a whole.In the right hands with
correct and early diagnosis they are safe, cheap, and very effective.
Food. The ruminant stomach is designed to eat grass and digest fibre. The more you fill it
with concentrates, grain and high-protein feeds, the further from its natural diet you are taking it,

64
and hence the more problems you are likely to encounter.This is most clearly demonstrated with
dairy cows, as these are probably pushed the hardest and for longer than all other ruminants. The
rumen bacteria are altered and this lowers rumen pH and produces damaging metabolites which can
escape through the rumen epithelium. Several seemingly unconnected areas of the body are then
affected. The already stressed liver becomes more damaged and over-fat, impairing fertility. White
blood cells that are part of the bodys defence systems, are prevented from working both by acidosis
and by free fatty acids in the blood; this lowers resistance to infectious diseases including
mastitis.Histamine and lactic acid reach the feet and cause the foot diseases that are so common
now.It is not surprising that the average life expectancy of a dairy cow in a herd is now less than
four lactations, whereas in organic herds it is at least double that.
So the first principle of feeding ruminants is to feed them with a maximum amount of
fibrous foods, only topping up with concentrates where needed.
The situation with non-ruminants is totally different. Fibrous food for them is more a luxury
than a basic dietary component. It is beneficial for the complete diet, not only for its nutritional
contribution but also as an aid to healthy digestion, rather like roughage for humans. What is
equally important is the exercise and fresh air that the animals enjoy by foraging outside.
Pasture. The quality of permanent pasture depends entirely on management.Make sure that
the grass does not get overgrazed in summer by overstocking, nor poached in winter by having
stock on too long or too late. Ensure that nutrient levels, particularly phosphorus, are sufficient, and
pH is about 6.5.Spread any manure or organic fertilizer in the early spring to avoid deterring the
clover. Alternate cutting and grazing, and have a regular system of topping.
Fodder crops. Fodder crops for use in the winter and early spring are very beneficial to all
animals, giving them something fresh at this inhospitable time of the year.The green crops, such as
kale and other brassicae, and some cereals, generally have reasonably high protein contents and are
good sources of -carotene, both desirable in the winter. The succulent crops, fodder beet and other
roots are good carbohydrate sources and generally have mild laxative properties that complement
the rather dry winter diets.

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EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST
In no more than 2o lines comment on the advantages and disadvantages of organic
livestock husbandry.Base your decisions on the information provided in the text above and on
your own ideas.

WRITING TASKS
TEME DE CONTROL

REFERAT NR. 1

( modulele 1 4 )

Rezolvai testele de la urmtoarele pagini: p.6,p.10,pp.13-14,pp.17-18,p.20,pp.22-23,pp.2627,pp.29-30,p.33

REFERAT NR. 2

( modulele 5 9 )

Rezolvai testele de la urmtoarele pagini: p.36, pp.38-39, p.43, p.44, p.47, pp.48-49, pp.50-52,
p.54, p.57, p.60, p.62, p.65

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CALLUT JEAN PAUL, Business Vocabulary Based on English for Managers (a
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DAVID FRANCIS

, Family Agriculture (Tradition and Transformation), Earthscan

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LEVICHI LEON, Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiinific, Bucureti, 1967
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DICIONARE

Dicionar englez romn, Ed. Acad. Romn, 1974

Dicionar romn englez, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1973
Dicionar agricol n opt limbi, Praga, 1970
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1964
Collins Business English Dictionary, London 1989`