Bata Cir Design anc i Testing «: Electrical moRs. 425.00 DESIGN AND TESTING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES MV. Deshpande © 2010 by PHI Leaming Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-3645-2 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Dethi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana 124507,Contents Preface co coe 1. Principles of Design of Electrical Apparatus ..... L1 Principles of Design 12 Basic Prineiples of Electrical Machines 2 L3 Types of Electrical Machines and Their Character LS1 Basic Characteristics of Electrical Machines 4 14 Specifications 4 15 Rating and Dimen LS. Spx sof Electrical Machines 5 ‘lie Magnetic Loading 6 1 Specific Electric Loading 6 1.5.3 Output Coefficient 7 1.54 — Qutput and Output Coefficient of DC Machines 7 L6 Heating and Cooling of Machines and Apparatus HW 1.6.1 Heat Dissipation due to Radiation — [7 162 Air Cooling 12 1.6.3 Liquid Cooling Medium = 13 1.6.4 Heat Dissipation by Conduction 13 LT Temperature Rise Due to Thermal Action i 17.1 Cooling of Machines I References. 17 Magnetic, Electric and Insulating Materials Magnetic Mate 18 Characteristics of Magnetic Materials 20 v 21 22vi Contents o ng of Magnetic Materials. 25 1 Separation of Iron Lass inte Hysteresis Loss and. Eddy Current Loss 27 Electrical Conducting Materials and Their Characteristics 29 Insulating Materials; Classification 33 Insulation Requirements 34 Major Insulation Materials and Their Use in Electrical Machines 4 Characteristics of Tnsulat Materials 36 28.1 Characteristics of Electrical Tapes 37 Use of Class F and Class H Insulations in the Desi Electric Motors 40 291 — Relative Study for Using Insulati of of Higher Class 41 References 42 Construction of Electrical Machines al a4 Classification of Electrical Mach Constructional Features 43 3.1.1 Mechanical Construction Features of Electrical Machines 43 3.1.2 Main Constructional Parts of an Electrical Machine 44 Construction of Stators of AC Machines 44 Construction of Rotors of AC Machines 46 3.3.1 Wottmd Rotor Induction Motors 46 3.3.2 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors 47 3 Rotors of Synchronous Machines 47 DC Machines: Frames 49 341 Poles 49 342 Armature 50 Construction of Commutators and Slip Rings 51 Brushes and Brush Holders Classification of Electrical M Construction Features 5: 3.7.1 Classification of Machines by the Method of Protection 54 Methods of Ventilation and Cooling 55 Transformer Construction 56 3.9.1 Core Construction 57 39.2 Coils 58 3.9.3 Methods of Transformer Cooling 58 nes by References 50 Design of Magnetic Circuits: Field System . 41 60-94 Calculation of Magnetic Circuits 60 4.1.1 Permissible Flux Densities 600 4.1.2 Parts in the Magnetic Circuit of a Machine 67Contents vil 42 Magnetizing Currem 74 4.2.1 Magnetizing Current of Transformers 74 4.2.2 Magnetizing Current of Induction Motors 76 43 Flux Leakage 80 43.1 Leakage of Salient Poles 80 43.2 Leakage of Non-salient Poles 87 44 Leakage in Armature 8/ 44.1 Reactance per Phase 85 44.2 Phase Reactance of an Indu Phase Reavtance of a Sym 45 380 46 ircuit Characteristics 9F 4.7 — Field System 92 References 94 n Motor 85 ronous Machine 85 Design of Electrical Circuits: Armature Windings.....4.. 5.1 Armature Coils, Construction and Insulation 95 Types of Windings for AC and DC Machines 96 5 Integral Slot Windings = 97 5.4 Fractional Sto Winding 99 5.5 Choice of Armature Winding #03 5.6 Single-Layer Winding 103 5.7 Lap Winding [04 58 Wave Winding 107 5.9 Use of Lap and Wave Windings 109 References 1I2 113-160 Design of Transformers. 6.1 Typesof Transformers 113 62 Specifications — Hd 63 Gutput WS 631 Spe 64 Design of Tra fing and Specific E ric Loading 16 6s nofCore LF 66 of Frame 11S 67 nof Windings 119 68 — Resistance of Transformer Windi J20 69 — Reactance of Transformer 12 6.10 Magnetizing Current 122 611 Equivalent Cireuit 122 6.12 Design of Tank 123 6.13 Procedure for the Design of Transformers 123 6.14 Design of Distribution Transformers 125villi Contents 6.15 Design Considerations for Aluminium Winding Transfi 146 6.16 Modification in Design 147 6.17 Design of a Power Transformer 148 6.18 Clearance between Parts in Transformers at Different Voltage Levels 59 8. 6.181 Surfaces for Cooling 159 References 159 Zl ‘Testing of Transformers 161-187 Tests on Transformers 161 TLL Type Tests on Transformers 161 12 13 14 1S 16 WW 18. 19 1.10 2 212 713 Lid TAS 116 2A7 7.12 Routine Tests 761 713 Special Tests 162 Td Tolerances 162 Measurement of Winding Resistance 162 Test for Phasing out the Primary and Secondary of Wink Respect to Each Other 162 Polarity Test 163 Measurement of Voltage Ratio 46s Cheeking Vector Relationship 164 Measurement of No-Load Current and No-Load Loss 169 Short-Circuit Test 170 7.8.1 Determination of Regulation and Efficiency 172 ion Resistance 172 Tests 172 ‘Temperature Rise Tests 175 Methods of Loading Transformer for Heat Run Test 176 7121 Heating Time Curve 177 Transformers on Intermittent Loading 179 7.13.1 Ultimate Temperature Rise 180 Transformers Test Data Record 18] Overloading of Transformers 182 Increased Capacily of Transformer with Forced Air Cooling 183 Repair and Maintenance of Transformers 185 TATA Repairs of Transformers 186 References 187 Design of Three-Phase Induction MOtOrs sss 188-236 81 82 83 a4 8S 1 of Induction Motors: Basic Considerations 138 d Frames 188 Rating of Motors 139 831 Duly andRating — 189 Temperature Rise 189 Specifications 190Contents 1x 86 87 88 a9 8.10 gil 8.12 8.13 814 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 Output of a Three-phase Induction Motor — 190 8.6.1 The Relation between Dand [.for Best Power Factor [97 Design of Stator Core 192 Stator Winding — 193 Design of Rotor Core 193 8.9.1 Choice of Slot Combination of Stator and Rotor 193 Designing the Magnetic Circuit, 194 n of Stator and Rotor Windings 195 8.11.1 Design of Stator Winding 195 8.11.4 Design of Rowe Winding — 195 Performance of the Induction Motor from the Equivalent Circuit 195 Procedure for Designing a Squirrel Cage Induction Motor 95 8.13.1 Design of Slip Ring Type Induction Motors 197 Expected Performance of Induction Motors 198 Equivalent Cage Rotor 198 Limitations of Flux Densities in Induction Motor Parts 199 ies and the Insulation Used in los 199 gn of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors. 200 Designing a Slip Ring Induetion Motor 2/9 Resistance Start 23 To Adapt Windings to a Given Frame 232 8.211 Effect of a Change in the Number of Poles on the Same Frame 233 8.21.2 Effect of Reduction in Voltage 233 Moification of Design of Induction Motors 234 Electric Motors in Agriculture 235 References 236 ‘Testing of Three-Phase Induction Motors OL 92 93 o4 9s 9.6 OT 98. 99 9.10 237-251 General Tests 2, 9.1.1 Insulation Resistance Test 237 9.1.2 High Vollage Test 237 9.1.3 Resistance Measurement 238 No-Load Test 238 Ratio of Transformation Test 238 Locked Rotor Test. 239 SpeedTorque and Speed—Current Curves 239 Load Tests 240 Determination of Efficiency of Induction Motor 244 Determination of Losses without Output Measurement 243 Heat Run Test on Induction Motors 247 Induction Motor Test Data 248 References 251x Contents 10. il. Design and Testing of Single-Phase Induction Motors. 10.1 10.2 10.3 104 10.5 106. 10.7 108 109 10.10 1.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 252-285 Design Considerations and Specifications 252 Materials Used 253 Design of Core Diameter and Length 253 Choice of Air-Gap 253 ‘Choice of the Number of Stator Slots 254 Rotor Punchings 254 Design of Main Winding 254 Magnetic Circuits 255 Maximum or Pull-Out Torque 255 Reactance Calculations 256 Procedure for Designing a Split Phase Induction Motor and Capacitor Start Induction Run Motor 257 ASample Design 259 Performance Calculations 269 Design of Auxiliary Winding 272 Design Summary Sheet — 276 Molification of Design 278 ‘Testing of Single-phase induction motors 279 Initial Tests on Motors 279 10.18.1 Insulation Resistance Test 270 10.18.2 High Voltage Test 280 10.18.3 Resistance Measurements 28 Performance Characteristics 280 Determination of Motor Constants from Tests 282 10.20.1 The Approximate Method 282 10.20.2 Second Method 283 10.20.3 Third Method 284 References 284 Design of Synchronous Machines... ma 2 13 4 ILS 1.6 Wd 18 19 11.10 mat 12 secesseeesee 286—=312 Types of Prime Movers for Synchronous Generators 286 Construction of Machines (286 Alternator Specifications 287 Quiput of a Three-phase Synch: AirGap 287 Choice of Slots and Their Size 288, Stator Winding 288 us Generator 287 Design of Pole and Pole Shoe 28 Designing the Magnetic Cir 289 Reactance of Synchronous Machines 290 To Determine Excitation for any Loading Condition 291 Short-circuit Characteristics 207Contents xh 12. 13. 11.13 Saturation — 298 11.14 Design of the Field Winding 297 11.15 Heat Transfer Analysis and Temperature Rise 292 11,16 Excitation System 292 11.17 Damper Winding Design 293 11.18 Procedure for Designing a Synchronous Generator — 293 11.19 ASample Design 295 11.20 Modification in Alternator Design 317 11.21 Design of Synchronous Motors 371 References. 312 Testing of Synchronous Machines .........0.000 ssssssnsrerssssssssaronnree SIS—33Z 12.1 Measurement of Insulation Resistance of Windings 313 12.2 Measurement of Resistmce 323 12.3. Polatity Test for Field Poles 3/4 12.4 Tests for Short-cireuited Field Turns 3 12.5 High Voltage Tests 31d 12.6 Phase Sequenee Tests 4/5 12.7 Magnetization or Open-cireuit Characteristies 3/5 128 Shortcircuit Characteristics 716 129 jon and Windage Losses 317 12.10 Zero Power Factor Characteristics 317 12.11 Zero Power Factor Characteristics and Potier Reactance = 19 12.12. Determination of Regulation of an Alternator from the Zero Power Factor Curve 320 12.13 Determination of X, and Short-cireuit Ratio from Open-eire Short-eircuit Tests 323 12.14 Determination ‘VW? Curves 325 12.15. Exciter Tests 325 12.16 Losses and Efficiency of Alternator 326 12.17 Heat Run Tests on Synchronous Machines $27 12.17.1 Methods of Measuring Temperature Rise 329 12.18 Instantaneous Short-cireuit Withstand Test 329 12.19 Test Reports #29 12.20 Tests on Sile before Commissionis 1221 Maintenance 342 References 332 and 31 Design of DC Machines .......ccssssssssssesssssssssssesesssssssssssssensesssssssesesss SSS—3B7 13.1 Specifications 333 13.2 Qutput Equation 333 13.3 Main Dimensions of A DC Machi 13.3.1 AirGap 5 andxii Contents 14. 134 135 136, 13.7 13.8 139 13.10 1.1L 13.12 13.13 1.14 13.15 13.16 117 13.18 13.19 13.20 ‘Choice of the Number of Poles $35, Design of Pole 336 Design of Armature Core 336 Design of Armature Winding 337 Design of Magnetic Circuit 558 Design of Shunt Field Winding 335 Design of Series Field Winding 339 Design of Commutator 339 Design of Compote 34 Losses and Efficieney 343 Procedure for Designing de Machines 343 Design of ade Shunt Motor Starter 345 Design of Field Regulater 345 Thyristor Controlled de Motors 346 13.17. Speed Control of DC Motors 3465 ‘Closed Loop Control of Thyristor DC Motor 47, Advantages of Thyristor Control 348 Problems in Design and Operation of de Motors from Thyristor Converters. 349. Design Features of Thyristor Drive Motors 350 Sample Designs 354 Modification in DC Machine Design 386 References 387 Testing of DC Machines .... Ma 142 3 4 145 46 147 148 Wo 14.10 a1 14.12 ous 388-402 Standards for Testing DC Motors 388 141.1 NEMA Stundand MGI 388 14.1.2 IEEE Test Cole far DC Machines 389 Determination of the Neutral Axis 390 Nodload Saturation Curve 392 Commutation Tests 392 Load Test 394 Heat Run Test 396 14.6.1 Temperature Run Tests for Short Time 396 Separation of Iron and Friction Lasses 398 Determination of Efficiency from the Losses 398 ‘Overspeed Test 299 Test Records for DC Machines 399 Armature Faults in DC Machines 400° 14.111 Method of Testing Armature Faulis 400 14.112 Testing of an Earthed Armature Coil 400 Maintenance of DC Machine 40 References 40215. 16. Computer Aided Design of Rotating Electrical Machines 15.1 15.2 153 1584 15.5 15.6 15.7 158 159 15.10 Contents xiii 403-422 Introduction 403 Manual versus Computer Aided Design 404 Approach to Computer Aided Design 404 Design Synthesis 407 Special Requirements 407 Programs for Different Machines 408 ‘Computer-Aided Design in Industry 409 Mlustrative Des 410 Limitations in Computer Aided Designs 412 Last Word 413 References 422 Special Machines ..... 161 16.2 164 16.6 se 423-439 Introduction 423 Stepper Motors 424 16.2.1 Basic Principles af Operation 424 16.2.2 Advantages of Stepper Motors 425 16.2.3. Types of Stepper Motors 425 16.2.4 Operational Feat £26 16.2.5. Specifications af Stepping Motors 427 162.6 Applications of Stepper Motors 428 Rotating Phase Converters 428 16.3.1 Degiee of Unbalance 429 163.2 Analysis of Phase Converters 430 163.3. Application 437 Pole Amplitude Modulated (PAM) Motors 437 164.1 Principle of PAM Windings 432 16.4.2 Practical Implications of PAM Windings 433 164.3 Features of PAM Windings 433 164.4. Applications of PAM Motors 434 164.5 Ratings Aid Reluctance Motors 434 16.5.1 Principle of Operation 435 16.5.2, Constructional Features 436 16.5.3. Performance of Reluctance Motors 436 165.4 Applications 437 Energy Efficient Motors 437 16.6.1 Major Features of Energy-Et 16.6.2 Applications 438 ent Motors. 438 References 439xiv Contents 441- 454-463 db ATO wn 71480 Appendix A Transformers. Appendix B Three-phase Induction Motors Appendix C Single-phase Induction Motors Appendix D Synchronous Machines ... Appendix EDC Machines IndexPreface The main objective of this hook is to present the subject of ‘Design and Testing of Electrical Machines’ in one volume to these studying for an engineering degree and also w junior engineers entering the field of electrical design in industry. The first five chapters of the book deal with the principles of design of electrical machines. characteristics of magnetic, clectric and insulating materials used in electrics! machines, construction of electrical machines and design of magnetic and electric circuits. The design of transformers is explained in Chapter 6. The procedure for designing transformers is explained and sample designs of distribution transformers, including an aluminium winding transformer and a power transformer, are worked out in detail. Chapter 7 ves the methods of carrying out various (ests on transformers and keeping test records, The design of three-phase induction motors is dealt with in Chapter 8, Sample designs of squirrel cage induction motors with change in insulation from class A to elass E, using the same frame, are completely worked out and compared with each other. One design for a slip ring induction motor is also Worked oul. Chapter 9 explains the various types of tests to be carried out on induction motors. Chapter 10 deals with the principles of designing single-phase induction motors; it works out one complete design and gives the tests required to be performed on single- phase motors, Chapter 11 deals with the design of synchronous generators. A commonly used type of diesel-driven alternator is designed. Chapter 12 explains in detail the various tests to be ried ont on synchronous machines and the procedure for the preparation of test reports. The nv of BC motors controlled by thyristor convertors is explained in Chapter 13. Sample designs of twa DC motors are worked out in detail, Chapter 14 discusses the various tests to be carried out on DC mators. Chapter 15 describes the approach to the computer-aided design and compares it with the manual design procedure. It also diseusses the method of design synth 1d programs for different machines and illustrates the computer-aided designs of three-phase induction motor and altemator with flow charts and actual design data sheets of xvxvi Prefitor computer. Chapter 16 deseribes the basic theory and applications of stepper motors, rotating phase convertors, pole amplitude modulated (PAM) motors, reluctance motors and energy efficient motors The basic theory of transformers, three-phase induction motors, motors, synchronous machines and DC machines is dealt with in Appendices A to E to provide the background for design of the machines. Throughout the book, emphasis has been placed on the use of Indian Standards Specifications for the design and testing of electrical machines and apparatus. Detailed steps of design, sample designs, modifications of designs and their effects on the operational characteristics, testing methods and keeping test records are explained in a simple and logical way. Problems of fault finding and maintenance are also highlighted. Late Professor MV. Deshpande taught this subject 10 BE, students and postgraduate students for a number of years. In addition to his teaching and design experience, the author also kept in touch with industries engaged in designing and manufacturing of electrical machines. The author had very useful discussions with design engineers from various organisations, ‘Chapter 15 on “Computer Aided Design of Rotating Electrical Machines” and Chapter 16 on *Special Machines” were largely contributed by two highly experienced designers, Shri O.K. Kulkarni and Shri TR. Mukundan, respectively, both of Jyoti Lid, Baroda, The book is the updated version of its previous second edition published by A.H. Wheeler & Co, Lud, New Dethi, It is now republished as a new first edition, It is primarily aimed at undergraduate students of electrical engineering, both at degree and diploma levels. IL will also be useful to AMIE. students as well as to junior engineers in the industry entering the field of design and testing of electric: ‘The publisher is thankful to Dr. M.A, Joshi, daw painstakingly reading the proofs of this editi le-phase induetion nachines. of late Professor M.V. Deshpande, for Publisher\ 1 Principles of Design of Electrical Apparatus CHAPTER Nhe 1.1 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Building electrical equipment as economically as possible, to meet the performance expectations of the intended application, is of paramount importance to the facturers of electrical apparatus, The main factors to be considered in design of clectrieal apparatus are (a) The choice of magnctic, electric and insulating materials used in apparatus, We have te ability of each type of material, its characteristics, which must be consistent with the spy jons and the performance limitations expected, and th cost. (b) The magnetic circuits the ipparatus. (c} The electrical circuits or the windings in the apparatus. (@) The insulation used in the apparatus, (eh () 12 arrangements in the apparatus. itations will be imposed on the design by a number of factors, such as saturation of magnetic circuits, insulation, temperature rise limitations expected, efficiency and specifications prescribed. The art of design lies in suitable distribu the machine or the apparatus. Economy in manufacturing costs, operating the equipment should also be kept in view, One of the important criteria in good design is to get the minimum losses for a given total cost. If only the initial cost is considered and we try jon of space to fron, copper, insulation and sir in cl running costs of2 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines to minimize it, this could result in a machine which may turn out to be expensive with regard to its recurring operating and maintenance costs, Besides the losses may be more. If we try to mize the losses to get the maximum possible efficiency from the machine, it may urn aut to be still costlier. There has, therefore, to be a balance between the losses and the cost, and the should be to obtain minimum lasses (as per the required specifications} for a given total cost 1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES ‘An clectra-mechanical energy conversion device is a link between an electrical and a mechanical system. When the device acts as a generator, the mechanical system d y through the device to the electrical system, When the device acts a8 a motor, the electrical system delivers energy through the device t@ the mechanical system. The process is reversible, Only that part of the energy which is converted to heat is lost and is not recoverable. An electrical machine an be made (0 work either as a generator or as a motor, The electromechanical energy conversion depends on the interrelation between (i) magnetic and the electrical fields, and (ii) the mechanical force and the motion, The basic points to be considered in the rotating machines are the production of induced woltages in the windings and the production of force and torque. In rotating machines, voltages are induced in the 128 by rotating the windings mechanically in a magnetic field or by rotating the magm past the windings. By cither of these ewo methods the flux linkages with the windings are changed. and valtages are induced. Faraday's law states that voltage is induced in a coil proportional to the rate of change of Hux linking the coil, that is ivers en: ae dt aay where N= number of turns in the coil; “ rate of change of flux linking the coil it When the emf is considered duc to rotation af a coil in a magnetic field, ay be expressed 2) where J = flux density of magnetic field in Whim? 1 = length of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic fi v= velocity of the conductor in mis. Id in metres. When considering the production of force, torque and power, the fol hold good. Mechanical force is exerted on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field and is given by owing basic relations F= BIT newons 3) where J = flux density in Whim? T= current in amps ength of conductor perpendicular to magnetic field in metres.Principles af Design af Hlectrieal Apparatus If a conductor on a rotor with radius ¢ metres is considered, the torque produced by the current in the conductor is given T= PF x r= Ble newton-metres (lay This torque is electromagnetic torque, Power = Torque x Angular velocity of rotation per second (1) Tey, (sy The generator and the motor actions go hand in hand. Both of them have current carrying conductors in the magnetic fields; also the conductors and the flux are travelling with respect to each other al a definite speed. Hence, in a rotating machine, voltage duc to rotation and torque are produced. Only the direction af power flow will show whether the machine is working as a generator or as a motor, in @ generator armature (i) EMF E is juced just sufficient to overcome the drop of volts due to the resistance ‘of the winding and to supply the load at the required voltage. (ii) Electromagnetis is the counter torque apposing rotation. € lorque produced by the current carrying conductors in the armature in @ motor armature (i) Rotational emf or speed voltage is produced in opposition to the applied voltage is known as counter emf or back emf. (ii) Mechanical torque is produced as re Thus, red by the load driven by the motor. ciromechanical energy conservation is a reversible process. 41.3 TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ‘The main types of electrical machines are: (a) Synchronous machines, (b) Induction machines and (c) DC machines. (a) A synchronous snachine has the stator. TI coil winding on the rotor and a three-phase winding on rotor winding is supplied by ade surface. This coil winding on produces a field and with the rotation of the rotor, the field will move in space at speed of the rotor, Voltage will thus be induced in the stator three-phase winding. Th Magnitude of this induced voltage depends on the strength of the de field and. its frequency corresponds (© the speed of the rotor when it is driven as a generator. In the case of motor action, three-phase current is supplied to the stator winding. This prod id reacting with the de field produced hy the current in the rotor, makes the machine run as a motor at synchronous speed. In small machines, the construction may have a rolating armature and the field on stationary poles. (b) An induction machine has a polyphase winding on both the stator and the rotor. The three-phase winding on the stator produces a rotating magnetic fleld which is eut by the closed circuit of the rotor, thereby producing an induced voltage in the rotor cs a rotating field in the air gap. This rotating. fi4 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines winding due (o transformer action, This produces current in the rotor winding which reacts with the flux to produce tongue. The machine runs as an induction mator on induction principle. fe) Ade machine has a stationary coil winding wound an poles, which produces a field stationary in space in the air gap due te direct current fed to the field winding. The armature (rotor) has a commutator type winding with stationary brushes for connection with the external circuit, 1.3.1. Basic Characteristics of Electrical Machines ‘The design of electrical machines involves the study of: load currents and te (a) The voltages induced im the windings, different loading conditions. (b) The power {input or output) received or given out by the machine {ch The speed at which the machine is running under different loading conditions— Frequency. (d} The torque produced under different loading conditions inal voltages under Interrelations hetween the above quantities for a machine running as a generator or motor can be worked out for different types of electrical machines. These relations decide the suitability of a particular type of machine for a particular application Designing an electrical machine consists of choosing the proper size and dimensions af the machine parts. To get the required performance, the appropriate magnetic and the electrical circuits must he calculated and set, Then knowing the details of circuit parameters and the dimensions of the various parts of the machine, the performance of the machine can be predetermined by calculations. The machine ean be represented by an equivalent circuit and its petformance can be determined under different operating conditions The characteristics of the machine can be also found out by actual tests. The accuracy of a design will be scen by checking how ¢lose the predetermined calculated performance of the machine is to the actual test results when the machine is tested after it is built as per design calculations. In case there is a difference between the predetermined performance of the machine and the lest results, it is necessary fo find out the reasons for it and modify the design so that the Performance of the machine built from the modified design will work up to the requirements. 1.4 SPECIFICATIONS The majority of the electrical machines manufactured today are as per standard specifications The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has prepared standards for various types of electrical equipment and machines to cover the requirements of the consumers. The designs of various machines have to conform to the standard specifications to suit the end requireme Standardization helps in economy and in the comparison of performance within the given limits. Stundards have been set for various types of motors, for transformers giving the main output requirements, for conditions under which the equipment will operate (e.g. voltage, rating, frequency of supply, type of connections af windings) and in the case of rotating machines, thePrinciples af Design af Hlectrieal Apparatus & speed of rotation, torque produced under different operating conditions, such as full load, maximum torque, starting torque, ete, The type of enclosure of the machine: open or totally enclosed or other type is also standardized. Maximum permissible temperature iS a vel important Himitation prescribed by the ¢ construction of the machine. ‘Continuous rating will be the continuous load on the machine while running; the short time rating of a machine will be its rating when run for some specified time, e.g. 1 hour or 1/2 hour. If the machine is stopped for some time and again run for a similar period the rating is called the intermittent rating of the machine. The frame sizes in which electrical machines are built are standardized. The general layout and dimensions of the machines—particularly industrial motors—are also standardized so that it is easy (0 feplace the equipm the same location, ‘The various Indian Standards should be used while designing the equipment, and alse the consumers while ordering equipment should mention the standards to which the equipment should be built and the degree of the expected performance accuracy. ‘The performance criteria will mention the operation of the equipment under full load, percentage loads, speed, losses, icy. lorques, current, temperature ‘The de will be mentioned while designing each type of equipment such as transformers, synchronous machines, induction motors, de machines, etc. The methods and the apparatus for testing the various types of clectrical machines will be explained in the scetion following the design Principles and design calculations, standards. It will depend on the type of the insulation used in The rating of the machine can be continuous or for a short tim sc, ct 1.5 RATING AND DIMENSIONS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES ‘The rating of ac machines is expressed in kWA output for generators and kVA in In the case of de machines, the rating is given in kW output for the generators and kW input for motors, For transformers, the rating is in kVA output, The main dimensions in case of rotating machine are the diameter of the stator bore and the 2th of the stator core, The relation between the output of a machine and these main dimensions can be seen as follows: La D L diameter of the stator bore in metres stator core length in metres voltage per phase current per phase Fy = AAA KFT hy volts (Loy winding factor fequeney in Hz number of turns ries per phase flux in the airgap.6 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines three-phase machine, the r Ss 3x444k, is given by I Toad Oy IO KYA (7) 1.5.1 Specific Magnetic Loading ‘To start the design of a machine, this constant of the property of the magnetic material w the cores of the machine has to be assumed considering the type of material used characteristics. Specific magnetic loading is the average magnetic flux density over the whol surface of the air-gap in the machine. B= (1.8) 1.5.2 Specific Electric Loading Specific electric loading is the number of ampere-conductors per unit length (ae) af gap sur around the circumference of the machine, This is another constant to be chosen allowing suitabl current density in the conductors used in the machine windings. The expression for the ampere- conductors, ac, is given by 3x27, lon aD ‘The value of the current is the rms value. Specific magnetic loading is limited by the saturation and losses in tecth and excitation required 10 Overcome the reluctance of the air gap. Specific electric joading depends on the permissible /?r losses and the effect of armature reaction. This will also depend an the type of insulation used and the ventilation and cooling methods used for the machine. ‘The average flux density used in the induction machines is between 0.45 and 0,6 Whim’ for synchronous machines, it is between 0.6 and 0.8 Whfm?; for de machines, it is between 0.4 and 0.8 Wo/m?, The specific electric loading used for small a and. 40,000 ampere-conductors/m, for large machin conductors/m. Choosing B and ac, and substituting the values of these and f= prl2, the ouput of the ae ampere-conductors per mi medium size machines is between 30,000 is between 40,000 and 50,000 ampere- machine will be af#DLe 444K, p2|* \£oxacx O73 WA, al op Jz or S= LIK, a8 xacx D Ln x WO KVA (L9y I is thus seen that the rating of a machine is proportional to specific magnetic load specific electric loading, D'F product of the dimensions of the machine and the speed of the machine. Once the specific magnetic and specific electric loadings are chosen to suit the materials used and the condition of the machine, and the speed is given, the choice for thePrinciples af Design af Blectricat Apparatus 7 designer is ‘which D and L of the machine will give the required D°L product” The speed may be limited to about 100 m/s. For forged steel rotors of turbe alternators this may be as high as 140 m/s. For standard motors, the speed is generally 30 m/s. This limits the size of the diameter. The aim of the designer would be to make the diameter as sinall as possible to make the machine more compact 1.5.3 Output Coefficient This is defined as the ratio of output to D*Ln. The output coefficient G = SID'Ln = 11 KB x ac x 10 C10) In a motor, if the mechanical output is given in terms of metric horsepower, then the output in KW = 0,736 x HP (metric) and the rating is input kVA = KW output/ip cos & aby where 77 = efficiency; cos = power factor, 1.5.4 Output and Output Coefficient of DC Machines ‘The emf induced in the armature of a de Chine is given by oZnp volts, C12) where @= flux per pole Z = number of conductors @= BYL=BrDLip ae tip an ‘The output in kW, P= El x 109 Substituting the values of £ and J, P = output in kW = 2” Bx acx Pin i> (13) ‘The output coefficient, @ = CUPP DL or Ge rBxacx10" (aay Choosing B and ae, the diameter D and core length F can be determined for a given output af ade generator running at known speed. In the ease of ade motor, the input will he considered, the efficiency expected will be taken into account and the induced emf will correspond w the hack emf in the armature at the rated load current. It will be seen that the output depends on the product ef DL dimensions of the machines. The dimensions 2 and L for a tiachine are shown in Figure In case of induction motors, the core length may be approximately taken equal to pole pitch, Dip and then D and Leah be determined separately from the DAL product.8B Design and Testing of Electrical Machines t= 2 = Lt —t Figure 1.1 and ( dimensions of a machine, EXAMPLE Ll Find the main dimensions P and £ of an induction motor with the following ata 20 HP (metric), 415 volis, three-phase, 50 Hz, 4-pale induction motor; efficiency 85%: power factor 0.85 lagging; winding factor may be taken as 0. Solution: inkW Power factor x Efficiency Input kVA Se «0, 0.85 x 0.85 Choose specific magnetic loading B= ic electric loading ac = 35,000 ampere-conductorsim IK. Bx ae x DAL nx 10 peed in rps: poles = 4 as (= 30 Hz PM AK 50 orn = 1s mn} Eh =f, SS" = 50 orn = 25 aps (1500 pm) Substituting the values of B, ae, and n im the expression for the rating of the motor in kVA, 20.375 = LIL x 0.95 x m* % 0.55 x 35,000 x D°L x 25% LO Solving, DL = 4068 em’, If the length of the core £ is made equal 10 pole pitch, then M0084 5179 em?Principles af Design af Flectrieal Apparatus @ ‘Therefore, D = 35179 =17.30 em; say D=17.5em 4068 Le y= 13.28 say 3.3m ins ‘The main dimensions of the induction motor therefore are: Stator bore diameter = 17.5 em. Length of stator core = 13.5 em. EXAMPLE 1.2 Find the main dimensions D and L of the following data: 625 kWA, three-phase, 50) Hz, 3300 volts, 0.8 power factor lagging, 10-pole synchronous, generator driven by a diesel engine. The winding factor K,. may be taken as 0.96. ichronous generator having th Solution: Being a 10-pole machine, the speed is given by me = 50 or 2 = 10 rps (600 mpm) ‘The output rating of the generator 625 = 1.11x0.96 x27 x Bx acx D*La x10 kVA Choosing the value of #=0.8 Whim? and ac = 40,000 ampere-conductors/m; substituting and solving, DAL = 185.70 x 10% em xD_axD the length of the core = pole pitch -*2~ = P Tal = 185.70 « 103 or = BS = 591,101 ce Therefore, D=iom 185.70 10" STO = 26.301 say L-= 26,5 em The main dimensions of the synchronous generator therefore are Stator bore diameter = 84 crm Length of stator core = 26.5 em 1.3 Culeulate the main dimensions 2 and £ of a 50 kW, 230 volts, 900 rpm, 6 pole de shunt motor. Take the emf induced im the armature E), as 220 volts and efficiency as 87%. Solution: 250 A.10 Pesign and Testing af Flectrival Machines PeEl= 10> = 220 x 280 x 104 = 55 kW Take & = 0.6 Wh/m*; ac = 30,000 ampere-conductor per m: P= WBxacxDLnx10" Substituting the values, 55 = 22 30,000 DL x 197 20 Solving, DPL = 092 1 20,000 cm* 2 If the length of the cone is made = 5 pote pitch = 57,296 and D = 38.55 em; say 40 cm 0 The main dimensions of the DC shunt motor are, therefore, given by D = 40 om; L = 12.5 em, Frame sizes: Frame sizes are standardized so that a number of combinations of speed (poles), frequency, rating, and output are possible. Standard frame sizes are designed in peactice and used so that the manufacturer may use each frame for one or two gap diameters and different lengths, Generally lengths may be normal ones, or shorter than these up to 70% or longer than normal by about 20% to 30%. Frame sizes ‘tet B,, and short (5, medium (4) or long (Z) lengths for the same D, are shown in Figure 1.2. overall di — | — Ls Figure 1.2 Frama size with £, Mand S length of cares.Principles of Design af Blectrival Apparatus 11 1.6 HEATING AND COOLING OF MACHINES AND APPARATUS Duc to cnergy losses in a machine, it gets hot. Cooling is the function of the facilities for dissipation of heat produced in the machine so that it ean work satisfactorily within the required temperature limit, The temperature rise depends on the relation between heat produced and the heat dissipated due ta cooling arrangements, The final temperature rise is reached when the rates of heat production and heat dissipation are equ Heat dissipation is by radiation, conduction and convection, For small machines, natural ¢ is relied om, ie, convection and radiation, For larger machines, fans are fixed on the rotor and definite air flow is produced through ducts, ctc. Por very large machines, external means of cooling are used. Most transformers are oil immersed: heat from the coils and cores is conducted to the oil, then els to the tank walls hy conduction and convection, and the tank walls dissipate it to the outside air by convection and radiation, ‘The main types of cooling systems are: from (a) Open circuit cooting ‘This is a method of cooling in which the coolant is di the medium surrounding the machine, passes through the machine and then returns to the surrounding medium, (b) Closed cérewit coal sa method of cooling in which a primary coolant is circulated in a closed it through the machine, and, if exchanger. Heat is transferred from the primary eualant to the secondary coolant either ugh th Thi ecessary, through a heat tructural parts or through the heat exchanger. (c) Air cooling: In this system, only air is relied upon for cooling the windings, core and other working pars (d) Fydrogen cooting: In this system, no medium other than hydrogen is relied upon for cooling windings, core and other working parts of the machine, (e) Liquid cooling: In this system, liquid is relied upon for cooling the windings, core and other working parts of the equipment. The part may be either cooled by immersion in liquid or by circulation of Liguid through it, in direct contact with condu (8) Direct cootin ars! part to be cooled. In this system, the coolant come: 1.6.1 Heat Dissipation due to Radiation For a small spherical radiating body inside a large and/or black spherical cavity, loss due to radiation may be obtained by the Stefan—Boltemann faw P due to radiation = 5,70 (7; — 74) 10° wattsm? cas) where ¢ = emissivity. Ty = (8, + 273°C Ty = (#) +273°C12 Design and Testing of Flectrival Machines A transformer tank in a substation may be considered a small spherical body radiating heat and the heat radiated from the transformer tank can be approximately calculated by the use of Eq. (1.15). A motor body may also be approximately considered in the same way in a shop and the heat radiated may he approximately faund out. 1.6.2 Air Cooling Knowing the loss to be dissipated, and the temperature rise of the cooling medium, itis possible to find out the amount of cooling medium required, e.g. air and also the fan power required to citculate the required air though the apparatus for cooling purposes. If P = heat loss to be dissipated in kW temperature rise of cooling air in °C 4, = inlet temperature of air in °C Pressure in newtonsim? volume of ait in cubic metres/second barometric height in mm of He The specific heat of dry air at constant pressure is 0.2375. (6 +278 273 I kg of dry air has 2 volume of 0.775 1 KW = 240 cal per second. 240 1 KAW Joss raises the temperature of 3575 = LOL kg of air by 1°C per second. Therefore, the volume of air required for P kW of loss to be dissipated is given by P A+ 273 TF = 078 2 A228 700 cabic metes’second (l.toy oom “aH If this air flow is supplied by afan ata pressure p newtons per m? and the fa then the power required for the Fan to provide this quantity of air is given by _ 2 9x10 has efficieney 9, Ww (iy an A similar principle applies to cooling systems when the cooling medium is gas or hydrogens hete the thermal conductivity, density and specific heat should be taken into consideration. EXAMPLE 1.4 (a) Calculate the volume of cooling air in cubic metres/second required to carry off the losses ina 10 MW generator having an efficiency of 97.5%. The inlet and autlet temperatures of air may be taken as 15°C and 35°C respectively. Barometric height is 750 mm. {b) Find the power required to drive the fan to provide this circulation of ait at a pressure of 1000 Nim?, Efficiency of fan = 30%Principles of Design af Flectrival Apparatus 13 Soluiion: (a) 10 MW generator has efficiency = 97.5% I = A 10.256 RW input to generator = “py = 10.25 or Losses = 10,256 ~ 10,000 = 256 kW Volume of air required per second, 273) 760 = 078% 2 x A427) ,, 700 e373” 750 256 154273 760 x x 35-155 273 780 = 10.67 nes at the inlet temperature, (b) If p= 1000 Nim*, the power required for the fan Substituting the values, Q = 0.78% 1000 % 10.67 0.3310" Pye Sk 1.6.3 Liquid Cooling Medium When water is used as the medium to cool ait in closed eireuit machines oF 1 cao! oil in a transformer, the quantity of water required is given by .240 P a litres!second (1.18) as the specific heat of water is: 1 The difference between inlet and oullet temperatures Of water may be taken as 8°C to 10°C. If oil is used as the cooling medium, 0.240, 7) litresisecond, (L19y where ry is the specific heat of oil which is between 0.4 and 0.5. 4.6.4 Heat Dissipation by Conduction ‘The heat to be conducted per sq. metre of the path area along the path + metre thick in a material ‘of thermal resistivity °C per W per metre cube, for a temperature difference of @°C is given by = ams. perm? 1.20) Xp, Heat coni14 Design and Testing af Flectrival Machines 1.7 TEMPERATURE RISE DUE TO THERMAL ACTION ‘An electric machine or a transformer can be considered as a homogeneous bady in which heat is internally developed at a uniform rate and hi r a Fate proportional to temperature rise, The relation between the temperature rise and time is an exponential function, heat developed in the apparatus in watts or joules/second specific heat in joules per kg per °C = weight of machine active pants in kg temperature rise in °C Oq = maximum temperature rise in °C 1 = time in seconds s = cooling surface inn 4 = specific heat dissipation or emissivity in joules per second per °C difference between the surface and the ambient medium, = W/A= cooling coefficient r= heating time constant in seconds 12 cooling time constant in seconds In a specific short time dt, the heat produced in the machine = p et. Out of this, the machine will store heat = G cy d@ if the temperature rise in time ft is d@ Heat dissipated = $2 @ dt, Heat produced = Heat stored + Heat dissipated pdt= Ge, d6 + SBA dt gM Ge, dt Gey Pe when f= 0, @= 0; when I= 9, = = 35 Solving the differential equation, @ = ble 8) (2) where ris the heating time constant, It is the time during which the apparatus will reach 0.632 times the maximum temperature rise. The value of ps Ge, {Sa 1.22) ‘The nature of the temperature vs. time relation is shown in Figure 1,3. This relation can be found out for the windings, core, frame or total machine, 1.7.1 Cooling of Machines When there is reduction in losses or the machine stops and thereby losses are not there, the temperature of the apparatus will go down and the curve of temperature vs, time will be an exponemtial curve which will be the heating time curve inverted; the rate of heat dissipation— cooling—is, however, different; this is T° cooling time constant and a= ge 1.23)Principles of Design af Flectrival Apparatus 15: 190 Temperature, % af 0, 8 a o OF 10 8 20 25 “Time in terms of time constant = Figure 1.3 Temperature rise vs. time curve Cooling coefficient: IF it is assumed approximately that the cooling is proportional to the temperature drop, the maximum temperature reached by 2 continuous rated machin: O, = p[Sh=ep/S (1.24) where 1 cooling coefficient = 1 ® z The application of heating time constants and temperature ise Calculations can be shown by the following examples. EXAMPLE 1.5 At the beginning of the leading of a transformer, its temperature is 25°C. After 1 for 2 hours on full load the temperature is 55°C and after running for 4 hours it is 70°C. Calculate: (a) The heating tite constant (b) The maximum final temperature rise with full load on the transformer. (c) The time it will take after the start for the transformer to reach Si6th af its final st state temperature. Soludion: (a) Let @, maximum temperature rise in °C f= heating time constant in hours Alter 2 hours, the temperate rise is 55 — After 4 hours, the temperature rise is TO — The following relations can, therefore, be written. 30 = ade 2") (iy 45 = a,d-e"") tii)16 Design and Testing of Flectrival Machines From (i) and (ii), 45 30 or or (b) 5 (6) S/6th of the maximum temperature rise = 60 x == 50°C It can, therefore, be written 50 = 60(1 - e"?%) or Poe 92816 or es 0.1666 at 29 therefore, reach the temperature rise of 50°C in 5 or 179 or 151798295 5.19h The transformer wil constant of 45 minutes. When th is 75°C. (a) What is the temperature rise after 2 (b) If the temperature rise at one hour rating EXAMPLE 1.6 A motor has a thermal heat at its continuous rating, its final temperature rise | hour if the motor runs continuously on this fo is 75°C; find the maximum steady temperature at this rating. (c) How much time does the motor take for its temperature to rise from 50°C to 75°C if it is working at its one hour rating? Solution: (a) Heating time constant = 45 min = 0.75 h @ = 7H IP) @ = 7S(1 ~ 0.285) = 75 * OTIS = 53.625°C (b) 73 = aloe |") a5 = = 1 * O.715 m fe) Time for the temperature to rise to 75°C, is | hour. Time for the temperature rise ta SO°C with the motor running at one hour rating, 50 = MCL — e ™) 048 = Le 8 et 2052; 1336 = 0.654 or 0.4915 b= 29.5 min ‘Therefore, the time for the transformer’s temperature (0 rise from 50°C 1 75°C = 60 ~ 29.5 = 30.5 min,Principles of Design af Flectrival Apparatus 17. REFERENCES Smith, Parker §. and M.G. Say, Electrical Engineering Design Manual, Asia Publishing House, 1961 Yermolin, N.P., Construction of Electrical Machines, Academic Books Pvt. Lid., 1967. Deshpande, M.V., Elements of Electrical Machines, Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan, 1980.CHAPTER Magnetic, Electric and Insulating Materials 2.1 MAGNETIC MATERIALS ‘The magnetic material used for electrical apparatus is electrical sheet steel, The steel for these electrical sheets is usually produced in a basic open hearth furnace. Electrical sheets are: rolled to gauges within the range of 0.625 mm to 0.35 mm thickness, Silicon is an important element in the production of electrical sheet stee! and the percentage af it varies depending on the quality of sheet steel required. The superiority of silicon steel for magnetic cores is due to several of its propertics. It is highly permeable—that is, it is easy to m: The cleetrical resistance fof the steel becomes greater 1 icon content is increased. This reduces the eddy loss, Silicon sheet steel also reduces the hysteresis loss in the cores. Electrical sheets are hot rolled and annealed. In case of transformer, generally 01.35 mm thickness is used for laminations, ‘while for rotating machine cores, the thickness used is about (050 mm, Grain-oriented electrical sheet steel is produced hy cold reduetion methods and is available in. coils or sheets. These grain- oriented sivel sheets are characterised by highly directional magnetic properties. The core loss and perneability are much better parallel to the direction of rolling than they are perpendicular to that direction. Cold rolled steel sheets are used in transformer construction where losses have Wo be kept low. The silicon present in hot rolled steel for transformers is generally 4 to 414% while in cold rolled steel laminations used for wansformers it is generally 3 to 34%. For transformers, the stampings are cut to the size required by shearing. For rotating machine cores, the stampings are punched. The laminations should have good punching properties. Some of the typical grades ef magnetic matcrials available for dynamos and transformers are given in Tables 2.1-2.3 with some af their properties: rent 8 its si 18Magnetic, Bleetrivand Insulating Materials 19 Table 2.1 Hot rolled electrical sheet sieel dynamo grades Grate Lays Special ‘Medium a Lokys resistance Quality Density, ghee 7.B2 118 172 77 Silicon %, approx. 03 0.85 S 5 Resistivity, wOvem® 15 a 3B 41 Temperate coefficient of resistance per °C 0.00338 0.00250 0.00165 00137 Stacking factor % (0.50 mm thick uninstlated sheets) 98 95 95 95 Weight in ky per sq, metre 39.94 385 39.20 38,86 Maximum total iron loss for 0.50 mm thick sheets AU Byyy = 1 tesla at SO Hay in Whe 3.57 2.84 2.51 2.25 Table 22 Hol rolled transformer grades Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 92 86 8 m4 Density, g/ee 755 735 735 755 Silicon "%, approx. 40 40 40 40 Resistivity, [Q¥em™ ot 60) 60 ou ‘Temperature coefficient of resistance per deg. °C 0.00075 0.00075 0.00075 1.00075 Stacking factor % (0.35 mm thick uninsulated sheets) or 2 Ld 2 Weight in kg/sq. metre 26.85 (26.85 26.85 26.85 Maximum total iron loss for 0.35 mm thick sheots at B.,, = 1.3 tesla, 50 He, in Wrkg 202 18a 176 1.63 Table 23° Cold rolled grain-criented transformer grades Grade Grade Grade Grade 3 46 4 ness 0.35 mmm 0.30 mm 0.38 mm Density, g/ee 7.68 7.65 165 Silicon. %, approx. Bu BI 31 Resistivity, Oem? 48 48 48 Stacking factor % oT 7 97 Maximum total iron loss at Boy, = LS tesla at 50 He stress relief annealed after cutting, im Weep iil 097 i.20 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Grades of steel sheets to be used in rotating machines and transformers are selected considering the requirements of the permissibl and the relative costs of the rotating machines, dynamo grades of hot rolled steel are used. For transformers, transformer grades af hot rolled stee! are commonly used; where lower losses are required, cold rolled grain- oriented sheet steel of the required grace may be used. ades of sheet steel are used in applications where good permeability is requited at low flux densities. These transformer grades should have good punching properties and be capable of being fabricated satisfactorily. The applications include audio frequency transformers and reactors for the electronic industry. In the U.S.A., for example, United States Steel have USS radio transformer grade $8 and USS radio transformer grade 65 specially made for these purposes. These grades are rated by their de permeability at 107 tesla as measured by the Fahy permeameter method. USS radio transformer 58 has a minimum permeability of 1800 and USS radio wansformer 65 has a minimum permeability of 1500 when tested in ‘as sheared’ condition. These grades are not supplied on maximum cor limit considerations but on permeability considerations. 2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS: In designing electrical apparatus, core loss and ather magnetisation characteristics of the core material are considered. Core loss varies with maximum induction density, frequency and thickness of the magnetic material. For each thickness of the material, the curves of the core loss vs. induction and core loss vs. frequency * ‘400 shoul be known, In addition, the RECALLGAVE magnetisation characteristics of the material g.4/—1 Tota! ran ass. should be known, The following types of Thickness: 05 min evn Frequency: 80 Hz curves have been determined and are g¢f-— ETO’ ™ = available when designing electrical apparatus using each type of magnetic material. 3 (a} Core loss vs. indwecsion curves This is aeurve showing the total iron lass in watis per kg vs. peak or maximum induction in tesla or Wh/m?, A typical curve for special Lohys, 05 mm thick magnetic stampings is shown in 5 & Total roa fans, Wika S Fi ignetic material is” used in cores of rotating machines. 2.9 Knowing the weight of the part of the machine where this material is used, the 1.0 total irom loss in the material when operated at calculated flux density or °9>—Ga-Gg ea ap 42 4.8 Te induction is obtained from the curve in peak ingucion 2, ws te mis OF watts per kg weight of the Figure 2.1 Tata ron loss in Whg vs. peak induation in material working at the calculated Bjas. tesla (Specil Lotys)Magnetic, Blestric.and Insulating Materials 21 Figure 2.2 shows a similar curve of total iron loss in Wke vs, peak induetion in tesla for grade 51 electrical sheet steel which és cold rolled steel. It may he observed here that when the loss is tested with flux parallel to the rolling direction, it is Jess than that with Mux transverse to the rolling direction, Grade 51 is 0.35 mm thick stampings which are used for transformers Figure 2.2{a) shows the curve for grade 41 stampings. a —— Grade 51 45 Total iron loss values af various 40 inductions “Thieknass: 0.35 mm Frequency: 80 Hz as quency z Flux transverse = 30 *e oling ¢ siracton 5 25 , 320 e Flux paral 1s tooling rection ° 05 Ly L-4 00 03 05 OF O8 It 13 18 17 19 Peak induction B, tesla Figure 2.2 Total iron lass in Wikg vs. peak density in tesla (grade 1) a a [Grade 4t 43 )~ Total iron ioss at 4.9 {_watious inductions: Thickness: 0-28 mm Bgg{+ Frequency: 50 Hz = 9°) Fine wansvaree to a rolling direction B25 B20 18 ‘Flux paralel to to rolling Sitection, os Le “0a 05 o7 09 11 19 15:17 19 Peak induction 6, sis Figure 2.2(a) Total itor loss in Wikg ws. peak density i tesla (grade 41)22 Figure 2.2(b) shows a curve of total iron less in W/kg vs, peak induction in tesla for Design and Testing af Blectrieal Machines other cold rolled electrical sheet grade 80. 2 50 — Grade 80 cold rallad Total ron loss. Thieknaes: 0.38 mm Frequency: 50 Hz 45 40 38 5 S ‘otal iron toss, Wilkg a a 3 5 00 O2 Of 06 OB 10 12 14 16 18 Peak induction B, tesla Figure 2.2(b) Total iron loss in Wikg vs. peak density in tesla {grade 40) Core loss vs. frequency curve: This curve shows core Joss in W/kg against frequency in Hz at various induction densities up t0 1.6 tesla, Core loss increases with an increase in induction and also with increase in frequency. This type of curve for each gauge or thickness af stampings used is also useful, elul to indicate the n densities. Tests Vols ampere vs. induction curves This type of curve is primarily u normal expectancy in volt-amperes per kg for working at various induc! are made on the material at various frequencies such as 25, 50, 60 Hz for induction up Apparent ac magnetization curve: This shows apparent ac magnetization characteristics of the material, This is a curve of peak induction in tesla vs. ampere-turns per metre (considering the rms value of the current). The data is obtained from the curve of volt- Figure 2.3(a). Figure 2.34b) ampere vs. induction. A typical Curve far grade 80 is shown shows the curve for grade 41.Magnetic, Blestricand Insulating Materials 23 20 —1—1—T Grade 80 18 oid rolled Typical curve 1s AG magnetization oto IAN s o4 a2 0 200 409 609 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Magnetizing lorce-ampore-tums per metre (af) Figure 2.3(a) AC magnetization curve—peak induction densily in tesla vs. magnetizing force in ampere-turns per metre (grade 0}. 20 ee 18 he : We 14 5 Grade 41 Bre ms ampore-tumsim © rong drection S10 Frequency. 50 He Zoe 08 os o2 a a oe 4 6 6 0 2 4 16 18 Maghotizing farce in ampare-tuarss par motie (ai) Figure 2.3{b) AC magnetization curve—peak induction density in tesla vs. magnetizing force in ampere-turns par mete (grade 41).24 Design and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Figure 2.4 shows the ac magnetization curve of special Lohys. a0 18 Faro ‘Special Lohys. 16 Typical curve: |AG Magnetzation 14 Induction 8; tesla © 200 400° 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Ampes-turns per meite (ah Figure 2.4 induction in tesia vs. ampere-turnsiin 5. DC magnetization curve: This curve shows the normal magnetization characteristics of the grades in various thicknesses, The curve shows induction in tesla vs. ampere-turns per metre, Figure 2.5 shows such a curve for special Lohys and Figure 2.6 shows the curve for grade 51 sheet stee 20 ‘Spocial Lohys ‘Typical curve DG magnetizatien| ae : ° 0 200 400 600 BOOTGOO 12007400 1600 Magnetizing force in ampere-tums rm (a) Figure 2.5 OC magnetization curve—induction in tesla vs, in ampere-turns per metre fr spacial Lahys (0.5 mm thick),Magnetic, Blestricand Insulating Materials 25 Grasso Typical curve ry DC magnetization | | 22 -a0o 0" to rolling direction 20 = 0 1a — att 16 1 a [eta wie 1 og ot | O86 [ oz 0 ‘9 200 00 00 A000) 1200 1400 7600 1800 2000 Magnoting force in ampore-tums por m fa) Figure 26 OC magnetization curve—induction in tesla vs, ampere-umns per metre for grade $1 sheet stee! stampings, 2.3 TESTING OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS ‘The characteristics of magnetic materials such as those mentioned in the last section can be obtained by testing the material. Samples for core loss tests are tested in the Epstein Square Apparatus. The sheet material under test is arranged in thin sheets (0.35 mm) in strings of about 3 cm width and 30 cm length in four bundles to form a magnetic square, The ends are overlapped and kept pressed together of they are connected by comers of the same material. ‘These bundles of the samples material are placed inside four rectangular coils connected in which current is passed. The circuit diagram with connections for the lest is lion sample g mE sel ® Se o. Figure 2.7 Iron loss measurement by Epstein’ square.26 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines There are three coils or windings in this circuit. One is the primary Winding andl the other two are secondary windings having the same number of turns as the primary winding. A valimeter is connected across one of the secondary windings and the pressure coil of the wattmeter is connected aerass the secondary winding. The supply is given from a sine wave generator of special design. The ammeter A reads the no-load current which practicall corresponds (0 iron loss current, Waltmeter W reads the the voltage and the pressure coil of the wattmeter is supplis winding giving the sume voltage. ‘The secondary inductions were indicated by a flux voltmeter to assure sine wave conditions. The use of an rms voltmeter would give lower core Joss values than those obtained with a flux voltmeter, These differences would be of greater magnitude at higher densities. In building the magnetic square, half the strips in each sample were cut parallel to the rolling direction and half were cut perpendicular to that direction. These samples are not strain relief annealed, In ease of grain oriented grades, the tests are done on an Epstein’s square of 3x25 strips sheared so that the flux path during testing is parallel t@ the rolling direction. Thy samples are strain relief annealed before testing ‘The voltage induced read by the voltmeter is given in the Epstein's square just as in the ease of a (ransformer—here the ratio is 1:1. The voltage E = 4.44 6/7 volts B= 4AL Bose Ac fT Qn Whim? or wsla ter V measures condary ‘on loss. The woll separately by another where Byg, = maximum induction in the 0 P= frequency of supply in Hz T = number of turns on the primary or secondary A cross-sectional arca of the core in m?, Knowing the quantities A T and reading E, the value of the flux density in the core of wattmeter ng. Knowing A,, the length of the strips, the weight of the sample under test can be found ‘out or the sample strips weighed. The weight generally used for sample is 5 kg or 2 kg (for smaller square}. The iron loss can then be determined in terms of watts per kg weight of the material for the required flux density. The values of the various flux densities are adjusted hy ing the voltage applied to the primary winding and the iron loss for various values of Byaxe is read from the wattmeter readings. 1, Core toss vs, frequency curves The frequency of supply from the sine wave generator is adjusted by the speed of the driving motor. Readings of the watumeter ate taken to determine loss at various frequencies for various magnitudes of induction. 2. Voll- 10! Qem Polyester film > 10!° Quem Nomex > 10! Q.em Dielectric dissipation factor: Polyester film; 0.006 Kapton film: 0.0008 w 0.0014 Nomex; 0.008 to 0.025Magnetic, Bleetrivand Insulating Materials 37 Tensile sivengsh: Nomex with polyester film: 10 N/mm? Glass fabric with polyester film: 15 Némm? Polyester film: 200 Nfmm? Kapton polyimide film: 100 N/mm* Tear strengil: Polyester film: 16 kg/mm Kapton film; 16 kg/mm 2.8.1 Characteristics of Electrical Tapes Table 248 Characteristics of electrical tapes Breaking Breakdon Thickness Adhesion strengih. Elongation voltage mam efmmm, kgéem % Vv Class Rayon eloth 0.25 200 45 5 1500 Acetate Rayon (white) or (black) 0.22 200 44 5 2000 Specially treated paper coated with adhesive on both faces O18 400 40 4 1200 Class E Nylon Flux density i pole, 8, = “ogg 64 Whim ‘The poles are laminated stamping Referring to the curve for &, = 1.64 Whim? at = 3000; length of magnetic path in pole 0.18 ms ATyayp = 0.18 x 3000 = 540Design of Magnotic Cireuits: Field System 69 Yoke: Area = 0,022 me 12% 0.05 Flux in yoke = “= 0.08 akage coefficient = 1.2 Flux density in From the curve of cast steel, af = 1100 for &, = 1.36 Whim? (Figure 4.8) Length of magnetic path in yoke = 0.26 m; Ampere-turns for yoke, ATyye = L100 x 0.26 = 286 Air-gap: Length af the air-gap = 0.004 m Flux per pole = 0.05 Wb Total flux in airgap =o, = O05 x 6 = 0.3 Wh Total flux RDI Average flux density By, in air-gap = 03 = 0.7 Wim HX 055% 0.25 Flux tensity, tesla Seale tor at x19 0 500 1000 1500 Ampere-turs per matre (at Figure 4.8 Nagnelization curves of cast steel and mid steel.70 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Flux density in the air-gap at the centre of the pole Slot pitch y, = 0.0284 m Slot opening 0.0L Length of air-gap 0.005 From Figure 4.2 for open slots of the armature in case of de machine, K = 0.34 for stot opening to slot width ratio of 2.5. 0.01 m: =25 Slot opening 1, Due to air-gap and ventilation duets, Ky, = —— pps From the curve for this ratio of 2.25, Substituting, 0.25, K, = 9 21.933 0.25 = 0.0008 0.0284 0.0284 = 0.34 0.01 = DOH 1136 0.0250 1.136 x 1033 = 1.174 OB 10°x B, x Ky X ty O83 «10% 1 x L174 x 0.004 3957 K, 5 Aimpere-turns for airgap, AT yy Toral ampere-turns per pole = AToore + ATiean + ATpate + ATyoue + AT ur 80 + 880 + S40 + 286 + 3757 5543 Thus the excitation required by the de machine on no-load is S543 ampere-tums per pol If the effect of armature reaction is given or calculated with the data obtained for the purpose, the total ampere-turns per pole required on given load—full load—can be calculated. T! ampere-tums on no-load plus the amperetums required 10 overcome the effect of armatu reaction, The calculation of ampere-tumns for various parts in the magnetic circuit can be summarized and tabulated as follows:Design of Magnetic Crea n Magnetic cireuit Flux per pole in air-gap @ = 0.05 Wb (de machine) Part ‘Aree Length Flax im ai to’) (m ow) density — (ampere-tumsim) (AT) whim?) Cor 0.018 O10 0.025 1.39 800 a Teeth at 13rd os aot 005 20 2n000 ss length (apparent 1.96 (real) Air-gap 0.05 004. 0.08 1.00 940000 3787 Pele 0.033 O18 0.0575 1.64 3000 S40 Yoke 0022 0.26 008 136 1100 296 Total ampere-tums per pole, AT = 5543 EXAMPLE 4.2 Find the ampere-turns excitation required per pole for a salient pole synchronous generator with the following data, Work out excitation on no load, Flux in air-gap per pole, 0.12 Wb, 10 pole synchronous generator, Stator; diameter at gap, 2 m; gross length of core, 0.4 ms 5 ducts each 0.01 m wide; area of core, 0.045 m?; mean length of magnetic path: This may be taken as half the pole piteh on mean diameter, Number of slots, 144; slot pitch 0.(M2 m, width of stot 0.02 m, rectangular slots; depth of slot 0.12 m Width of tooth at (1/3rd) length from the narrowest section, 0.023 m; area of teeth 0.075 m?, air-gap 0.012 m Pole: Pole are 0.40 m; pole section 0.40 % 0.35 m*; length of path 0.2 m: leakage coefficient 1.15; Yoke: Area 0.07 m®; leakage coefficient 1.15; length of magnetic path, 0.2 m. In the case of a synchronous machine, poles are on the rotor fixed on the rotor spider or yoke, The ampere-tums for rotor yoke are neglighle Solution: Stator core: Flux in stator cor 0.06 ——. = 1.33 Whit 0,045 Area of core = 0.045 m*; Flux density in core, B, The stator laminations are af special Lohys, Referring to the de magnetization curve of special Lohys, find the ampere-tums/m for 1.33 Whim’; ampere-turns’m = 520; mean length of path in stator core = 0.34 m, Therefore, ampere-turns for the core, AT cae = 520 x 0.34 = 177, B.72_ Design and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Stater teeth Flux = 0.12 Wb tooth width at Lf = 0.073 my length from narrowest section = 0.023 m; area of teeth Apparent flux density = 6 Whim? Pole pitch Pole are L= 04 my; 5 ducts each 0.01 wides net length = 0.9; net iron length = 4 = 5 x 001 = 0.35 m; stacking factor SL 07” 0315 From the curve of apparent density vs. ampere-turnsim and also real flux density which will be obtained when K = 181; real flux density in te 1.465 W/m? and ampere-turnst = 8000; length of magnetic path = depth of tooth = depth of slot = 0.12 m. Therefore, ampere= turns for teeth, AT yay = SOK) x 0.12 = 960, Stator core and teeth laminations are taken as of special Lohys Air-gap: Length of air-gap = 0.012 m; flux in ai all along the circumference of the rotor = 0,12 x 10 O.4 m. Average flux density J im air-zap 12 = — "= 0.4775 Whim ex 2x04 ap = 0.12 Wb per pole, Total flux in air-gap space my; lengch Wb, Diameter at the gap mum, is the ma aire of the pole where air-gap is mi density in the air-gap and is piven by x Pale pte Pole are Slot opening B 1.682 Whim? From the curve for open slots, Carter's coefficient &, = 0.26Design of Magnetic Creu k, Ampere-tums for ait, AT, Ki ™ Re Sx LOIS = 1.15 0.8 x 10° x Hy x Ky x dy 0.3% 10° x 0.682 x 0.012 % 1.15 = 7530 Pole: Leakage coefficient = 1.15; Flux in pole = 1.15 x 0.12 = 0.1380 Wh; Pole section = 0. Flux density in pole, By = ie Pole laminated using laminations. Referring to the curve, ampere is 1000; length of magnetic path = 0.2 m in pale; AT wie = 1000 x 0.2 s/n for B= 15 Whim™ 200 Yoke (rotor): Leakage coefficient = 1.15; Yoke flux = LASS ONE = 0.069 Wh; Area = 0.07 m- 0.069 . Pox density B= “7 yp = 0.985 Whim* ampere-tums/m = 250 for cast steel rotar yoke Length of magnetic path in yoke = 0.2 m ATyoxe = 250 x 0.2 = 50 ‘The total ampere-tums per pole on no-load = AT age + ATyea + AT aie + AT pole + AT joe 77 + 960 + 7530 + 200+ 50 = 8917 The results can be shown im tabular form in a summarised way: Magnetic circuit: Main flux per pole 0.12 Wb (synchronous generator) Part ‘Area ‘Length Face Flue density ar fm?) (m) (Wy (Win?) fampes 0.045. 034 0.06 133) 520 7 at 1rd length 0.075 0.12 o.t2 ua 8000 60 Ait-gap 0.0175 0012 oz 0.682 627500 7530 Pole 0.094, 02 0.138 15 1000 200 ‘Yoke af = ampere-turns required for the cores fur the three-phase core type transformer. Knowing the flux density in the yoke, find af for the magnetic path in the yokes then 2 x f, x af = ampere-turns required for the yoke. If there is small air-gap to be considered between the clamped laminations and at the comers (in practice this is negligible), ampere-tumns required to avercome the reluctance of the air-gap J, = $00,000 8,, f, where (, is approximate equivalent air-gap considered, The sum of the ampere-turns for core, yoke and air-gap is the total ampere-turns required for the three phases of transformer, ‘The ampere-tums per phase = (1/3) of the total ampere-turns, Thus, negles for airgap in pressed j ampere-turns S, eC. ampere-tums for the uansformer per phase is given by 3x [xan tl, xa 3 In working out the ampere-tums, maximum flux density is considered in the parts, The flux being alternating, assuming sinusoidal distribution of flux, the rms magnetizing current is obtained by the following relation * dy (415) The method of ealculati is illustrated by an example, AMPLE 4.3 Find the magnetizing current required from the 3 kV/4d0\ V delta-star transformer. mensions of the fr: ure 4.9, The material may be considered as ().35 mm laminations of hot rolled elecwrical sheet sivel. Neglect effect of the small airgap at the comers or between overlapping of laminations, Tums per phase on high voltage side = 350, Figure 4.5 shows the magnetization curves Of Byeu, in tesla vs. ampere-turns pee metre for hot rolled and cold rolled laminations, Cross-section of core A, = 0,033 ins for a three-phase, 50 ne size are as shown in Solution: Eqy = 4440 J Tey volts 3300 = 4.44 x 9 50x 350 @ = 0.043 WbDesign of Magnetic Creu eld System 75 022m | 025m) 022m ent r 22m ke O75 0.22 m w Figure 49 Secion of the transformer of Example & 3 Cross-section of core, Ay = 0.033 1 For the yoke, the area may be increased by 15%; Ay = 115 x 0,033 = 0.038 m? Maximum flux density in core B,, = 2 From the curve for hot rolled stee! (Figure 4.5) for By, = 1.3 Wb/m?, ampere-turns'm = 950 0.043 2 lensit 7 —— = 1,13 Whim? Maximum flux density in the yoke, By = Go3g 00 From Figure 4.9, the total width af the core W = 0.22 + 0.22 + 0.22 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 116m t= 116 m From Figure 4.5, ampere-turns/m The length of magnetic path in the yok Length of core limb, f. = 0.75 m Ampere-turns for core linib = 3 x 0.75 x 951 Ampere-turns for yoke = 30D x 2 x 1.16 = 696 Total ampere-tuins = 2137 + 696 = 2833 2137 2833 944.3 AAmpere-turns por phase = 944.3 2* 350 SOA Magnetizing current per phase,76 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Being delta connected on HV, side, the line current (magnetizing) = 3x 0516 = 0.894 Another method of finding the magnetizing current of a transformer is to find out the weight Gf iron used in the core and yoke. Knowing the cross-section af the core and yoke, also the length of core and yoke, the volume of the iron used can be determined; Density of iron = 7.8 gicm?, Figure 4.10 shows the relation of VA‘kg vs. & for hot rolled and cold rolled laminations, Kaowing the flux density to which the magnetic part is subjected, and its weight, the volt ampere per kg is found out, Knowing the volt-amperes for all parts—here core and yoke—and the voltage of the transformer, aniperes tuken for magnetizing purposes can be determined. ‘The method of testing and obtaining the curves as in Figure 4.10 was explained in an earls chapter. 79 & | 50] Pao $ a0] § 20] 10 = 5 0 O78 101281847880 Flux density, tesla Figura 4.10 Akg vs. B 4.2.2. Magnetizing Current of Induction Motors ‘The summation of ampere-turns for the several series parts of magnetizing circuit in the machine ives the (otal excitation to be provided by the exciting winding of the machine. For three-phase machine with uniformly distributed windings with 60° phase spread. and. carrying sinusoidal currents, the mmf is nearly sinusoidal, The peak value of mmf F, is related to the magnetizing current (rms) value /,, (per phase) by HTK, rp . Pp ampere-tums per pale (4.16) = number of poles magnetizing current per phase ~ ulDesign of Magnetic Cireuits: Field System TT umber of turns per phase K,. = winding factor. ‘or the magnetizing current (4.17) Ih the ease of induction motors, the ate flux distribution is not exactly sinusoidal; the flux has pronounced flattening due to the tooth saturation effect. The tlauened Tux density curve can be considered as a curve with a fundamental superimposed by third harmonic flux. If we consider the Point on the curve at 30° from the point of maximum flux density position, the value 30 a of flux density at 30°, Byy will be fairly accurate for emf calculation and there will not be an ertor by considering this value of B. The natuee of the curve for flux distribution is shown in Figure 4.11, Pole-centie: Figure 4.11 Air-gap flux distrbution in an induction motor. The value of By = By cos 30° 1364 (4.18) A where @ = fundamental flux; A = area though which @, passes. Using this flux distribution, the magnetizing cum the case of an induction motor is given by BAT y, __ PAT y, DAK ty cOSMP 234 Ky Toy (419) EXAMPLE 4.4 Calculate the magnet induction motor with the following d: Average flux density, B=0.5 Whim’; diameter, D = 0.7 m; 10 poles; length of core L = 0.25 m: 3 ducts in stator and rotor cores opposite to each ather each 0.01 m wide: Lohys laminations 0.50 mm thick: stator slot width = 0.023 m; slot opening = 0.003. m; depth af slot = 0.042 m: pole pitch ¥ = 0.22 m; tums per phase = 250, rotor slot width = 0.017 m; opening .003 ms depth of stot = 0,035 m; semi-closed slots, Stator core: area = 0.012 m% length of magnetic path = 0.1 m; stator teeth (1/3) area = 0.025 m2; length of magnetic path = 0.042 m: rotor teeth (1/3) area 00.023 m?; length = 0.035 m, Rotor core: area = 0.011 m?; length = 0.07 ms Air-gap = 0.001 m. Find the Carr's coefficients for the various openings, viz. of stots and ducts and use the: in finding the ampete-tums as required, ing current per phase far a three-phase star connected78 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Solusion: Flux per pole, §, = Bx ¥ x L = 0.5 x 0.22 x 0.25 = 0.0275 Wb. Stator core: Area = 0.012 m? Pn AX From the magnetization curve of Lohys, for B Wh/m*, ampere-turnim = 250 th of magnetic path = 0.1 m Ampere-turns for stator core, AT yay = 250 x 0.1 = 25 Stator teeth (at 1/3rd depth from the bottom): Area = 0.025 m*; length = 0.042 m fg = bis _ 862% 000275 ee A 0.025 From the curve, ampere-turns/m = 1000 AT coy = 1000 % 0.042 = 42 Alr-gap: Area of the air-gap = ¥L’ where L’ is the length of the core considering the effect of duct in the €o ‘Three ducts each of 0.01 width. Width of duct O01 _ 45 (Air-gap length/2) — (O.001/2) From the curve, Ky = 0.68 L’ = 0.25 ~ (3 x 0.01 x 0.68) = 0.23 Aga, = YLT = 0.22 x 0.23 = 0.0506 Working out Carier's coefficient for air-gap, the effective air-gap is found out + opening = 0.003: Length of gap = 0.001 0.023 0.023- 0,003 «0.45 Opening _ 0.003 _, oom From curve, K, = 0.45 = 1.06, 0.017 0.017 =0,003 x 0.45 08;Design of Magnetic Creu ning _ 0.003 _ dy 0.001 From curve, Ky = 045 ‘The effective air-gap length, f= fy ky, * hy, = 0.001 x 106 x 1.08 = 0.00114 m 4x 0.0275 By = 18800275 — 58 Weim? 0.056 Ampere-turns for airgap, ATyje= 0.8 x 10® x 0,668 x O.KILT4 610 Rotor teeth (at 1/3td length}: Atea = 1.023 m*; length = 0.035 m p= VROX002TS 62 Worm? 0.003 From the curve, ampere-turns/m = XH) AT for rotor teet 3000 x 0.035 = 1 Rotor cores B in rotor core = From the curve, amperc-turns/m AT for rotor core = 350 x 0.07 = 24.5, say 25. ‘The summation of all the ampere-turns of the series magnetic circuit gives the ampere-turns, per pole considering the position of Mux wave at 30° from the centre af the pole. ‘This can be shown in summarized form as follows: Flux per pole g,, = 0.0275 Wb Part Area, A Length Be par ae Hn at ar ine) im) 2A (ampere-turném) Stator core 012 oul 145 : 250 3 oF teeth ) 1.025 042 7 Ls 1000 2 Ait-gap 0.056 npott . 0.668 534000610 Rotor teeth re) 0023 0.035 7 Ln 3,000 03 Rotor core O01 0.07 1.25 - 350 25 Toul ATie 307 px AT per pole Magnetizing current per phase fy 34% Ku. Toy80 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Take Ky. = 0.96; Ty = 250; p = 10 Substituting the values, f= SOTHO agar 2x 096x250 ‘The induction motor is star-connected. ‘Therefore, line current = 14.37 A 4.3, FLUX LEAKAGE Leakage flux in non-useful paths affects excitation in case of DC excited machines. Leakage Hux affects the inductive feactance of AC windings. If @, is the flux per ampere flowing in a coil of tums 7, and forming a magnetic path of reluctance 4, then te = TAT (4.20) Py = permeance Aci, where A, = effective area and J, = length of magnetic path, Leakage inductance = Flux linkages per ampere = T,@, Wb-turns Inductance = 2p, henries G21 If fis the frequency of the alternating current in the winding, the reactance X,= laysT?p, ohms (4.22) To determine this, it is necessary first to find out the permeance. The air-path in the circuit of magnetic flux is divided in series and parallel cireuits and the ratio A, /{, of each path is found out. ‘The magnetic path in iron is assumed to have infinite permeability. In sir j= slp. Adding up the permeance as in circuit configuration, Total permeance = pp= fA /t, = My, (4.23) where A, is termed the permeance coefficient. While studying the effect of leakage fw approximately in the various parts. machines, it is necessary to determine the same 4.3.1 Leakage of Salient Poles This is approximately determined by considering the pole axes paralle| in the case of low speed salient pole alternators. The ampere-turns AT, which produces leakage flux on no-load a ampere-tums required for airgap, teeth, core. Leakage between pole shoes per pole is ahout 20.AT, x 10°, while leakage between poles per pole is about 80 AT, x 10", Thus flux at the back of the pole is the main flux 6+ 20 AT; x 10°S; The flux at the root of the pole is the main flux @+ 20 AT, x 108 + 80 AT) x 1%Design of Magnetic Cireuitss Field System 81 4.3.2 Leakage of Non-salient Poles. If the retaining rings clamping the overhang of the rotor winding of the (urbo-altemator is of magnetic material, there is a large leakage, Leakage has the bad effect of saturating the rotor teeth and rotor core, To reduce the effect of leakage, non-magnetic end ring clamps are used; ratio of length/diameter is made large, 4.4 LEAKAGE IN ARMATURE The flus in a rotating machine can he considered as useful flux and leakage flux. The useful flux provides energy conversion while the leakage flux gives the winding Jeakage inductance and reactance. The working or useful flux links the windings, on hath the sides of the leakage flux links with either of the windings (on the stator or the rotor) but not both, The types of leakages to be considered are as follows: Slot leakage dl Slot leakage crosses the conductors fram one toth to the next, Tt depends on the magnitude of current in the conductors, Figure 4.12 shows a section of a rectangular slot with rectangular conductor im it. Reluctance of the path is assumed to be concentrated in the slot portion, The permeance coefficient per metre path of the axial length in the core can be considered as the ratio area/length of the path. A. Ay number of parallel paths can be considered to find out the permeance | f of the slot portion. In Figure 4.12, f is the height of the conductor, Ww, is the width of the slot, 1, 5 the opening of the slot; fy is the height af the slot above the conductor height; 4, is height in the wedge portion; fi, is the lip; f, 18 the length of the airgap. The flux ahove the conductor links the whole conductor while the flux within the height Of the conductor at any point links the lower part of the conduetor. IF a small portion of the conductor is considered of thickness ax at a height x from the bottom of the conductor, the flux linking the clemental path de is avi, ampere per ampere is the conductor and has the value a ¢, Mala fhy)(lv/w),) and Links with only ff) portion of the conductor. The effective inductance is given by {ing of leakage Mux Figure 4.12 Slot leakage. dO, T, = fy(eliyy (delw,) Permeance coefficient in the conductor portion of the slot is given by For other parallel! paths, the permeance coefficient is given hy the ratio of arca/length per metre of axial length. Thus the specific slat permeance is given by aay82 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines The total slot permeance of the net core length L, is given bY ft L, A (4.25) Figure 4.13 shows the different types of slots generally used in rotating machines. Proceeding in the same way, the specific permeance of the various types of slots of different shapes and dimensions can be found out, Equations 4.24(a), 4.24(b) to 4.29 (of Table 4.1) give the values of the specific permeance of a few of the types of slots represented in Figures 4.13(a}, to (1). It will be observed that the specific permeance of round slot is independent of the diameter. tle de Sct + En tT ee » f | : a rt (a) b) @ (a) Figure 4.13(¢)Design of Magnetic Cireuits: Field System 8 2H ter : falar m ut, D8, F fro 2 ‘ ia —_s i | Lt [rs zo ° ° 1 2 3 tt Figure 4.13(f) Table 4.1 Values of specific permenance of slots represented in Figures 4.13(a) to (f) «) 424) w 4246) « (3261 ® an fo 4-62 (a2e 7, wth by aero a (a2) ‘Overhang leakage ‘This is related to the shape and the length of the end conductors, spacing between stator and rotor overhangs, types of winding, ctc. It is difficult to calcu An emperical expression is used in practice to give an appropriate value, late this. exactly. An appropriate expression is, £4, =4¥? fry, 4.30)84 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines where the constant &, is given by the curve in Figure 4,14. 09) 08 07} 08 os Figure 4.14 Faclor k, vs. ratio of coll spanipole pitch. Zigzag leakage Figure 4.15 shows the vigzag leakage ‘This leakage depends on the relative widths of stator and rotor teeth, ai-gap and slot openings lel, Jel In the case of induction motors, the magnetizing reactance: a ty 2 Vy Where Vis the applied voltage per phase and dy is the tagnetizing current per phase. ‘The zigzag reactance per phase is given approximately by th following expression in ohms. Wee Figure 4.15 Zigzag leakage, 5 11) Xrigaag = = + ‘Jonms per phase 31 where gy and gy are the number of Belt leakage In the case af wound rotor induction motors, this leakage is caused by the difference in the number of slots in the stator and the rotor and gs. This is also called differential or harmonic leakage. This is neglected for squirrel cage induction motors, ‘The approximate expression for the belt leakage reactance is given by X= Ka lky + 9, ) (43lay where fj, and &,, are values of the constant coefficient obtained from curves in Figure 4.16,Design of Magnetic Cireuits: Field System 85 aaxig" 18 I 12 . i No os 05 oF 08 o9 10 Gail span Fole pitch Figure 4.16 Values of ky vs. ratio of coil spanipole pitch 4.4.1 Reactance per Phase Reactance X = 31.6% 107° f 1a9 (4.32) pee where pe mber of turns per of slots per pole per phase; £ = length of the canductor in core; 4 = permeance coe! In ease af slot leakage reactance, wke A,. In case of overhang leakage, take L,4, instead of LA in the expression, The procedure to determine A for various types of slots, ete. has already heen explained in the last section number ber of poles: f= frequency in Hz; Ty 4.4.2. Phase Reactance of an Induction Motor Phase reactance of an induction motor referred to s tor Xp = ap tahea, tal ta, ta, tay (4.33) where x, 1 be considered for wound rater type induction motor only. 4.4.3 Phase Reactance of a Synchronous Machine In the case of synchronous machines, it is necessary to determine the reactanee for calculating akage and overhang leakage flux can he found out by the following expressions: If f= full-load current in amps, and T, = mumber of tums in the coil86 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines Slot leakage flux, ¢, = 2g, 17, £,% (4.34) and Overhang leakage flus, ¢, = 2yi@ys,1T.L, 4, (4.35) Zigzag flux is not considered in salient pole synchronous machines as the pole face is the cquipotential surface in the quadrature axis. Total leakage flux, 6 = 9, +¢, (4.36 EXAMPLE 4.3 Find the leakage reactance per phase of a three-phase, 30 Hz, 440 V. squirrel cage induction motor with the following data: number of poles = 4: stator slots = 36; rotor slots ; stator slot pitch = 0.02 m; rotor slot piteh = 0,024 m; opening of stator slot = 0.003 m: opening of rotor slot = 0.002 m; length of the air-gap = 0.0005 m; length of conductor in core = 0.18 ms shape of the stator slot ref. Figure 4.13: w, = 0.01 mz fy = 0.02 mz fy = 0.002 fry = 0.002 my fy = 8.001 ms Shape of rotor slot round; diametes 006 m; 4, = 0.001 m (Figure 4.13). Mutual reactance Xy = 120 @; pole pitch ¥ = 0.18 m. Full pitch winding with 60° phase belt so K, = 10: number af tums per phase Ty, = 200. Solution: Stator slot permeance coefficient A, is given by he 2h h ply Ms Is = 4, = 0.025 0.002 | 20.002 0.001 ~ 3x0.01° 0.01 © 0.010 +0.003 © 0.003 0,833 + 0.2 + 0.307 + 0.333 673 Rotor slot permeance coefficient: = 066+ 2 = 1.16 = LISS x 1.16 = 1.343eld System BT Design of Magnetic Creu Slot leakage Xy: 31.6% 10" x fx xb, sta, +4Ly pxg number of slots per pole per phase = 36/44 x 3) = 3, Substituting the values, B10 107 5 502 0,18 (1673+ 1,343) » 1 ae X= 2.86 Q 6 st 1 = stator slots per pole = 36/4 = 9 rotor slots per pole = 294 = 7.25 Substituting the values, X= ex 120 = 100(0.0123 + 0.019) =3.130 For overhang leakage: Ky? _ 1x 0.18) = =0515 fay = ny KOE 5 bay 31.6% 10" x50 x 2 ae 5.266 x 0515 = 2.71.9 Reactance of the induction motor per phase XoXe Xa X, = 2.86 4 3.13 +271 =8.70Q EXAMPLE 4.6 Find per unit leakage reactance of a three-phase, 50 Hz. M00 kVA, 3300 volts, star-connected altemator running at 325 rpm. Number of slots per pote per phase = 3. Concentric winding is used and the conductors per slot = 3, The average flux density, B = 0.6 Woim?; core length = 0.38 m; 3 ducts each of 0.01 m: pole pitch Y= 0.30 m: air-gap = 0.006 m. The stator slat is of the shape shown in Figure 4.12, The dittiensions are as follows: fy = 0.035 my; fy = 0.005 m; fs = 0.003 m; fig = 0.0015 m; w, = 0.010 m; vv, = 0.003 mi,8B Pesign and Testing af Blectrival Machines Soluiion: Number of slots in the stator Sy = 3 x 3 8 = 72 as the number of slots per pole per phase g7=% and poles p = 8 for 375 1pm, synchronous speed at 30 Ha. todo x 1000 (3) «3300 Net length in core £, = 0.38 ~ 3 x O.01 = 0.35 mi accounting for ducts. Pull load current J = = 175.2.A per phase Main flux g, = Bx x b= 0.6.x 0.30 x 0.38 = 0.068 Wh aD = py = 8 x 080 = 24 m, and 5, = 72 Slot pitch, y,, = 24/72 = 0.033 m ‘The slot permeance coefficient from the dimer 0.035 0.005 | 2x 0.003 0.0015 30010” 0.010” 0.003 +0010 0.003 = 1.166 + 0.5 + 0.46 +05 2.632 5 of the slot is given by Slot flux, @, = 2J(2)x4ax 10-7 &T. xb, x IK A, 2ylD) x dar x 177 % 5x 0.35 x 175.2 x 2.632 2.87 mWb Rx fry, LA, ‘Overhang flux @, = 22x dar 1077 175.25 x 0.868, 2.7 mWb Total leakage flux 6 = ¢, 46, =2.8742.7=5.57 mWb Main flux ,, = 0.068 4 x1o* = 0.083 oF 8.2% a Dog = OSS os is required in ohms, IX = Vx %X 5300 175.2 xX 0.082 Xe X= 0899 ‘Thus leakage reactance is 0.89 © per phase approxinDesign of Magnetic Cireuits: Field System 89 4.5 FLUX PLOTTING For estimating magnetic leukage and predetermining the field form or flux distribution, e.g. in the airgap and near about in the pole of a machine or part of the magnetic circuit, two- dimensional maps are sometimes made. The methods used for the purpose are generally (@ Mapping by using cur considered, (i) Simulating the problem in an clectrolytic tank and determining the flow of current in an electrolyte, near squares and freehand mapping in the space to be The method of curvilinear squares tis assumed that the iton has infinite permeability. This then means that the magnetic tines of force enter and leave the iron surface at right angles, While plotting flux, any axis of symmetry d from symmetry. In flux mapping by the use of curvilinear squares, both the lines af force and the magnetic equipotential lines are plotted, ic. drawn freehand. First draw boundaries and axes ‘of symmetry. Drawn hoth the lines of force and. the cquipotential lines. The lines of force and the cquipotential lincs interscct at right angles and form curvilincar squares. The spacing af lines of force and the equipotential at the figures become squares. These squares cnelase areas bounded by fos which intersect at right angles at the corners. The areas are then subdivided by adding more tines of force and equipotential lines so that any errors in making the lines at right angles at each comer can be detected and corrected, The method of curvilinear squares can be used for the solution of electrostatic field, magnetic field or electric field, I can be used to determine resisiance of inegular sizes and shapes of badies also. A curvilinear square is a unit depth volume ha reluctance or permeance as a unit cube. ‘The properties of curvilinear squares are as follows: is used so that the labour of plotting for the whole figure is saved and results ean he obti ing the same capacitance, elastance, (a) The electric or magnetic potential difference across all squares in a fleld is equal (b) An equal number of flux lines pass through all square in a field (c) The flux density is inversely proportional to the size of the square. (U) The field intensity is inversely proportional to the size of the square. (e) An equal amount of energy is stored in each square of the field. (f) Equal amounts of charge are bound at the ends of all the tubes of flux in an eleetri field. The method of curvilinear squares for flux plotting is illustrated helow for the cases of field distribution of flux in the air-gap of a pole a DC shunt machine in Figure 4.17 and flux distribution in air-gap of a salient pole synchronous machine in Figure 4.18, The plots in Figures 4.17 and 4.18 can he used to determine (i) permeance of air-gap Gi) Mux distribution factor f, and (iii) form factor as well as percentage of harmonies present in the flux waveform in the ease of a synchronous machine. This then helps in shaping the pot correctly 10 obtain sinusoidal flux distribution in the air-gap as nearly as possible reducing the percentage harmonics and elittiinating the tore pronounced ones when necessary90 Pesign and Testing af Flectrieal Machines \ / \ ! \ { Figure 4.17 Flux distribution in the airgap of a pole of a shunt generator. ig 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 py mm 1.856 Figure 4.18 Flux distribution in the air-gap af a pole of a synchronous salient pale generator. Symmetry of the pole axes is used and flux mapping is done only for half the pole pitch, i.e. between the centre of the pole to the quadrature axis. » Flux A aat AMEANCE. P= Sang jy] (4.37) Each square represents equal permeance corresponding to Width of the square x Unit length of the pole face path’Design of Magnetic Cireuitss Field System 91 Here the width and the length of each square is made equal as far as possible so that each square represents permieance corresponding to > " Sere? My 4mxi0 (i) The number of squares along the ait-gap, eg. 6 in Figure 4.18 represents the permeance in series (m0) while the number of squares in the air-gap along the pole Pi 52 x 2 im Figure 4.18 represent permeance im parallel (n). Thus the petiticance of the air-gap path under each pole of the machine is given by 4.38) In the problem of Figure 4.18, it is p 10" dx (ii) For finding the flux density distribution in the air-gap, choose a number of points along the armature periphery of width a,. Consider thes of foree from armature surface to pole, If B, is the mean width of the tbe and 4, is the mean length of Bip at the point considered, permeance of the tube is proportional to 6,/a, and the flux density at the point 8, for the armature surface width a, and of unit length is proportional to 4, /4. If B, is the air-gap flux density at the centre of the pole, and gap length is 6 then B, is proportional wo 1/5. Thus (4.39) Calculate flux density at various points each and flux density B vs. points considered, ‘of 15° apart on the amature surface ee Area under the flux distri urve aan lux distribution factor, f, = ——C™S unser the us aisirbation curve _ ee OOS ‘Area under rectangle with maximum flux density ” Git) In the ease of synchronous machines harmonics in flux waveform need to be determined, find the average and rms values of the flux densities from the curve aver the pole pitel area, thei ratio a gives the farm factor of the field distribution in the ait-gap. Flux plotting is thus a useful tool in determining the above information. 4.6 OPEN-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS The open-circuit characteristics ar open-circuit saturation curve gives the relation between the terminal voltage at no load and the corresponding ampere-turns per pole, The method of calculating the ampere-turns for a given voltage and thus flux conditions is explained above inDesign of Magnetic Circuits: Field System 93 Solution: Mean length of turn I = 0.36 x 2 + 0.24 x 2 Surface for heat dissipation 12m 2g (height of coil + winding depth) 2 x 1.20.2 + 0.04) = 0.576 m? This is for each pole; for 6 poles = 0.576 x 6 = 3.456 m*. If surface for loss dissipation is taken as 18 x 10+ m? per watt, 3.456 x 10* 18 = 1920 W Loss that can be dissipated by this surface = rel +—0.2em—| (>) Figure 4.19 Field winding of Example 4.7, The voltage across the poles and field winding = 420 V 1920 itati = =457A The excitation current = “55 Resistance of field winding = Bes. 92 Turns per pole = 1969 tums Total length of wire for field winding = Poles x Turns per pole ly, = 6 x 1969 x 1.2 = 14.177 m Resistivity = 1.7 x 10? Q per mm?/m Cross-section of the conductor for field winding 1.7107? «14.177 91.7 623 mm? From the standard conductor available from IS, choose the nearest, this is a = 2.545 mm? The diameter of bare conductor = 1.8 mm Overall diameter of enamelled (medium) conductor = 1.916 mm a (mm?)94 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines Current density, 5 cd =1.8 A/mm? which is within the permissible limit of 2. A/mm?, As height of winding is 0.2 m, the turns per layer = 2 = about 100 1.916 1969 Number of layers = “fq = about 20. Make 2000 turns. Winding depth = 1.916 x 20 = about 0.04 m, which is OK. This is worked out without allowing for space for insulation and slacking factor as an approximation, In practice, this is to be accounted for. The winding data is therefore as follows: Number of turns per pole 2000 Number of layers 20 Number of turns per layer 100 Conductor area 2.545 mm? Conductor bare diameter 18 mm Conductor overall diameter 1.916 mm with enamel covering (medium) With the modified number of turns, recheck resistance, surface area, power dissipated and see that they are within the permissible limits. REFERENCES 1. Kuhlmann, John H., Design of Electrical Apparatus, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949. 2. Say, M.G., The Performance and Design of Alternating Current Machinery, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1961 3. Smith, S. Parker and M.G. Say, Electrical Engineering Design Manual, Asia Publishing House, 1961. 4. Shanmugasundaram, A., G. Gangadharan and R. Palani, Electrical Machine Design Data Book, Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1979. 5. Deshpande, M.V., Elements of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan, Pune, 1979. 6. Deshpande, M.V., Elements of Electrical Machines, Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan, Pune, 1980.CHAPTER, All Design of Electrical Circuits: Armature Windings 5.1 ARMATURE COILS, CONSTRUCTION AND INSULATION The coils may be single-tur or multi-tum. Copper conductors of suitable size covered with insulation are used for coils. The conductors may be round for small machines; for large size machines, square or rectangular conductors are used. The insulation on conductors may be cotton, enamel, varnished bonded glass or Class F or Class H insulation, as explained in an earlier chapter. The coils may be random wound for small machines Where round enamel conductors are generally used. The conductors are threaded in semi-closed slots. The type of coils most commonly required, however, are formed coils, i.e. they are given a required shape. The coils are given a varnish treatment for moderate voltage machines; for large size and high voltage machines, the coils are treated by a ‘vacuum process and impregnated with a moisture resisting, heat conducting compound. The coils may have one tum per layer where the size of the conductor is large. It is sub-divided by using several small wires in parallel. Coils with many turns may be wound as shown in Figure 5.1. The types of coils used for ac machines are of the following shapes: (i) Concentric, (ii) Diamond, Hexagonal, 95 Figure $1 Arrangement of a mulitur coil connection. iv) Involute, and (v) Mush.96 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines ‘The mush type shape is very common, The shape of the coil will depend on the coil span, and the overhang required. The multiturn diamond coil of the pulled type is quite common. For a double-layer winding for open slots, lap or wave type coils are used for windings. 5.2 TYPES OF WINDINGS FOR AC AND DC MACHINES For ac machines, the types of windings used are: (a) Single layer or chain winding: Chain windings have only one coil side per slot and the number of armature coils is equal to the number of slots. The number of conductors in each slot may be odd or even. The shapes of the coils are not the same because the end connections must lie in different planes, generally in 2 or 3 planes. (b) Double layer winding: Each slot has two coil sides. The number of conductors per slot is an even number. The number of coils is equal to the number of slots. All coils have the same shape. In general, the following points will specify the type of winding for three-phase machines. (i) Layers: single layer or double layer. (i) Type of coils: Concentric, lap or wave; the shape may also be mentioned, random wound or formed. Single-turn or multi-turn. Overhang; diamond, multi-plane or mush. Integral slot or fractional slot winding. Full pitch or chorded coil span. Phase spread 60° or 120°; 60° phase spread is common. Slots shape: open or semi-closed, Outside connection: delta or star. For dc machines, the following types of windings are used. (a) Lap windings Simplex lap winding; the number of parallel paths a = p Progressive windings are common. (b) Wave windings Simplex wave windings; the number of parallel paths a = 2; retrogressive windings are common. Multiplex windings: Lap where a = mp Wave where a = 2m where m is the multipl Multiplex windings are not used much. ity of windings. (© Frog-leg windings The frog-leg winding consists of a lap winding and wave winding placed on the same armature. The wave winding is connected to the commutator segments at equipotential points so that this winding part can be used as an equalizer for the lap winding.Design of Bleetrical Cireuits: Armature Windings 97 5.3. INTEGRAL SLOT WINDINGS In this type of winding, the number of slots per pole per phase is an integer. This may be 1, 2, 3, 4 or larger in special cases. Generally the arrangement of 3 or 4 slots per pole per phase is common. The winding is distributed in slots and hence the breadth factor must be accounted for to obtain the voltage induced per phase in the machine. The winding is arranged with a number of coils in armature slots distributed in a suitable way to obtain the balanced emf out of the coil group connection and to give the required phase displacement among the phase emfs in the case of polyphase windings. If there are two coil sides per slot, this is known as double- layer winding. Polyphase machines have double-layer windings. For three-phase machine stators, the winding is similar to three single-phase windings arranged 60° electrical apart and connected outside in such a way as to obtain a balanced three-phase supply. A better waveform of the e.m.f. is obtained from the machine when the winding is distributed in a number of slots per pole. The breadth or the distribution factor (see Table 5.1) is given by sin. m(y/2) k= yw 6 msin (y/2) oD where m = number of slots per pole per phase y = angle in electrical degrees between adjacent slots. Table 5.1 The number of slots per pole per phase vs. dstrbution factor Number of slots per pole per phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distribution factor, ky 1,000 0.966 0.960 0.957 __ 0.9567 _ 0.956 If one side of a coil is under the north pole and the second coil side of the same coil is exactly pole pitch apart under the south pole, i.e. the coil span is exactly 180° electrical or distance equal to pole pitch, this is known as full-pitch winding. In order to reduce the amount cof copper in the end connections of the coils and also to partially or wholly eliminate some harmonics in the emf wave of ac machines, the coil span is made less than pole pitch. Generally, the coil span is one slot less than the pole pitch. It varies up to 2/3rd kg pole pitch in limiting cases. Chording or the pitch factor k,, is given by (5.2) where @is the chording angle in degrees electrical. This is the pole pitch minus the coil span. Some of the commonly used pitch factors are given in. Table 5.2. It will be seen from Table 5.2 that coil span may be less than or more than the pole pitch. Only the commonly used coil spans are shown. If it differs from these, the pitch factor can be worked out by the expression given in Eq. (5.2) The emf induced in the winding will be reduced by the distribution factor and the pitch factor.98 Design and Testing of Electrical Machines Table 5.2 Typical pitch factors Coil throw Slots per pole 3 6 1 8 9 10 in 2 3 0.866 4 1.00 1s 0866 0.866 16 0966 0.901 7 100 09750923 0,866 18 0966 100 0981 0940 0.891 1-9 0.866 0975 1.00 0.985 0.951 0.910 0.866 110 0.901 0.981 1.00 0.988 0.960 0.924 M1 0924 0.985 1.000.990 0.966 HI 094 0.988 1.000.991 1-13 0.866 0.951 0.990 1.00 1-14 0.891 0.960 0.991 1-15 0.910 0.966 116 0.924 1-17 0.866 EXAMPLE 5.1 (a) A 3-phase star-connected, 6-pole synchronous machine has 54 slots. It has a full pitch double layer winding. Show the distribution of the winding layout. Show how the connections are taken out to have three-phase: terminals. Find the distribution factor. (b) If the coil span is one slot less than the pole pitch, find the pitch factor. Solution: (a) Number of slots = 54; number of coils for double-layer winding = 54; number of phases = 3; number of poles = 6; pole pitch = 54/6 = 9 slots when full pitch, coil span = 9 slots (for part (b) the coil span is one slot less than the pole pitch. Therefore, coil span = 8 slots). The number of slots per pole per phase = 54/(3 x 6) = 3. The layout for a full-pitch winding for the first 18 slots, i.e. for 2 poles, is shown in Figure 5.2. Afterwards this winding repeats itself. A 60° phase belt is used. The top row of the winding in the slots will be aaacec bbbaxe ae xX cecrry aaaccc bbbwx ae Xx cece hb The bottom line distribution of winding will also be the same for the full-pitch winding. sin(3x20/2)_ 0.5 0.96 The breadth factor, ky, = =—_=0. 3sin (20/2) 3x 0.1736 180 . Pitch factor = 1.0 yo mT 20° electrical