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Oracle Concepts and Architecture

Database Structures
1. What are the components of physical database
structure of Oracle database?
Oracle database is comprised of three types of files. One or more
datafiles, two are more redo log files, and one or more control
files.
2. What are the components of logical database structure
of Oracle database?
There are tablespaces and databases schema objects.
3. What is a tablespace?
A database is divided into Logical Storage Unit called tablespaces.
A tablespace is used to grouped related logical structures
together.
4. What is SYSTEM tablespace and when is it created?
Every Oracle database contains a tablespace named SYSTEM,
which is automatically created when the database is created. The
SYSTEM tablespace always contains the data dictionary tables for
the entire database.
5. Explain the relationship among database, tablespace
and data file.

Each databases logically divided into one or more tablespaces

one or more data files are explicitly created for each tablespace.
6. What is schema?
A schema is collection of database objects of a user.
7. What are Schema Objects?
Schema objects are the logical structures that directly refer to the
databases data. Schema objects include tables, views,
sequences, synonyms, indexes, clusters, database triggers,
procedures, functions packages and database links.
8. Can objects of the same schema reside in different table
spaces?
Yes.
9. Can a tablespace hold objects from different schemes?
Yes.
10. What is Oracle table?
A table is the basic unit of data storage in an Oracle database.
The tables of a database hold all of the user accessible data. Table
data is stored in rows and columns.
11. What is an Oracle view?
A view is a virtual table. Every view has a query attached to it.
(The query is a SELECT statement that identifies the columns and
rows of the table(s) the view uses.)
12. Do a view contain data?
Views do not contain or store data.
13. Can a view based on another view?
Yes.
14. What are the advantages of views?

- Provide an additional level of table security, by restricting access

to a predetermined set of rows and columns of a table.
- Hide data complexity.
- Simplify commands for the user.
- Present the data in a different perspective from that of the base
table.
- Store complex queries.
15. What is an Oracle sequence?
A sequence generates a serial list of unique numbers for
numerical columns of a databases tables.
16. What is a synonym?
A synonym is an alias for a table, view, sequence or program unit.
Read this blog for more core practical dba questions
17. What are the types of synonyms?
There are two types of synonyms private and public.
18. What is a private synonym?
Only its owner can access a private synonym.
19. What is a public synonym?
Any database user can access a public synonym.
20. What are synonyms used for?
- Mask the real name and owner of an object.
- Provide public access to an object
- Provide location transparency for tables, views or program units
of a remote database.
- Simplify the SQL statements for database users.

21. What is an Oracle index?

An index is an optional structure associated with a table to have
direct access to rows, which can be created to increase the
performance of data retrieval. Index can be created on one or
more columns of a table.
22. How are the index updates?
Indexes are automatically maintained and used by Oracle.
Changes to table data are automatically incorporated into all
relevant indexes.
23. What are clusters?
Clusters are groups of one or more tables physically stores
together to share common columns and are often used together.
24. What is cluster key?
The related columns of the tables in a cluster are called the
cluster key.
25. What is index cluster?
A cluster with an index on the cluster key.
26. What is hash cluster?
A row is stored in a hash cluster based on the result of applying a
hash function to the rows cluster key value. All rows with the
same hash key value are stores together on disk.
27. When can hash cluster used?
Hash clusters are better choice when a table is often queried with
equality queries. For such queries the specified cluster key value
is hashed. The resulting hash key value points directly to the area
on disk that stores the specified rows.
28. What is database link?

A database link is a named object that describes a path from

one database to another.
29. What are the types of database links?
Private database link, public database link & network database
link.
30. What is private database link?
Private database link is created on behalf of a specific user. A
private database link can be used only when the owner of the link
specifies a global object name in a SQL statement or in the
definition of the owners views or procedures.
31. What is public database link?
Public database link is created for the special user group PUBLIC.
A public database link can be used when any user in the
associated database specifies a global object name in a SQL
statement or object definition.
32. What is network database link?
Network database link is created and managed by a network
domain service. A network database link can be used when any
user of any database in the network specifies a global object
name in a SQL statement or object definition.
33. What is data block?
Oracle databases data is stored in data blocks. One data block
corresponds to a specific number of bytes of physical database
space on disk.
34. How to define data block size?
A data block size is specified for each Oracle database when the
database is created. A database users and allocated free
database space in Oracle data blocks. Block size is specified in
init.ora file and cannot be changed latter.
35. What is row chaining?

In circumstances, all of the data for a row in a table may not be

able to fit in the same data block. When this occurs, the data for
the row is stored in a chain of data block (one or more) reserved
for that segment.
36. What is an extent?
An extent is a specific number of contiguous data blocks,
obtained in a single allocation and used to store a specific type of
information.
37. What is a segment?
A segment is a set of extents allocated for a certain logical
structure.
38. What are the different types of segments?
Data segment, index segment, rollback segment and temporary
segment.
39. What is a data segment?
Each non-clustered table has a data segment. All of the tables
data is stored in the extents of its data segment. Each cluster has
a data segment. The data of every table in the cluster is stored in
the clusters data segment.
40. What is an index segment?
Each index has an index segment that stores all of its data.
41. What is rollback segment?
A database contains one or more rollback segments to
temporarily store undo information.
42. What are the uses of rollback segment?
To generate read-consistent database information during
database recovery and to rollback uncommitted transactions by
the users.

43. What is a temporary segment?

Temporary segments are created by Oracle when a SQL statement
needs a temporary work area to complete execution. When the
statement finishes execution, the temporary segment extents are
released to the system for future use.
44. What is a datafile?
Every Oracle database has one or more physical data files. A
databases data files contain all the database data. The data of
logical database structures such as tables and indexes is
physically stored in the data files allocated for a database.
45. What are the characteristics of data files?
A data file can be associated with only one database. Once
created a data file cant change size. One or more data files form
a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace.
46. What is a redo log?
The set of redo log files for a database is collectively known as the
database redo log.
47. What is the function of redo log?
The primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made
to data.
48. What is the use of redo log information?
The information in a redo log file is used only to recover the
database from a system or media failure prevents database data
from being written to a databases data files.
49. What does a control file contains?
- Database name
- Names and locations of a databases files and redolog files.
- Time stamp of database creation.

50. What is the use of control file?

When an instance of an Oracle database is started, its control file
is used to identify the database and redo log files that must be
opened for database operation to proceed. It is also used in
database recovery.
Data Base Administration
51. What is a database instance? Explain.
A database instance (Server) is a set of memory structure and
background processes that access a set of database files. The
processes can be shared by all of the users.
The memory structure that is used to store the most queried data
from database. This helps up to improve database performance
by decreasing the amount of I/O performed against data file.
52. What is Parallel Server?
Multiple instances accessing the same database (only in multiCPU environments)
53. What is a schema?
The set of objects owned by user account is called the schema.
54. What is an index? How it is implemented in Oracle
database?
An index is a database structure used by the server to have direct
access of a row in a table. An index is automatically created when
a unique of primary key constraint clause is specified in create
table command
55. What are clusters?
Group of tables physically stored together because they share
common columns and are often used together is called cluster.
56. What is a cluster key?

The related columns of the tables are called the cluster key. The
cluster key is indexed using a cluster index and its value is stored
only once for multiple tables in the cluster.
57. What is the basic element of base configuration of an
Oracle database?
It consists of
one or more data files.
one or more control files.
two or more redo log files.
The Database contains
multiple users/schemas
one or more rollback segments
one or more tablespaces
Data dictionary tables
User objects (table,indexes,views etc.,)
The server that access the database consists of
SGA (Database buffer, Dictionary Cache Buffers, Redo log buffers,
Shared SQL pool)
SMON (System MONito)
PMON (Process MONitor)
LGWR (LoG Write)
DBWR (Data Base Write)
ARCH (ARCHiver)
CKPT (Check Point)
RECO

Dispatcher
User Process with associated PGS
58. What is a deadlock? Explain.
Two processes waiting to update the rows of a table, which are
locked by other processes then deadlock arises.
In a database environment this will often happen because of not
issuing the proper row lock commands. Poor design of front-end
application may cause this situation and the performance of
server will reduce drastically.
These locks will be released automatically when a
commit/rollback operation performed or any one of this processes
being killed externally.
More practical questions here in this blog
Memory Management
59. What is SGA?
The System Global Area in an Oracle database is the area in
memory to facilitate the transfer of information between users. It
holds the most recently requested structural information between
users. It holds the most recently requested structural information
about the database. The structure is database buffers, dictionary
cache, redo log buffer and shared pool area.
DBA Interview Question & Answers with practical
examples
60. What is a shared pool?
The data dictionary cache is stored in an area in SGA called the
shared pool. This will allow sharing of parsed SQL statements
among concurrent users.
61. What is mean by Program Global Area (PGA)?
It is area in memory that is used by a single Oracle user process.

62. What is a data segment?

Data segment are the physical areas within a database block in
which the data associated with tables and clusters are stored.
63. What are the factors causing the reparsing of SQL
statements in SGA?
Due to insufficient shared pool size.
Monitor the ratio of the reloads takes place while executing SQL
statements. If the ratio is greater than 1 then increase the
SHARED_POOL_SIZE.
Database Logical & Physical Architecture
64. What is Database Buffers?
Database buffers are cache in the SGA used to hold the data
blocks that are read from the data segments in the database such
as tables, indexes and clusters
DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS parameter in INIT.ORA decides the size.
if the same query is executed then DB Cache will give the data to
the user.
the sql transactions commited data in the data buffer cache is
called as dirty buffer .
65. What is dictionary cache?
Dictionary cache is information about the database objects stored
in a data dictionary table.
validating of metadata is done by data dictionary cache ...
66. What is meant by recursive hints?
Number of times processes repeatedly query the dictionary table
is called recursive hints. It is due to the data dictionary cache is
too small. By increasing the SHARED_POOL_SIZE parameter we
can optimize the size of data dictionary cache.

67. What is redo log buffer?

Changes made to the records are written to the on-line redo log
files. So that they can be used in roll forward operations during
database recoveries. Before writing them into the redo log files,
they will first brought to redo log buffers in SGA and LGWR will
write into files frequently. LOG_BUFFER parameter will decide the
size.
Read here DBA Questions and answers with practical
examples
68. How will you swap objects into a different table space
for an existing database?
- Export the user
- Perform import using the command imp system/manager
file=export.dmp indexfile=newrite.sql. This will create all
definitions into newfile.sql.
- Drop necessary objects.
- Run the script newfile.sql after altering the tablespaces.
- Import from the backup for the necessary objects.
69. List the Optional Flexible Architecture (OFA) of Oracle
database? How can we organize the tablespaces in Oracle
database to have maximum performance?
SYSTEM Data dictionary tables.
DATA Standard operational tables.
DATA2- Static tables used for standard operations
INDEXES Indexes for Standard operational tables.
INDEXES1 Indexes of static tables used for standard operations.
TOOLS Tools table.

TOOLS1 Indexes for tools table.

RBS Standard Operations Rollback Segments,
RBS1,RBS2 Additional/Special Rollback segments.
TEMP Temporary purpose tablespace
TEMP_USER Temporary tablespace for users.
USERS User tablespace.
70. How will you force database to use particular rollback
segment?
SET TRANSACTION USE ROLLBACK SEGMENT rbs_name.
71. What is meant by free extent?
A free extent is a collection of continuous free blocks in
tablespace. When a segment is dropped its extents are
reallocated and are marked as free.
72.Which parameter in Storage clause will reduce number
of rows per block?
PCTFREE parameter
Row size also reduces no of rows per block.
73. What is the significance of having storage clause?
We can plan the storage for a table as how much initial extents
are required, how much can be extended next, how much %
should leave free for managing row updating, etc.,
74. How does Space allocation table place within a block?
Each block contains entries as follows
Fixed block header
Variable block header

Row Header, row date (multiple rows may exists)

PCTEREE (% of free space for row updating in future)
75. What is the role of PCTFREE parameter is storage
clause?
This is used to reserve certain amount of space in a block for
expansion of rows.
Read also: Here
76. What is the OPTIMAL parameter?
It is used to set the optimal length of a rollback segment.
77. What is the functionality of SYSTEM table space?
To manage the database level transactions such as modifications
of the data dictionary table that record information about the free
space usage.
78. How will you create multiple rollback segments in a
database?
- Create a database, which implicitly creates a SYSTEM rollback
segment in a SYSTEM tablespace.
- Create a second rollback segment name R0 in the SYSTEM
tablespace.
- Make new rollback segment available (after shutdown, modify
init.ora file(ROLLBACK_SEGMENT) and start database)
- Create other tablespaces (RBS) for rollback segments.
- Deactivate rollback segment R0 and activate the newly created
rollback segments.
79. How the space utilization takes place within rollback
segments?

It will try to fit the transaction in a cyclic fashion to all existing

extents. Once it found an extent is in use then it forced to acquire
a new extent (number of extents is based on the optimal size)
80. Why query fails sometimes?
Rollback segment dynamically extent to handle larger
transactions entry loads.
A single transaction may wipeout all available free space in the
rollback segment tablespace. This prevents other user using
rollback segments.
81. How will you monitor the space allocation?
By querying DBA_SEGMENT table/view
82. How will you monitor rollback segment status?
Querying the DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS view
IN USE Rollback Segment is on-line.
AVAILABLE Rollback Segment available but not on-line.
OFF-LINE Rollback Segment off-line
INVALID Rollback Segment Dropped.
NEEDS RECOVERY Contains data but need recovery or
corrupted.
PARTLY AVAILABLE Contains data from an unresolved transaction
involving a distributed database.
83. List the sequence of events when a large transaction
that exceeds beyond its optimal value when an entry
wraps and causes the rollback segment to expand into
another extend.
Transaction Begins.
An entry is made in the RES header for new transactions entry

Transaction acquires blocks in an extent of RBS

The entry attempts to wrap into second extent. None is available,
so that the RBS must extent.
The RBS checks to see if it is part of its OPTIMAL size.
RBS chooses its oldest inactive segment.
Oldest inactive segment is eliminated.
RBS extents
The data dictionary tables for space management are updated.
Transaction Completes.
84. How can we plan storage for very large tables?
Limit the number of extents in the table
Separate table from its indexes.
Allocate sufficient temporary storage.
85. How will you estimate the space required by a nonclustered table?
Calculate the total header size
Calculate the available data space per data block
Calculate the combined column lengths of the average row
Calculate the total average row size.
Calculate the average number rows that can fit in a block
Calculate the number of blocks and bytes required for the table.
After arriving the calculation, add 10 % additional space to
calculate the initial extent size for a working table.
86. It is possible to use raw devices as data files and what
are the advantages over file system files?

Yes.
The advantages over file system files are that I/O will be improved
because Oracle is bye-passing the kernel which writing into disk.
Disk corruption will be very less.
87. What is a Control file?
Databases overall physical architecture is maintained in a file
called control file. It will be used to maintain internal consistency
and guide recovery operations. Multiple copies of control files are
advisable.
88. How to implement the multiple control files for an
existing database?
Shutdown the database
Copy one of the existing control file to new location
Edit Config ora file by adding new control filename
Restart the database.
89. What is redo log file mirroring? How can be achieved?
Process of having a copy of redo log files is called mirroring.
This can be achieved by creating group of log files together, so
that LGWR will automatically writes them to all the members of
the current on-line redo log group. If any one group fails then
database automatically switch over to next group. It degrades
performance.
90. What is advantage of having disk shadowing /
mirroring?
Shadow set of disks save as a backup in the event of disk failure.
In most operating systems if any disk failure occurs it
automatically switchover to place of failed disk.
Improved performance because most OS support volume
shadowing can direct file I/O request to use the shadow set of files

instead of the main set of files. This reduces I/O load on the main
set of disks.
91. What is use of rollback segments in Oracle database?
They allow the database to maintain read consistency between
multiple transactions.
92. What is a rollback segment entry?
It is the set of before image data blocks that contain rows that are
modified by a transaction.
Each rollback segment entry must be completed within one
rollback segment.
A single rollback segment can have multiple rollback segment
entries.
93. What is hit ratio?
It is a measure of well the data cache buffer is handling requests
for data.
Hit Ratio = (Logical Reads Physical Reads Hits Misses)/ Logical
Reads.
94. When will be a segment released?
When Segment is dropped.
When Shrink (RBS only)
When truncated (TRUNCATE used with drop storage option)
95. What are disadvantages of having raw devices?
We should depend on export/import utility for backup/recovery
(fully reliable)
The tar command cannot be used for physical file backup, instead
we can use dd command, which is less flexible and has limited
recoveries.

96. List the factors that can affect the accuracy of the
estimations?
- The space used transaction entries and deleted records, does
not become free immediately after completion due to delayed
cleanout.
- Trailing nulls and length bytes are not stored.
- Inserts of, updates to and deletes of rows as well as columns
larger than a single data block, can cause fragmentation a
chained row pieces.
Database Security & Administration
97. What is user Account in Oracle database?
A user account is not a physical structure in database but it is
having important relationship to the objects in the database and
will be having certain privileges.
98. How will you enforce security using stored
procedures?
Dont grant user access directly to tables within the application.
Instead grant the ability to access the procedures that access the
tables.
When procedure executed it will execute the privilege of
procedures owner. Users cannot access tables except via the
procedure.
99. What are the dictionary tables used to monitor a
database space?
DBA_FREE_SPACE
DBA_SEGMENTS
DBA_DATA_FILES.
SQL*Plus Statements

100. What are the types of SQL statement?

Data Definition Language: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE,
REVOKE, NO AUDIT & COMMIT.
Data Manipulation Language: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, LOCK
TABLE, EXPLAIN PLAN & SELECT.
Transactional Control: COMMIT & ROLLBACK
Session Control: ALTERSESSION & SET ROLE
System Control: ALTER SYSTEM.
101. What is a transaction?
Transaction is logical unit between two commits and commit and
rollback.
Read here More DBA Questions
102. What is difference between TRUNCATE & DELETE?
TRUNCATE commits after deleting entire table i.e., cannot be
rolled back.
Database triggers do not fire on TRUNCATE
DELETE allows the filtered deletion. Deleted records can be rolled
back or committed.
Database triggers fire on DELETE.
103. What is a join? Explain the different types of joins?
Join is a query, which retrieves related columns or rows from
multiple tables.
Self Join Joining the table with itself.
Equi Join Joining two tables by equating two common columns.
Non-Equi Join Joining two tables by equating two common
columns.

Outer Join Joining two tables in such a way that query can also
retrieve rows that do not have corresponding join value in the
other table.
104. What is the sub-query?
Sub-query is a query whose return values are used in filtering
conditions of the main query.
105. What is correlated sub-query?
Correlated sub-query is a sub-query, which has reference to the
main query.
106. Explain CONNECT BY PRIOR?
Retrieves rows in hierarchical order eg.
select empno, ename from emp where.
107. Difference between SUBSTR and INSTR?
INSTR (String1, String2 (n, (m)),
INSTR returns the position of the m-th occurrence of the string 2
in string1. The search begins from nth position of string1.
SUBSTR (String1 n, m)
SUBSTR returns a character string of size m in string1, starting
from n-th position of string1.
108. Explain UNION, MINUS, UNION ALL and INTERSECT?
INTERSECT returns all distinct rows selected by both queries.
MINUS returns all distinct rows selected by the first query but
not by the second.
UNION returns all distinct rows selected by either query
UNION ALL returns all rows selected by either query, including
all duplicates.

109. What is ROWID?

ROWID is a pseudo column attached to each row of a table. It is
18 characters long, blockno, rownumber are the components of
ROWID.
110. What is the fastest way of accessing a row in a table?
Using ROWID.
CONSTRAINTS
111. What is an integrity constraint?
Integrity constraint is a rule that restricts values to a column in a
table.
112. What is referential integrity constraint?
Maintaining data integrity through a set of rules that restrict the
values of one or more columns of the tables based on the values
of primary key or unique key of the referenced table.
113. What is the usage of SAVEPOINTS?
SAVEPOINTS are used to subdivide a transaction into smaller
parts. It enables rolling back part of a transaction. Maximum of
five save points are allowed.
114. What is ON DELETE CASCADE?
When ON DELETE CASCADE is specified Oracle maintains
referential integrity by automatically removing dependent foreign
key values if a referenced primary or unique key value is
removed.
115. What are the data types allowed in a table?
CHAR, VARCHAR2, NUMBER, DATE, RAW, LONG and LONG RAW.
116. What is difference between CHAR and VARCHAR2?
What is the maximum SIZE allowed for each type?

CHAR pads blank spaces to the maximum length.

VARCHAR2 does not pad blank spaces.
For CHAR the maximum length is 255 and 2000 for VARCHAR2.
117. How many LONG columns are allowed in a table? Is it
possible to use LONG columns in WHERE clause or ORDER
BY?
Only one LONG column is allowed. It is not possible to use LONG
column in WHERE or ORDER BY clause.
118. What are the pre-requisites to modify datatype of a
column and to add a column with NOT NULL constraint?
- To modify the datatype of a column the column must be empty.
- To add a column with NOT NULL constrain, the table must be
empty.
119. Where the integrity constraints are stored in data
dictionary?
The integrity constraints are stored in USER_CONSTRAINTS.
120. How will you activate/deactivate integrity
constraints?
The integrity constraints can be enabled or disabled by ALTER
TABLE ENABLE CONSTRAINT / DISABLE CONSTRAINT.
121. If unique key constraint on DATE column is created,
will it validate the rows that are inserted with SYSDATE?
It wont, Because SYSDATE format contains time attached with it.
122. What is a database link?
Database link is a named path through which a remote database
can be accessed.

123. How to access the current value and next value from
a sequence? Is it possible to access the current value in a
session before accessing next value?
Sequence name CURRVAL, sequence name NEXTVAL. It is not
possible. Only if you access next value in the session, current
value can be accessed.
124. What is CYCLE/NO CYCLE in a Sequence?
CYCLE specifies that the sequence continue to generate values
after reaching either maximum or minimum value. After panascending sequence reaches its maximum value, it generates its
minimum value. After a descending sequence reaches its
minimum, it generates its maximum.
NO CYCLE specifies that the sequence cannot generate more
values after reaching its maximum or minimum value.
125. What are the advantages of VIEW?
- To protect some of the columns of a table from other users.
- To hide complexity of a query.
- To hide complexity of calculations.
126. Can a view be updated/inserted/deleted? If Yes
under what conditions?
A View can be updated/deleted/inserted if it has only one base
table if the view is based on columns from one or more tables
then insert, update and delete is not possible.
What is Oltp database?OLTP means Online Transaction Processing. OLAP means Online
Analytical Processing. OLTP deals with processing of data from transactional systems. For example, an
application that loads the reservation data of a hotel is an OLTP system. An OLTP system is designed
mainly keeping in the mind the performance of the end application. It comprises of the application,
database & the reporting system that directly works on this database. The database in an OLTP system
would be designed in a manner as to facilitate the improvement in the application efficiency thereby
reducing the processing time of the application.

9. What is Olap database?

OLAP systems were mainly developed using data in a warehouse. Having said that a need was felt to
isolate older data, it was necessary to store them in a format that would be useful in easing out the
reporting bottlenecks. A need was felt to isolate the data & redesign the application data to such a format
& structure that this data repository would be the prime source of business decisions. Coming back to
OLAP systems, these systems were mainly developed on the isolated data.