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Ling 110, Section 3 (Syntax II)
February 22, 2008.
Homework: 3.8 (p.146), 3.9 (p.162), 3.11 (pp.186-7) and 3.13 due at 5 p.m. on Wednesday Feb. 27
I. Phrase Structure Rules and the X-bar Theory
A list of phrase structure rules in English (p. 175)
XP
XYZ
the label
consists of
the element that
for the constituent
make up the constituent
(1) Sentence DP
VP
(2) PP P DP
(3) AP A (PP)
(4) NP N (PP)
(5) DP D NP
Name
Pronoun
(6) NP A NP
(7) VP V (DP) ( PP )
CP
(8) CP C Sentence
X-bar theory: Every phrase XP has a head X.
(9) XP -> X
YP
(in English)
English exhibits consistent head-initial phrase structure while Japanese has consistent
head-final phrase structure [head-directionality parameter].
Introducing TP and the Specifier
So called X-bar theory works for all of the structures we have considered thus
far...except for one. What about the very top level, Sentence? We also havent said
anything about where auxiliaries and modals go. Consider the following:
(10) Sentence -> DP Aux VP
This doesnt look anything like X-bar theory. But we may call a sentence an AuxP:
(11) AuxP -> DP Aux VP
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Now, we have an XP on the left of the arrow, and an X on the right, which conforms to the
X-bar theory. What about simple sentences like Ophelia swam with no auxiliary verb in
it? We will posit for now that Aux hosts Past Tense. Auxiliary verbs and Tense
morphemes are generated in the same position. We will conclude by calling the category
that hosts Auxiliaries and Tense morphemes a TP (for Tense Phrase).
(12) TP -> DP T VP
(13) CP -> C TP
But unlike the phrase structure rules given (2-8) above, the head X is not the first element
of the XP in (12). We call the DP in (12) a Specifier. Specifiers do not occur in every XP,
but when they do, they may precede the head. For now, the categories with specifiers we
will consider are TP, as above, and DP (when there is a possessor).
A general template of X-bar structure:
(14)
XP
Specifier
X
X
(where represents the complement(s) of X)
A subject is a specifier of a TP.
A possessor is a specifier of a DP.
Existence of X node: do-so-replacement for V, one-replacement for N
Kevin [ate spaghetti with a spoon] and George [did so], too
The [big book] The one; The big [book] The big one
Finally, a comparison of tree diagrams for English and Japanese sentences:
(15) English Phrase Structure (Head-initial)
TP
DP
Chris
T
VP
T
PAST
PP
V
talked
P
with
DP
Pat
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(16) Japanese Phrase Structure (Head-final)
TP
DP
T
VP
Chris-ga
Nom
PP
DP
-ta
PAST
hanasi
to
talk
with
Exercise: Draw tree diagrams for the following sentences. If a sentence is structurally
ambiguous, distinguish the meaning and draw a tree for each meaning.
Pat
(17) Mary believes that her brother will pass the exam.
TP
DP
Mary
T
T
VP
[present]
CP
believes C
TP
that
DP
DP
her
T
D
T
NP
N
brother
will
VP
V
pass
DP
D
NP
the
N
exam
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(18) John saw the man with the binoculars.
Interpretation A: John saw the man who was holding the binoculars.
A.
TP
DP
John
T
T
VP
[past]
DP
saw
NP
the
PP
man
DP
with
NP
the
N
binoculars
Interpretation B: John used the binoculars to see the man.
B.
TP
DP
John
T
T
[past]
VP
V
saw
DP
PP
NP
the
with
man
DP
D
NP
the
N
binoculars
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Hints for Exercise 3.13
a. When the quantifiers all, many, some, each, and every are followed by NPs
without of intervening between them, assume that these quantifiers are a
Determiner that takes a NP as its complement.
e.g.:
DP
Spec
D
D
all
NP
lords
b. When the quantifiers are followed by DPs with of intervening between them,
assume that these quantifiers are a Determiner that takes a DP as its complement
and take of to be a Genitive case marker.
e.g.:
DP
Spec
D
D
DP
all of (the) lords
c. Pronouns are a DP by itself.
